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COLLIER'S 

NEW 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A   LOOSE-LEAF  AND   SELF-REVISING 
REFERENCE  WORK 


IN  TEN  VOLUMES  WITH  515  ILLUSTRATIONS 
AND  NINETY-SIX  MAPS 


VOLUME  ONE 


P.  F.  COLLIER  &  SON  COMPANY 
New  York 


Copyright  1921 
By  p.  F.  Collier  &  Son  Company 


MANUFACTURKD    IN    U.     S.    A. 


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GENERAL  EDITORIAL  ADVISORY  BOARD    AND 
CONTRIBUTING    EDITORS 

DR.  WILLIAM    A.  NEILSOX,  Chairman 

PRESIDENT    SMITH     CULLEOE,     .NORTHAMl'TuX,     MASS. 

RKAR    ADMIRAL    AUSTIN'    M.   KNIGHT 

FORMER     PRESIDENT    OF     NAVAL    WAR    COLLEGE,    NEWPORT.    R.     I. 

DR.  JOSEPH    II.  ODELL 

DIRECTOR,    SERVICE    CITIZENS    OF    DELAWARE.     WILMINGTON,    DEL. 

DR.   KENNETH    C.   M.   SILLS 

PRESIDENT    BOWDOIX     COLLEGE,    BRUNSWICK.     ME. 

DR.   HENRY    S.  CANBV 

EDITOR    LITERARY    REVIEW,     NEW    YORK,     N.     Y. 

DR.  W.  T.  COL'NCTLMAN 

DEPARTMENT  OF    P.\THOLOGY,  HARVARD    MEDICAL   SCHOOL.  BOSTON,  MASS. 

DR.   CHARLES     F.  THWING 

PRESIDENT    WESTERN     RESERVE    fXlVERSITY.    CLEVELAND,    OHIO 

DR.  EDWIN    GREENLAW 

VNIVERSITY    OF    NORTH     CAROLINA,    CHAPEL    HILL.     N.    C. 

DR.  J.  !L  KIRKLAND 

CHANCELLOR    VANDERBILT    UNIVERSITY,     NASHVILLE,    TEN.M. 

PROFESSOR    IRVING    FISHER 

YALE     UNIVERSITY,     NKW     HAVEN.    CONN 


EDITOR  IN  CHIEF 

FRANCIS     T.   REYNOLDS 

FOR.MER    REFERENCE     LIBRARIAN.     LIBRARY    OF    C'pNGRESS 


MANAGING  EDITOR 
ALLEN  L.   CIIl-Kt  IIII.I. 

ASSOCIATE    EDITOR    THE     NEW     INTERNATIONAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

J.   W.   I)  I- 1- 1- IK  I.  U 

EDITORIAL    STAFF    OF    THE     NEW     YORK    TIMES 

ALBERT    SONNICHSEN 

ECONOMIST,    WAR    CORRESPONDENT 

T.  C.  SH.VFFER 

PROFESSOR    OF     HISTORY 

n.  H.  GOLDSMITH 

EDITOR,    ECONOMIST 

BENEDICT    FITZP.\TRICK 

FORMERLY     LITERARY     EDITOR    OF    THE    LONIXiN     MAIL 

C.   E.  MELOY    SMITH 

DREXEL    INSTITUTE.    CONSULTING    nNl.INEER 

E.  D.  PIERSON 

EDITOR,    CORRESPONDENT     LONDON     TIMES 

J.  n.  GIBSON 

COLUMBIA     UNIVERSITY 

J.  L.  FRENCH 

EDITOR,    AUTHOR 


C  1:3192 


Introduction 

THE  word  encyclopaedia  was  first  used  by  the  Greeks,  not 
for  a  book,  but  for  a  system  of  instruction  in  the  whole  circle 
of  learning.  Knowledge  in  their  time  was  still  so  limited  in 
extent  that  it  could  be  thought  of  as  taught  by  one  man  and  cov- 
ered in  a  single  educational  curriculum.  The  oldest  book  which 
has  come  down  to  us  atte*npting  to  comprise  all  information  is  the 
"Natural  History"  of  Pliny  the  elder,  who  died  in  a.  d.  79.  Pliny 
himself  was  not  a  scientist,  but  a  Roman  lawyer,  soldier,  and  ad- 
ministrator, with  a  passion  for  study ;  and  he  lost  his  life  in  an  at- 
tempt to  observe  at  close  quarters  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  which 
destroyed  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  His  work  is  a  compilation 
from  some  two  thousand  books,  and  he  himself  says  that  he  re- 
corded twenty  thousand  facts.  His  chief  successors  were  JNIar- 
tianus  Capella,  an  African,  who  wrote  in  the  5th  century,  also  in 
Latin,  a  compendium  long  used  as  an  educational  textbook,  and 
Isidore  of  Seville  (600-630),  who  was  regarded  for  centuries  as 
a  high  authority. 

The  most  noted  of  mediaeval  compilers  of  universal  learning 
was  Vincent  of  Beauvais,  who  used  the  word  "speculum"  or  mir- 
ror for  his  account  of  the  world  and  man.  He  wrote  in  the  13th 
century  and  his  method  was  chiefly  that  of  quotation,  which, 
though  it  reduces  his  credit  as  an  original  writer,  led  to  his  pre- 
serving large  numbers  of  authors  who  would  otherwise  have  been 
lost,  and  at  the  same  time  to  his  giving  an  impetus  to  the  study  of 
classical  authors.  In  his  "Mirror  of  Nature"  he  takes  up  things  in 
the  supposed  order  of  their  creation,  not  a  very  convenient  system 
for  consultation,  ])ut  his  subdivisions  are  frequently  alphabetical. 
He  is,  of  course,  uncritical  and  far  from  scientific  in  the  modern 
sense,  but  he  was  extraordinarily  learned  and  industrious. 

Vincent  had  many  successors  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  list  clos- 
ing with  the  work  of  John  Heinrich  Alsted  in  1G30,  for  which  he  • 
used  the  name  "Encycloptedia."    Hereafter,  such  works  generally 
adopt  the  alphabetical  order  instead  of  an  attempt  at  a  system  of 
knowledge,  and  modern  languages  take  the  place  of  Latin. 

l-Vol.  l-Cyc.  i 


ii  INTRODUCTION 

The  first  book  of  the  new  type  in  English  was  John  Harris' 
**Lexicon  Technicum,  or  an  Universal  English  Dictionary  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,"  1704.  As  its  title  suggests,  the  distinction  between 
a  dictionary  and  an  encyclopaedia  was  not  yet  clearly  grasped,  this 
work  being  an  attempt  both  to  define  words  and  to  explain  sub- 
jects. The  same  confusion  is  seen  in  Ephraim  Chambers'  "Cy- 
clopaedia; or  an  Universal  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Con- 
taining an  Explication  of  the  Terms  and  Account  of  Things 
Signified  Thereby  in  the  Several  Arts,  Liberal  and  ]Meclianical,  and 
the  Several  Sciences,  Human  and  Divine,"  1728.  But  Chambers 
attempted  to  overcome  the  defect  of  scattering  articles  on  related 
subjects,  which  inheres  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement,  by  a 
system  of  cross  references. 

A  new  principle  appeared  in  tlie  famous  French  "Encyclo- 
pedic." This  work  originated  in  a  translation  of  Chambers'  "Cy- 
clopaedia," but  its  revision  was  finally  intrusted  to  Diderot,  who 
enlisted  the  co-operation  of  men  like  d'Alembert,  Rousseau, 
Voltaire,  Montesquieu,  and  Turgot.  It  began  to  appear  in  1751, 
and  went  on  through  many  difficulties  till  1772.  It  opposed 
dogmatism  in  religion  and  despotism  in  government,  and  thus  in- 
curred the  opposition  of  both  Church  and  State.  No  other  work 
of  this  kind  ever  attained  such  importance  in  political  and  intel- 
lectual history,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  influential  documents  in 
the  history  of  18th  century  thought.  jNIuch  of  it  was  brilliantly 
written,  and  the  articles  of  its  more  distinguished  contributors  be- 
long to  permanent  literature;  but  as  an  encyclopaedia  in  the 
modern  sense  it  lacks  proportion,  exactness,  and  impartiality. 

These  ideals  were  adopted  when  a  society  of  gentlemen  in  Scot- 
land issued  in  1771  the  first  edition  of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica"  in  three  volumes;  and  this  work,  now  in  its  eleventh  edition, 
and  expanded  to  twenty-eight  volumes  and  an  index,  is  the  most 
comprehensive  attempt  of  modern  times  to  include  the  "whole 
circle  of  learning."  But  its  very  comprehensiveness  has  resulted 
in  qualities  which  unfit  it  for  many  purposes.  Articles  written  by 
eminent  authorities  are  too  technical  and  special  for  the  lay  reader, 
and  there  is  need  of  a  more  compact  and  concise  treatment  for  the 
uses  of  these  crowded  times. 

But  a  more  serious  limitation  attaches  not  only  to  the  "Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica"  but  to  all  hitherto  existing  works  of  this  kind. 
The  Britannica  was  completed  in  1910,  and  since  then  the  world 
has  gone  through  the  most  catastrophic  upheaval  in  historic  times. 


INTRODUCTION  ifl 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  grasp  the  extent  and  the  profundity  of 
the  changes  which  have  been  produced  by  the  World  War.  To 
realize  these  is  to  see  that  all  previous  works  of  reference  are  now 
out  of  date,  and  to  appreciate  at  a  glance  the  justification  and  the 
necessity  of  this  the  first  post-war  Encyclopaedia.  Let  us  consider 
some  of  the  more  striking  features  of  which  a  new  compendium  of 
knowledge  must  take  account. 

First,  there  is  the  history  of  the  great  conflict  itself.  This  be- 
gins with  the  political  system  of  Europe  as  it  had  been  modified 
by  the  military  and  industrial  developments  of  Germany  since  the 
defeat  of  France  and  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire  in 
1870-1871.  The  diplomatic  history  of  the  last  fifty  years  is  no^^ 
to  be  seen  in  a  new  perspective,  and  the  events  of  the  summer  of 
1914  especially  demand  study.  The  course  of  the  actual  fighting 
involves  naval  events  in  all  the  oceans,  and  land  fighting  from 
Flanders  eastward  to  Vladivostok.  The  forces  include  the  popu- 
lations of  countries  hardly  known  previously  to  the  Western  na- 
tions, and  economic  and  geographical  features  hitherto  familiar 
only  to  specialists.  The  methods  of  warfare  were  throughout  the 
struggle  continuously  developing,  and  science  was  making  vast 
contributions  to  the  agencies  of  destruction,  as  well  as  to  the  pre- 
vention and  healing  of  disease  and  wounds.  Great  figures  of  the 
pre-war  period  suffered  eclipse  and  new  personalities  emerged. 
Almost  every  branch  of  human  thought  was  affected  by  the  impact 
on  the  minds  of  men  of  the  unexpected  turn  of  events  and  by  the 
unforeseen  developments  of  the  psychology  of  nations  and  of  indi- 
viduals. The  treaties  which  brought  the  conflict  to  a  formal  close 
have  modified  the  frontiers  of  half  the  countries  of  tlie  world,  and 
have  produced  an  entirely  new  arrangement  of  economic  forces; 
while  inside  the  various  countries  the  experiences  of  the  war  have 
produced  far-reaching  changes  in  industrial  economy  and  the 
position  of  women. 

This  is  but  a  sketch  of  some  of  the  main  considerations  wliich 
show  how  unavoidable  is  the  recasting  of  a  work  like  the  present 
which  attempts  to  hold  a  mirror  up  to  the  world.  The  task  of 
revision  has  been  no  easy  one,  especially  since  so  much  is  still  un- 
settled. But  to  follow  the  events  that  each  day  is  still  bringing 
forth  men  need  to  have  accessible  a  precise  account  of  what  has 
happened  in  the  last  seven  years. 

In  the  attempt  to  render  this  service  the  editors  of  the  present  ^ 
work  have  had  tlie  Great  War  itself  treated  in  a  compendious 


fy  INTRODUCTION 

article  of  thirty-eight  pages,  covering  the  whole  military  record; 
while  the  part  played  by  our  own  country  is  treated  under 
the  article  "The  United  States."  Similarly  the  achievements  of 
the  other  nations  involved  are  recounted  under  the  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent countries,  and  special  articles  deal  with  the  greater  battles, 
such  as  the  Marne,  the  Meuse-Argonne,  the  Isonzo,  and  Jutland. 
The  Navy  of  the  United  States  has  been  intrusted  to  Rear-Admiral 
Austin  M.  Knight,  who  writes  also  on  such  allied  subjects  as  Block- 
ade, Torpedoes,  Safety  at  Sea,  and  International  Law.  The  modi- 
fications of  methods  of  warfare  are  described,  and  special  articles 
are  devoted  to  poison  gas,  tanks,  aeroplanes,  artillery,  and  the  like. 
Dr.  Joseph  H.  Odell,  one  of  the  Advisory  Board,  has  summarized 
the  activities  of  the  Red  Cross,  and  has  dealt  with  the  completed 
career  of  Theodore  Roosevelt.  To  President  Sills  were  intrusted 
the  career  of  Woodrow  Wilson  and  the  account  of  the  Peace 
Treaty.  Other  advisory  editors  have  taken  active  part  in  the  task 
of  describing  the  New  World.  Maps  have  been  brought  up  to 
date,  and  the  geographical  data  in  general  made  more  adequate 
for  the  understanding  of  the  problems  of  the  hour. 

All  tlie  new  material,  however,  is  by  no  means  the  result  of  the 
war.  The  census  of  1920  has  made  it  possible  to  include  new 
figures  for  all  the  cities  and  States  of  tlie  United  States,  all  towns 
of  over  5,000  inhabitants  being  now  listed.  The  generalizations 
based  on  the  census  are  summarized  in  the  general  article 
**Census."  The  progress  of  science  outside  of  warfare,  the  ad- 
vance of  medicine  and  mechanical  invention,  the  evolution  of  motor 
vehicles,  the  rise  of  the  moving  picture,  new  economic  and  in- 
dustrial developments,  recent  political  changes,  all  have  called  for 
new  treatment. 

Meantime,  amid  all  the  confusion  and  revolution,  scholars  have 
not  intermitted  their  labors,  and  the  harvest  of  their  efforts  is 
gathered  up  in  the  revision  of  articles  on  literature  and  philosophy. 
Education,  physical,  technical,  professional,  and  general  has  pro- 
gressed ;  and  one  of  the  striking  by-products  of  the  war  has  been 
the  fresh  realization  of  the  necessity  of  more  and  Ijetter  education 
if  the  world  is  to  make  permanent  progress.  These  themes  have 
been  handled  by  authorities  like  President  Thwing,  Chancellor 
Kirkland,  and  Professor  Councilman,  all  of  the  Advisory  Board. 
The  problem  of  the  assimilation  of  the  various  elements  of  our 
immigrant  population  is  discussed  by  Dr.  Odell  under  "Ameri- 
canization of  Foreigners"  and  allied  topics  in  various  articles  on 


INTRODUCTION  t- 

the  Xegro.  The  special  phases  of  education  have  received  attention 
at  the  hands  of  Drs.  Thwing  and  Sills.  The  former  has  contrib- 
uted articles  on  leg\al  education,  coeducation,  technical  education, 
and  colleges;  the  latter,  articles  on  medical  education  and  phys- 
ical education.  Professor  Irving  Fisher  has  written  an  illuminat- 
ing article  on  Capital.  Chancellor  Kirkland's  contributions  include 
articles  on  university  extension  and  universities  in  America. 
A  remarkable  series  of  biographies  has  been  prepared  by  Dr. 
Edwin  Greenlaw,  who  also  wrote  the  articles  on  Bacon,  Emerson, 
Hawthorne,  Irving,  Milton,  Raleigh,  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Spenser, 
Whitman,  and  Whittier.  Dr.  Henry  S.  Canby  of  the  Advisory 
Board  has  written  for  the  Encyclopaedia  a  brilliant  article  on  the 
short  story.  Dr.  Councilman  has  prepared  articles  on  physical 
education,  biology,  and  eugenics.  All  the  statistical  matter  has 
been  brought  up  to  the  latest  possible  date,  so  that,  in  respect  to 
correspondence  to  the  facts  as  they  are  at  the  present  moment,  the 
Encyclopaedia  can  claim  to  be  the  most  complete  work  of  reference 
of  its  sort  in  existence. 

The  nature  and  amount  of  knowledge  with  which  a  man  can 
get  through  life  has  varied  enormously  according  to  time  and 
circumstances.  A  South  Sea  islander,  to  whom  nature  supplies 
food  almost  without  effort  on  his  part  and  for  whom  climate 
makes  clothing  and  shelter  almost  matters  of  indifference,  needs 
to  trouble  little  about  politics,  foreign  or  domestic,  and  may  be  so 
little  curious  that  he  does  not  miss  the  results  of  science.  A  Eloyd 
George  or  a  Wilson  at  the  Peace  Table,  planning  for  the  future 
of  a  world,  has  need  of  all  knowledge.  It  is  not  so  long  since  even 
in  our  United  States  there  were  many  whose  intellectual  appetites 
and  whose  needs  lay  nearer  to  the  former  than  the  latter.  But  this 
time  has  gone  by.  There  is  not  the  remotest  farmer  on  our  prairies 
whose  welfare  is  not  involved  in  the  fluctuations  of  international 
exchange  or  in  the  deliberations  of  a  Reparations  Connuission. 
The  self-sufficing  community  becomes  rarer  and  rarer,  the  purely 
self-dependent  individual  has  become  impossible.  In  the  Western 
World  democracy  has  given  every  man  a  voice  in  liis  government, 
and  his  government  has  a  voice  in  the  affairs  of  all  other  govern- 
ments. We  are  all  importers  and  exporters,  direct  or  indirect,  and 
our  merely  personal  affairs  force  us  to  look  abroad  with  interest 
or  anxiety.  Education  is  no  longer  a  thing  to  be  forced  on  tlie  un- 
willing, because  he  does  not  feel  the  need  of  it;  it  is  sought  for  be- 
cause the  common  man  is  perplexed  and  knows  his  need  to  be  in- 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

formed.  So  we  have  to  act  on  historical  grounds,  however  little 
history  we  may  know;  our  farm  or  our  business  depends  for  its 
prosperity  on  conditions  in  parts  of  the  world  which  we  can  no 
longer  leave  to  the  writers  of  the  school  geography.  The  man 
least  interested  in  meclianics  is  forced  to  learn  the  principles  of  the 
motor;  the  healthiest  of  us  is  no  longer  at  ease  without  some 
knowledge  of  preventive  medicine. 

We  are  surrounded  by  oceans  of  print,  but  our  newspapers  are 
full  of  inaccuracies,  and  their  despatches,  even  when  well  informed, 
call  for  further  information  to  be  intelligible.  We  realize  as  never 
before  the  inconveniences  and  the  perils  of  ignorance.  In  point  of 
time  we  are,  as  it  were,  standing  on  a  great  watershed  of  history — 
a  height  of  land  between  the  slope  down  which  run  streams  back 
into  the  distances  of  the  ])re-war  period,  and  the  slope  down  which 
are  beginning  to  wear  their  channels  the  currents  of  the  new  time. 
We  are  all  agents  in  determining  the  course  of  these  currents.  We 
need  to  know,  as  we  stand  on  the  Great  Divide,  the  signs  of  wind 
and  sky  and  the  points  of  the  compass-  A  great  work  of  reference 
is  our  chief  resort  for  the  information  that  we  must  have  if  we  are 
to  save  ourselves  and  be  intelligent  and  beneficent  as  members  of 
the  society  of  the  future.  The  two  great  needs  of  the  day  are  the 
power  to  think  clearly  aud  logically,  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
facts  with  which  our  thinking  is  to  deal.  Tlie  power  to  think  can 
come  only  through  hard  and  persistent  and  conscientious  effort; 
the  facts  are  to  be  had  for  the  seeking.  It  has  been  the  effort  of 
the  makers  of  this  book  to  make  these  facts  available,  to  arrange 
them  for  the  greatest  convenience  of  the  reader,  to  corroborate 
them  so  that  they  can  be  trusted.  The  editors  have  finished 
their  task,  and  they  hand  the  results  to  the  reader  that  he  may 
take  up  his. 


List  of  Illustrations 


THE    CAPITOL — Colored  Fronti^pwic,   Vo'i.  1 


Opposite  page  58,  Vol.  I 
Afghanistan 
AiRiCAN  Pygmies 
African  Warriors 
acetylkne  welding 
asbestos-covkred  pipe3 
airobomz 

AGRICTJLTDRE TlIKESIIINa 

Agriculture — Plowing 
Aguicultube — Primitivb 
Algiers,  Algeria 

Opposite  page  ISlf,  \ol.  1 
Alps 
Andes 

Alaskan  Boundary 
Totems  at  Sitka,  Alaska 
Valdez  Thail,  Alaska 
Apricots 

Apple  Orchard  in  Oregon 
The  Christ  of  the  Andes 

Opposite  page  231),  Vol.  I 
Peary's  Cache 
Ice  Fields  of  the  Weddell  Sea, 

Shackleton's  Expedition 
Weighing  the  Dogs 
Ice  Upheaval 

The   "Endurance"    Crushed 
Amundsen's  Doc  Sled 
Amundsen's  Dog  Team  and  FUlQ  or 

Norway 
Amundsen's  Party  in  Camp 
Observations  at  South   Pole 
The  "Fram" 

CHIGAQO — Colored 
Opposite  page  52,  Vol.  II 
Birmingham,  Alabama 

betelgeuke  and  the  solab  System 

Betelgkuse  in  Orion 

Simon  Bolivar 

Bombay,   India 

Collection  or  Bombs 

Bomb  Explosion 

Boston,  Massachusetts 

Opposite  page  16 J,,  Vol.  II 
TowEB  Brldge,  London 
Brooklyn  Bbidge.  New  YobK 
Hell  Gate   Bridge,  New  YobK 
Suspension  Bridge,  Niagara 
Firth  of  Forth  Bridc;e 
QU'-BEC  Bridge,  St.   Lawrenok  RitzB 
Duhamel  Trestle    Bridge 
Ohio  Hiver  Bridge  at  Hkndbrson 
Ore    Bridge,    Pennsylvania 
SwiNoiNo   BiiiDGE,  Cairo 

HOOOHLY    RiVKR    BRIDGE,    CALCUTTA 

Opposite  page  260,  Vol.  II 

Buenos  Aikes,  Argentina 
Boomerangs 
Elephants,  Burma 
American  Buffalo,  or  Bisok 
Canadian  Horse  Ranch 
Cacao  Har\'est 
Cairo,   Egypt 
Temple  in  Calcxttta 


Opposite  page  iSi,  Vol.  I 

Artillery,  Plate  A,  Rifled  Gun 

14-Inch  Guns  in  Triple  Mount 

Plate  B,  14-Inch  Gun 

Plate  C,  Railway  Mounted  Naval  Qun 

Plate  D,  Twelve-Inch  Mortab  Ocn 

Plate  E,  16-Inch  Howitzbb 

Caproni  Airplane 

British  Handley-Page 

German  Gotha 

Making  Airplane  Wings 

Anti-Aihcraft  Gun 

Sunken  Ship 

Opposite  page  51  J,,  Vol.  I 

Mt.  Wilson  Observatobt 
The  Sun  at  Nome 
Sun  Spots 

The  Moon,  Northern  Part 
The  Moon.  Southern  Part 
Star  Cluster  M  2"2 
NEBL'LA   N    17 
Morehouse's  Comet 
The  Planet  Saturn 
Transmitting  Clocks 

Opposite  page  1,26,  Vol.  I 
Arabian  Soldiers 
The  Capitol,  Argentina 
Little   Rock,  Arkansas 
Arras,   France 
An  Asbestos  Mine 
A  Giant  Bamboo 
A  Great  Banyan  Tree 
A  Baobab  Tree  Near  the  Nils 

Frontispiece,  Vol.  II 

Opposite  page  SSJ,,  Vol.  II 
Canadian  Parliament 
Lakks-in-thk-Clouds,  Canada 
HooDOOs,  Canadian  Rockies 
The  Three  Sisters.  Canadlan  RocKtia 
Red  Deer   River   Formations 
Harbor  of  Colombo.  Ceylon 
Houseboats,  Colombo,  Ceylon 
Charleston,  South  Carolina 
Adams  Street,  Chicago 
Harbor  of  Canton,  Ciuna 

Opposite  page  S88,  Vol.  II 
Westminster  Abbey 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London 
Cathedral  of  St.  John  the   Divtnb 
St.   Patrick's  Cathbdral,  New  YobK 
NoTRB  Dame  de  Paris 
Cathedral  of  Toledo.  Spain 
Cathedral  at   Milan.   Italy 
St.  Mark's  Cathedral.  Vknicc 

Opposite  page  .J84.  Vol.  II 

Old  North  ^Jhurch,  Boston 

Old  South  riiiRCH.  Bo.'«ton 

Christ  Chu«ch,  Alexandria,  VtroinI4 

Sr.   .John's  Ciu'rch.   Richmond 

Old  Russian  Chirch,  Alaska 

Old  Norwegian  Church 

Russian  Church  in  Moscow 

Christian  Science  Church.  Boston 


Opposite  page  36,  Vol.  Ill 

Communal  House — Cliff  Dwellms 
MiNiNo  Coal.  Alabama 
CoADiNO  Coal,  Charleston 


CONSTANTINOPLE — Colored  Frontispirre.  Vol.   Ill 


Opponitr  pnoc  36.  Vol.  IIT — Continued 
Coal  Bins  and  Coal  Trains 
Coblenz.  Germany 
Consulate  at  Mukosn 


yU 


VIU 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Opposite  page  S6,  Vol.  Ill — Continued 
cocoanuts 

Coolies  and  Sedan  Chair 
Coolie  and  Jinrikisha 
Garden  ok  the  Gods,  Colorado 
Roads  Near  Denver 

Opposite  page  6Ji,  Vol.  II J 
Harvard 
Yale 

Princeton 
Oxford 
Cambridge 

University  of  Chicago 
Univ?:r8Ity  of  Calitornia 
University  of  Pennsylvania 

Opposite  page  IBi,  Vol.  Ill 

Colonnade,   Hall  ok    Fame 
EsTES  Park,  Colorado 
Stamp  Mill,  Colorado 
Salmon  Cannery,  Columbia  Rivss 
Huge  Copper  Nugget 
Copper  Mines,  Ai'stralia 
Copper  Smelter,  Arizona 
llANANAB,  Costa  Rica 

Opposite  page  S60,  Vol.  Ill 

Town  in  Cz echo-Slovakia 
Havana,  Cuba 

PARIS— Colored 
Opposite  page  5ft,  Vol.  IV 

Buckingham  Palace,  England 
King  George  Going  to  Parliament 
Windsor  Castle,  England 
Esquimaux    With    Harpoon 
Esquimaux   With   Sled 
1»ougla8  Fir  Tree 
Fjord,  Norway 

FlUMK 

Opposite  page  11,8,  Vol.  IV 
Bejil  Fishery 
Boston   Fishing  Boat 
Tuna  Fishing 
Saiujine   Fishery 
A  Catch   of   Herrino 
Oyster  Schooners 
FVammenwkkker 
Flax   Spinning 
Florida 
Rheims  Cathedral,  France 

Cptjosite  page  260,  Vol.  IV 
Battlefield  in  France 
Pur  Industry 
Galveston  Sea  Waix 
Atlanta,  Georgia 
Genoa,   Italy 
Berlin,  Germany 
Hamburg,   Germany 
Geneva,  Switzerland 


OppMUe  page  260,  Vol.  Ill — Contlniwi 
Danube  River 
Sorting  Raw  Cotton 
Cotton  Card  Sliver 
Roving  Frames,  Cotton  Mill 
Color  Mixing,  Cotton  Mill. 
Model  Dairy  Barn 
Date  Palms  on  Nile 

Opposite  page  572,  Vol.  Ill 

Birds-Eye  View  of  Delhi 

"Street  Called  Straight,"  DAMABCUt 

Merchants'   Bazaar,   Damascus 

Diamond    Mine.    Kimberley 

Skeleton  of   Dinosaur 

Dinosaur   Country 

"Mt.   Vernon"  in   Dry    Dock 

Vessel    in    Floating    Dock 

"Virginia"    Entering    Dry    Dock 

Opiosite  page  i68.  Vol.  Ill 
Chimborazo,   Ecuador 
Pyramids,    Egypt 
Mosque   in    Cairo,    Egypt 
Temple  of   Philae   Submerged 
Public    Grain    Elevator,   New    Orleans 
Electricity- — High      Frequency      Alteh« 

NATOR 

Electric  Lighting,  Lower  Broadway 
Electric    Engine   and   Train 

Front iipicce.  Vol.  IV 

0/ 1  osite  page  308,  Vol.  TV 
Geyser  in  Eruption 
Mammoth  Hot  Spring 
Hot   Springs,   New   Zeat.AWI> 
Castle   Geyskh 
Bathtub   Geyser 
Glass    Making 
Glass    Blowing 
Greenland 

Opi-Otite  page  J,OJi,     Vol.  TV 
Granai.a,  from  Aluambra 
Grand   Canon 
Grapefruit 
Athens,   Greece 
Parthenon,   Athens 
Cleveland,  Great  Lakes   Port 
Fort    William,    Great    Lakes    Port 
Construction,     Welland     Canal,     Great 
Lakes 

OVPOsite  page  J,68,  Vol.  TV 
President   Harding 
Palace   at   The  Hac.ue 
Port  ai'    Piunce,   Haiti 
Baled  Hay,  California 
Hemp,   Philippines 
Surf  Riding,  Hawah 
Heidelberg,   Germany 
Harbor  of  Havana 


LINCOLN 
Opposite  page  52,  Vol.  V 

Hieroglyphics — Temple  of  Densera 
Hieroolyphicb — Thebes 
HiEHOoLYPHics — Clay  Postaob 
Idol  Found  in  Honduras 
Harbor  of  Hong  Kong,  China 
Hydraulic  Power  House 
Hydraulic  Mining 
Palisades,  Hudson  Rivkb 

Opposite  page  132,  Vol.  V 

Delhi,  Capital  of  India 
Primitive  Bridge,  India 
Snake  Charmers,  India 
Elephants  in  Parade,  India 
Pearl  Mosque,  Agra,  India 
Indians  in  Peru 
Patagonian  Indians 
Hopi  Indian  Women 
American  Indian  Archers 

Opposite  pafip  196,  Vol.  V 

Giants  Causeway,  Ireland 
Street  in  Belfast,   Ireland 
O'CoNNKi.L  Bridge,  Dublin 
Drying  Peat  in  Ireland 


MEMORIAt. — Colored  Frontispiece,  Vol.  V 

Oil  osite  page  106.  Vol.  V — Continued 
Irrigation   Dam.  King's   River 
Irrigated    Canteloupe    Field 
Irrigated  Onion  Field 
Irrigated     Sugar     Cane     Field    in     AtS* 
tralia 


Opposite  page  260,  Vol.  V 

Governor's   Palace,  Kingston,  Jamaica 

Fujiyama,  Japan 

Cryptomeria   Trees,   Nikko,  Japan 

Jerusalem    from    the    Mount    of    OLivsg 

Via   Dolorosa,   Jerusalem 

Wailing  Wall,  Jerusalem 

Damascus   Gate,  Jerusalem 

Temple   Emmani'-el,   New   York 

Opi  osite  page  356,  Vol.  V 

Statue   of   Empress   Josephine 

Marble  Quarries,  Italy 

The   Rampart   Iceberg 

Juan  Fernandez  Island 

Town   on   the   Garda  Sea,   Italy 

Steel  Barges  at  Kansas  City 

The  Klondike  Trail 

Docks  of  Liverpool,   England 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


IX 


vpposite  page  -48-},  Vol.  V 

Emancipation  Ghoup  by  Ball 
Mkktino  or  Lincoln's  Cabinet 
Members  of  Lincoln's  Cabinet 
Home    of    Lincoln    at    Spiungfield,    III, 

NEW  YORK — Colored 

Opponite  page   36,   Vol.    VI 

London — House    of    Commons 

London — Transportation    Guide 

London — A  Heavy  Fog 

Los   Angeles,  California 

Lucerne,   Switzerland 

LucKNow,  India 

Lumber    Industry,   New   BrunswICK 

Lumber    Industry,   Tasmania 

lusitania 

Opposite  page   132,   Vol.    VI 
Madeira 
Madrid,  Spain 

Manila,    Philippine    Islands 
Maoris,  New   Zealand 
Matterhorn 

Mexico — Temple    of    the    Suu 
Mexico — Interior   of    Rum 
Mexico — Aztec   Ornament 
Mexico— Aztbc  Monument 

Opposite  page   260,   Vol.   VI 
Mt.    McKinley 
Michigan    Copper    Industry 
Mississippi  River  Port   (Memphis) 
Mississippi  River  Steamboat 
Mississippi  River  Dock 
Montreal,   Canada 
Mont  Blanc  Avalanche 
MoRRO   Castle,   Havana   Harbor,   Cuba 


OppOHitc    page    -JS-i,    Vol.    V — Continued 
Memorial  over  Lincoln  Cabin 
Statue  of   Lincoln  by  Barnard 
Statue  of  Lincoi-n  by  Bokgh'm 
Statue  of  Lincoln  by  St.  Gaudens 

Frontispiece,    Vol.    VI 
Opposite  page   37i,  Vol.   VI 

Napoleon — Tomb  in  Paris 

Nailes,  Italy 

National  Cemetery,  Arlington 

.New  York — West  Street 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana 

Niagara  Falls 

Nickel  Mine  in  Canada 

Assouan  Dam,  Nile  Riveb 

Opposite  page  J,20,  Vol.   VI 

Yellowstone  National  Park 
Rocky  Mountain  National  Pabk 
YosEMiTE   National   Park 
Mt.  Rainier  National  Park 
Glacier  National  Park 
Mesa  Verdk  National  Park 
Grand  Ca5Jon  National  Park 
Rainbow  Bridge 

Opposite  page   Jf.'iZ,   Vol.   VI 

Navy — ^Battleship  Tennessee 
Electric  Control  of  Battleship 
Rudder  Control 

North   Carolina  Type  Battleship 
Si'BMARiNE — Recent  Type 
New  York — Governor's  Island 
New  York — Ellis    Island 
Stock  Exchange,  New  York 
College  of  the  City  of  Ne;s'  York 
Columbia  University,  New  York 
New  York — Bedloe's  Island 


PARLIAMENT    BUILDINGS,    LONDON — Colored    Frontispiece,    Vol. 

Opposite    page    228,    Vol.    VII 


VII 


Opposite  page   36,  Vol.   VII 
An  Oil  Well,  Mexico 
Oil   Delivery   Station 
Olive  Orchard 
Harbor  of  Oporto 
Ostia,   Ancient   Port   of  Rome 
Oisange  Sorting  Machine 
Ostriches 
Oxford,  England 

Vl^posite  page   8^,    Vol.    VII 

Landing    at    Jaffa,    Palestine 
Oxen  Treading   Corn,   Palestine 
Street   Scene,   .Ieriisalem 
Street  Scenb,  Hebron 
Fishermen   on   Ska  ok   Galilee 
Cedars,  Mt.  Lebanon 
The    River   Jordan 
The  Garden  of  Gethsemane 

Opposite    page    1J,8,    Vol.    VII 
Royal  Palms,  Cuba 
Pedro    Miguel   Locks,   Panama   Canal 
Oaillard  Cut,  Panama  Canal 
Gatun    Locks,    Panama    Canal 
Pui.p   Room    in    Paper   Mill 
Paper-Makino    Machine 
Place  de   L'Opera,  Paris 
L'Ile  de  La  Cite 
The    Seine   and   Its   Bridges 


Fbaji'^ 


RIO    DE    JANEIRO— Colored    Frontispiece, 

Opposite    page    5i,    Vol.     VIII 
Rick  Fields  in  China 
Transplanting    Rice,   Japan 
Harvesting   Rice,  Louisiana 
Riciimond.  Virginia 
Trinity  Church,  Newport,  R,   I. 
City  of  Riga 
roai)   consthuction,   detroit 

RIVA    ON    THE    GARDA    8EA 

ff/ipositr    page    100,    Vol.    VIII 
Roman   Forum 
CoLisEi'M   IN   Rome 
Interior  of   Colisbum 
SrsTiNE   Chapel,   the    Vatican,   Rome 


General    Pershing's    Arrival 
Gathering  a  Peach  Crop 
Penguins  in  the  Antarctic 
City  of  Scranton,  Pennsylvania 
Gathering  Papayas  in  Peru 
Swi.vGiNG  Bridge,  Peru 
Country  House  in  the  Philippines 
South  Broad  Street,  Philadelphla 

Opposite   page    32-'f,    Vol.    VII 
Pineapple  Plantation 
Plymouth  Rock 
Pilgrim   Monu.ment 
Amphitheater  at  Poia 
House  of  Vetti,   Pompeii 
Pompeii  and  Vesi'vus 
Oovernok'h  Palace,  Porto  Rico 
Country   House,  Porto   Rico 
Modern    Agricultuiu:,    Porto   Rico 

Opposite  page  J/iO,   Vol.   VII 

Etoile  Catukdral,  Lisbon,  Portugal 

Palace  at   Potsdam 

QuKBKc  from  the  St.  Lawrence 

American   Pottery 

Shaping  Clay  on  a  Potter's  Wheel 

Cattle  from  Ranges 

Huge  Railway  Locomotive 

Oil  Burning  Engine  in  the  Rockies 

IvOcomotive  Works,  Bloominoton,  Ilu 

Ragusa,  Dalmatia 

Vol.     VIII 
Opposite    page     100,     Vol.     VIII — Continued 
Hall  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
Castle  St.  Angelo,  Rome 
Canal  in  Rotterdam 
Royal  Gouge,  Colorado 

Opposite   page    161),    Vol.    VIII 
Tapped"  Rubber  Tree 
Rubber  Trkk  in  Ceylon 
VuLcANiziNi;  IlrnnKK  Tikes 
Carpathian   Moi  ntainh,  Rumania 
Nizhni-Novgorod   Fair,   Russia 
Kremlin,  Moscow.  Russia 
St.   Ix)UI3,  Missouri 
Air  View  or  San  Francisco 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Opposite  page  276,   Vol.    VIII 
SALT   Lake  City,  Utah 
MOIIMON    Tbmple    ani>    Tabkrnacle 
Santiago    de    Cuba 
St.    John,   New    Brunswick 
Laying  a  Gab  Buoy  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
Sailt    Ste.    Makie 
Lake    Washington    Canal,    Seattlk 
Sheep    Ranch,    Colorado 

Opposite    page   S88,    Vol.    VIII 

Traveling    by    Elephants,    Siam 
Plowing    with    Water    Buffalo,    Slam 
Interior    of    Shoe    Factory 
Silkworm — Moth,    Cocoon    and    Eggs 
Silkworms    on    Mulberry    Leaves 
Nests    of    Silkworm    Cocoons 


Opposite    page    588,    Vol.    VIII — Continued 
Heeling  Silk  From  Cocoons 
Kemovino  the  Cocoons 
Si'iNNiNG  the  Silk 
Broad  Goods  French  Looms 
Hakbor  of  Sitka,  Alaska 


Opposite   page   J^Si,   Vol.    VIII 
Cecil  Rhodes  Memorial 
NoRVAL'8  Bridge,  South  Africa 
Lion's  Head,  Capetown,  South  Afrio^ 
Hall  of  Congress,  Santiago,  Chile 
Cathedral,  Santiago,  Chile 
Iguazu  Waterfalls,  South  America 
Monroe  Palace,  Rio  de  Janeiro 
Cocoanut  Festival,  Solomon  Island' 


ROME — Colored  Frontispiece,  Voluvie  IX 


Opposite  page  20,   Vol.   IX 

Tower  of  the  Alhambra,  Spain 
Casket  in  Cathedral  at  Seville 
Corridor  in  the  Escorial 
Mosque  at  Cordova 
Alcazar  of  Toledo 
Court  of  the  Lions 
Court  of  the  Myrtles 
Roman  Aqueduct  at  Segovia 

Opposite   page  8^,   Vol.    IX 

Steel  Mills  and  Ore  Vessels 
PorniNo  Molten  Iron 
Bessemer  Converter 
Open  Hearth  Furnaces 
Rolling  a  Steel  Ingot 
Steam-driven  Punch 
Steam  Hammer  in  Operation 
Pittsburgh  at  Night 

Opposite  page  161),  Vol.    IX 

Sponge  Wharf  at  Kkv  West 
Stalactites   and  Stalagmites 
Planting  Sugar  Cane 
Sugar  Cane  Plantation 
Hakve.sting  Sugar  Cane 
Sugar  Mill  in  Cuba 
Sugar  Levee,  New  Orleans 
Surrender  or  Crew  of  Submarine 


Opposite   page    260,    Vol.    IX 

Suez  Canal — Dk  Lesshps   Stattik 

Suez  Canal — Types  of  Vessels 

Suez  Canal — Steamers  Passing 

Suez  Canal — View   from    De.seht 

SiMPLON    Tunnel,    Switzerland 

St.   Moritz,  Switzerland 

Gotthard    Express,    Switzerland 

Coo  Railroad  on  Mt.  Pilatus,  SwitzhblaiTO 

Opposite    page    S2!,.    Vol.    IX 
Tahiti,  Society  Islands 
Tree  Ferns  in  Tasmania 
Tea   Picking  in  Japan 
Institute  of  Technology 
Tent  Encampment,  Camp  McArthub 
Telescope,  Naval  Observatory 
Bruce  Tklehcope,  Vebkks  Observatobi 
Large  Telescope  in  Use 
Ce.ment  Works,  Texas 

Opposite   page    1)68,    Vol.    IX 
Traveler's  Trek 
ToHACCo  Crop,  Kentucky 
Tobacco  Drying,  Jamaica 
Torpedoed  Vessel 
Transport  "Leviathan" 
Trent,   in    the    Tkentino 
ToBLiNO  Castle,  Trentino 
Trieste  on  the  Adriatic 


TOKIO — Colored   Frontispiece,  Vol.  X 


Opposite   page   84,   Vol.   X 

Presidential  Inaugural,   1921 
President-elect  Harding  Takes  OatH  or 

Office 
President  Harding  and  His  Cabinet 
House  of  Representatives 
Supreme   Court  Chamber 
Senate  Chamber 
State,  Army  and  Navy  Building 
The  White  House 

Opposite  page   180,  Vol.   X 

Public  Consistory  in  the  Vatican 
Pitch  Lake,  Island  of  Tiunidad 
Natural  Bridge.  Cedar  Canon,  Utah 
Valparaiso,  Chile 
The  Arsenal,  Venice 
Charlotte  Amalie,  Virgin  Islands 
Harbor  of  Vladivostok 
GitAN  J  Canal,  Venice 

Opposite   page   276.   Vol.   X 

Eruption  of  Strom  boh  Volcano 

Mt.   PELf;E,  WHICH  Destroyed  St.  Piebrb, 

Island  of  Martiniqi'e 
A     Lava     Flow     on     Kilauea,     Hawaiian 

Islands 
Grand  Opera  House,  Warsaw 
Winnipeg,  Manitoba 
Wheat  Fields,  Saskatchewan 
Wire  Entanglements — World  War 
Wounded  Soldiers   Brought  in  by    Pris- 
oners 


l>lipositc  page   308,   Vol.   X 

Washington  with  His  Fa&hly 
Stuart  Portrait  of  Washington 
Stuart  Portrait  of  Martha  Washinotom 
Washington  at  Trenton 
SuLORAVK  Manor 

Pages  of  Washington's  Accounts 
Martha  Washington's  Chamber 
Mount  Veenon.  Washington's  Home 
Tomb   of   Washington  at   Mount   Vernon 
The    Washington    Monument    from    thh 
Potomac 

Opposite  page   S88,   Vol.    X 
WooDRow   Wilson 
Marines  in  Belleau  Wood 
Entering    St.    Mihiel    Salient 
Advancing  on  the  Hindenburg  Line 
Americans  in  the  Argonne  Forest 
Clemenceau  Addresses  German  Delkgatbs 
Crowd  About  Versailles  Palace 
"The    Wars   of   America" 

Opposite   paae   li68,  Vol.    X 

World    War — Canadian    Troops    on    thb 

Rhine 
Vphes,  Before  the  War 
YrRKS,  AT  the  Close  of  the  War 
•  Yokohama,  Japan 
Sisal  Plantation,  Yucatan 
Bridge  Over  Zambezi  River 
Zulu  War  Dance 
Zurich,  Switzerland 


List  of  Maps 


VOLUME    I 

Abybsinia — See  EteTPT,  Abyssinia,  and  Xobth-     Akkansas 

HASTEBN  Africa  a^,.     c^^ r, 

Asia,  Eastern  Past 
Afghanistan  —  Sbe      Persia,      Afghanistan, 

Baluchistan,  and  Parts  of  Central  Asia     ^s">  Northern  Pato 


Africa 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Albbrta 

Antarctic  Regions 

Arable — See  Turkey  in  Asia  and  Arabu 

Arctic  Regions 

Arizona 


Asia,  Western  Part 
Acstbalia  and  Melanesia 

ArSTRIA-HDNGARY 

Balkan  States 

Baluchistan — See  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Bal- 
uchistan AND   Parts   of   Central  Asl* 

Belgium — See  Netherlands  and  Belgium 


Bbitish  Columbia 

Bttloaria — See  Balkan   States 

Burma,   Siam,  French  Indo-China 


VOLUME    II 

Californ>a 
Canada 

Central  America 
Chinese  Republic 


Colorado 

Connecticut 


VOLUME    III 


District  of  Columbia — See   Maryland,   Dela- 
ware AND  District  of  Columbia 


Delaware  —  See    Maryland,    Delawabe,    and     „^„_,  ,„^,^    .„,  ^„, 
District  of  Columbia  ^*^^  **"'"  ''^'*-^' 


Egypt,  Abyssinia,  and  Northeastern  Africa 


VOLUME    IV 


England  and  Wales 

Europe,  Eastern  Part 

Europe,  Western  Part 

Florida 

France,  Northkrn  Part 

Prancb,  Southern   Pabt 


French  Indo-China — See  Burma,  Siam,  French 
Indo-China 

Georgia 

Germany 

Greece — 9ee  Balkan  States 

Hawaii 


Idaho 

Illinois 
India 
Indiana 
Iowa 


VOLUME    V 


Ireland 

Italy 

Japan 

Kansas 

Kentucky  anh   Tknnesskk 


VOLUME    VI 


Louisiana 

Maine 

Manitoba 

Maryland,    Delaware    and     District    or 
Columbia 


XiASSACHUSKTTS 

Melanesia — See  Australla  and  Melanesia 

Mexico 

Michigan 

MiNNEHOTil 


XI 


xii  LIST   OF    MAPS 

VOLUME    YI—C(mHnued 

M«8iS8iPPi  New  JEKSHr 

MissouKi  New  Mexico 

Montana  Nhw  York 

montenfxjro see  balkan  states  new  zealand 

Nebraska  Northern  Asia — See  Asia,  Northern 

Netherlands,  Belgium  North  Carolina 

Nevada  North  Dakota 

New    Brunswick,    Nova    Scotia,    and  Prince     Norway  and  Sweden 

Edward  Island  Nova    Scotia  —  See    New    Bbttnswick,    Nota 

New  Hampshirb  and  Vermont  Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island 

VOLUME    VII 

Ohio  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  and  Part* 

„  of  Centrai,  Asia 

Oklahoma 

Philippine   Islands 

Ontario  Porto  Rico 

Oregon  Portugal — See  Spain  and  Portugal 

Palestine  Prince     Edward    Island  —  See     New    Brunb- 

wacK,    Nova    Scotia   and   Prince    Edward 
Panama  Canal  Island 

Pennsylvania  Quebec 

VOLUME    VIII 
Rhode  Island  Slam — See  Burma,  Slam,  FREt^cH  Indo-China 

Rumania — See   Balkan  States  South  Amkrica,  Northern  Part 

Russia  South  America,  Southern  Part 

Saskatchewan  South  Carolina 

Scotland  South  Dakota 

VOLUME    IX 

Spain  and  Portugal  Switzbrlano 

Sweden — See  Norway  and  Sweden  Tennessee — See  Kentuckt  and  Tennessee 

Texas 

VOLUME    X 

Turkey  in  Asia  and  Arabia  Washington 

United  States  West  Indies 

Utah  West  Virginia — See  Virginia  and  West  Vir- 

Vermont — See   New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  ginia 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia  Wisconsin 

Wales — See  England  and  Wales  Wyoahng 


'*  A  — BERNARD* 


ziii 


Key  to  Pronunciation 


a     as  in 


a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

e 

e 

e 

<<  <( 

<(  <( 

«  « 

«  << 

«  « 


pale,  mate.    Also  see  e,  below. 

chaotic,  lend. 

rare,  care. 

lamb. 

farm. 

pant,  and  final  a  in  America, 
armada,  etc. 

tall. 

feel. 

emerge. 

rend.  The  characters  e,  n, 
and  d  are  used  for  a,  ae 
in  German,  as  in  Baedeker, 
Grafe,  Handel.  The  sound 
of  Swedi.sh  d  is  also  some- 
times indicated  by  c,  some- 
times by  d  or  d. 

learn,  fern,  her,  and  as  t  in 
stir. 

lent,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral 
or  obscure  quality. 

mice. 

fill,  ill,  fit. 

told. 

sobriety. 

for. 

pot. 


oi    as  in  toil,  and  for  eu  in  German. 

oo    "     "  mood,  food,  fool,  and   as  ?<   in 
rule. 


ou 

<< 

"  mouse. 

u 

(< 

"  rule. 

u 

(( 

"  rut. 

u 

"  pull,    put,    or    as 
Also  for  u  in 
u  in  French. 

00    in 
German, 

u 

It 

"  turn,   urn,   burn. 

y 

K 

"  yield. 

ch 

<< 

"  choose. 

K 

<( 

"  gold. 

hw 

11 

xvh  in  what. 

n 

<l 

in  monger. 

np 

<< 

"  song. 

sh 

<< 

"  show. 

th 

(1 

"  thing. 

zh 

<< 

z  in  azure,  and  s  in 

pleasure 

Sometimes  apostrophes  are  used  to 
indicate  a  neutral  or  connecting  vowel. 
Where  the  accent  of  a  syllable  indicates 
clearly  its  pronunciation,  no  attempt  ia 
made  of  respelling  the  word.  This  is 
true  of  most  common  English  words 
and  words  which  are  plainly  pronounced 
as  they  are  spelled. 


ziv 


A 


A,  a,  the  first  letter  in  the  English 
alphabet,  as  in  those  of  all  the  modern 
Indo-European  tongues.  The  Latin  alpha- 
bet also  commences  with  a,  and  the 
Greek  with  a  similar  letter,  alpha.  In 
Sanscrit  the  vowels  are  classified  by 
grammarians  separately  from  the  con- 
sonants. The  vowels  are  placed  first, 
and  two  sounds  of  a,  the  first  a  very  short 
one,  intermediate  between  a  and  u,  as  in 
tho  word  Veda,  and  the  other  long,  as  in 
the  first  syllable  of  Brahman,  head  the 
list.  In  the  Semitic,  also,  more  accurately 
called  the  Syro-Arabian,  family  of  lan- 
guages, a  letter  with  the  a  sound  stands 
first  in  order.  Thus  the  Hebrew  alphabet 
commences  with  A  (Aleph),  followed  in 
succession  by  B  {Beth),  C  (Gimel),  D 
(Daleth),  designations  whSch  at  once 
suggest  the  names  of  the  Greek  letters 
Alpha,  Beta,  Gamma,  Delta.  The  old 
Hebrew,  the  Aramaean,  and  the  Greek 
letters  seem  to  have  come  from  the  Phoe- 
nician, a  Syro-Arabian  tongue.  The 
Phoenician  letters,  again,  as  Gesenius 
suggests,  may  have  been  derived  from 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

A  as  an  initial  is  used : 

1.  In  chronology,  for  Anno  (Lat.)  = 
in  the  year,  as  A.  D.,  Anno  Domini  =  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord;  a.  u.  C,  Anno  urbis 
eonditx  =  in  the  year  of  the  city  founded 
^—i.  e.,  from  the  foundation  of  the  city 
(Rome)  =753  B.  C.   {Varro). 

2.  In  horology,  for  the  Lat.  prep,  ante 
=before,  as  a.  m.  (ante  meridiem)  =be- 
fore  noon. 

3.  In  designating  university  degrees, 
for  Ariium,  as  A.  M.  (Lat.),  or  M.  A. 
(Eng.),  Artium,  Magristcr  =  Master  of 
Arts;  A.  B.  (Lat.),  or  B.  A.  (Eng.), 
Artium  Baccalaureus  =  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

4.  In  music,  for  alto,  as  S.  A.  T.  B.= 
soprano,  alto,  tenor,  bass. 

5.  In  nautical  language,  for  able.  Thus, 
A.  B.  =  able-bodit'd  seaman. 

6.  In  commerce,  for  accepted,  and  is 
Used  specially  of  bills. 

A  as  a  symbol  stands  for: 

1.  In  logic,  a  universal  affirmative. 


2.  In  music,  the  6th  note  of  the  diatonic 
scale  of  C  major,  corresponding  to  the 
la  of  the  Italians  and  the  French. 

3.  In  heraldry,  the  chief  in  an  escutch- 
eon. 

4.  In  nautical  language,  A-1  =  a  vessel 
of  the  first  class,  excellently  built.  Fig- 
uratively, anything  highly  excellent;  the 
best  of  its  class. 

5.  In  mathematics,  A  and  the  other 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used,  e.  g.,  in 
Euclid,  to  represent  lines,  angles,  points, 
etc.  In  algebra,  a  and  the  other  first  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  express 
known  quantities,  and  the  last  letter  to 
express  such  as  are  unknown. 

AACHEN.     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

AALBORG,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Denmark,  the  capital  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  in  Jutland, 
on  the  Limfjord  and  on  the  Danish  State 
railway.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and 
has  a  cathedral,  a  museum,  a  library,  and 
schools.  It  is  important  as  a  commercial 
and  manufacturing  center.  Pop.  alniut 
35,000. 

AAR  (ar),  the  most  considerable  river 
in  Switzerland,  after  the  Rhine  and 
Rhone.  It  forms  at  Handcck,  in  the 
valley  of  Hasli,  a  magnificent  waterfall 
of  above  150  feet  in  height,  and  empties 
into  the  Rhine,  opposite  Waldshut,  after 
a  course  of  about  170  miles. 

AARAXJ  (ii'rou),  a  town  in  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  Aargau, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aar.  Has  manu- 
factures of  scientific  instruments,  silk, 
cotton,  leather,  and  bells,  a  library,  and 
historic, scientific,and  ethnographic  muse- 
ums. Here,  in  December,  1797,  the  an- 
cient Swiss  confederacy  held  its  last  ses- 
sion; from  April  to  September,  1798,  it 
was  capital  of  the  Helvetic  republic.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

AARD-VARK,  the  orycteropus  capen- 
sis,  an  insectivorous  animal  which  par- 
takes of  the  nature  both  of  the  ant-eater 
and  the  armadillo;  agreeing  with  the 
former    in  itg   general    habits,    but,   al- 


AABD-WOLF 


ABBAB 


though  entirely  destitute  of  scaly  armor, 
more  resembling  the  latter  as  to  its  ana- 
tomical structure.  The  aard-vark  meas- 
ures about  5  feet  to  the  end  of  the  tail: 
its  skin  is  thick,  coarse,  and  covered  with 
stiff  hair;  the  limbs  short,  thick,  and  very 
muscular.  This  animal  is  very  common 
in  Cape  Colony. 

AARD-WOLF,  the  Proteles  Lalandii,  a 
singular  carnivorous  animal,  first  brought 
from  south  Africa  by  the  traveler  Dela- 
lande.  It  forms  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween three  genera  widely  separated 
from  each  other,  having  externally  the 
appearance  and  bone  structure  of  the 
hyena  united  to  the  head  and  feet  of  the 
fox,  with  the  intestines  of  the  civet. 

AARGAU  (ar'gou),  or  ARGOVIA, 
one  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Rhine, 
on  the  E.  by  Zurich  and  Zug,  on  the  S. 
by  Lucerne  and  Berne,  and  on  the  W. 
by  Soleure  and  Basel.  Area,  542  square 
miles  of  well  cultivated  soil  and  extensive 
vineyards.  This  is  one  of  the  cantons  most 
distinguished  for  industry  and  generally 
diffused  prosperity.    Pop.   about  250,000. 

AARHUUS  (hos).  one  of  the  districts 
into  which  Denmark  is  divided.  It  em- 
braces the  most  eastern  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  Jutland,  and  is  divided  into 
two  bailiwicks,  Aarhuus  and  Randers. 
Area,  1,821  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
225,000,  chiefly  occupied  in  the  fisheries. 

AARHUUS,  a  city,  the  capital  of  the 
bailiwick  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Cattegat.  Pop.  about  65,000. 
The  harbor  is  small,  but  good  and  secure. 

AARON,  son  of  Amram  (tribe  of  Levi), 
elder  brother  of  Moses,  and  divinely  ap- 
pointed to  be  his  spokesman  in  the  em- 
bassy to  the  court  of  Pharaoh.  By  the 
same  authority,  avouched  in  the  budding 
of  his  rod,  he  was  chosen  the  first  high- 
priest.  He  was  recreant  to  his  trust  in 
the  absence  of  Moses  upon  the  Mount, 
and  made  the  golden  calf  for  the  people 
to  worship.  He  died  on  Mount  Hor  in 
the  123il  year  of  his  age;  and  the  high- 
priesthood  descended  to  his  third  son, 
Eleazar. 

Aaron's  rod,  in  archaeology,  is  a  rod 
like  that  of  Mercury,  but  with  only  one 
serpent,  instead  of  two,  twined  around  it. 

AB,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  civil 
year  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  fifth  of 
their  ecclesiastical  year.  It  corresponds 
to  part  of  our  month  of  July  and  to  the 
beginning  of  August;  it  consists  of  30 
days.  The  first  and  ninth  days  are  fast 
days,  commemorating  respectively  the 
death  of  Aaron  and  the  destruction  of 
the  first  and  second  temples. 

i — Vol.  I — Cyc 


ABABDEH,  ABABDE,  or  ABABIDEK, 

a  people  of  eastern  Africa,  scattered 
throughout  Nubia,  and  between  the  bor- 
ders of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea,  but  located  chiefly  from  latitude 
23°  to  the  western  border  of  Lower 
Egypt. 

ABACO,  GREAT  and  LITTLE,  two  is- 
lands of  the  Bahamas,  West  Indies.  Com- 
bined area  about  879  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  5,000. 

ABACUS,  in  architecture,  a  constituent 
part  of  the  capital  of  a  column,  which 
supports   the  horizontal  entablement. 

In  arithmetic,  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment employed  to  teach  the  elementary 
principles  of  the  science  of  numbers. 
The  Chinese  abacus  is  also  an  instrument 
for  facilitating  arithmetical  calculations. 
It  consists  of  several  series  '^f  beads 
or  counters  strung  upon  brass  wires 
stretched  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  an 
instrument,  and  divided  in  the  middle  by 
a  cross-piece  from  side  to  side.  In  the 
upper  compartment  every  wire  has  two 
beads,  each  of  which  counts  five;  in  the 
lower  space  every  wire  has  five  beads 
of  different  values;  the  first  being  counted 
as  one,  the  second  as  10,  the  third  as  100, 
and  so  on. 

ABAKANSK.  a  range  of  mountains  in 
the  government  of  Tomsk,  in  Siberia, 
extending  from  the  river  Tom  to  the 
Yenisei,  parallel  to  the  Altai  mountains. 
Also  the  name  of  a  fortified  town  of 
Siberia,  in  the  government  of  Tomsk,  on 
the  river  Abakan.  This  is  considered  the 
mildest  and  most  salubrious  place  in 
Siberia. 

ABANCAY.  a  district  of  Peru,  in  the 
department  of  Cuzco.  The  plains  produce 
rich  crops  of  sugar  cane  and  the  principal 
cereals.  The  mountains  afford  gold  and 
silver,  and  pasturage  for  large  herds  of 
cattle.  The  chief  town  is  Abancay,  50 
miles  from  Cuzco. 

ABANO  BAGNI,  a  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Padua,  Italy,  29  miles  from 
Venice.  It  is  visited  by  invalids  for  the 
benefit  of  its  hot  sulphur  springs,  which 
were  well  known  to  the  ancients  as  Fon>- 
tes  Aponi.    Pop.  about  6,000. 

ABARIM,  the  range  of  highlands,  or 
mountains,  to  the  E.  of  the  Jordan,  in 
the  land  of  Moab.  The  highest  point 
is  Mount  Nebo,  where  Moses  is  supposed 
to  have  died. 

ABATTOIR.    See  PACKING  INDUSTRY. 

ABBAS  PASHA  HILMI,  Khedive  of 
Egypt,  bom  in  1874,  oldest  son  of  the 
Khedive  Mehemet-Tewfik.  He  studied  at 
the  Theresianum  at  Vienna.    On  his  fa- 


ABBASSIDES  J 

fcher's  death  in  1892  he  became  Khe- 
dive. In  1893  he  dismissed  four  of  his 
ministers,  but  Lord  Cromer  interfered 
and  he  agreed  to  follow  England's  recom- 
mendations in  all  important  matters.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War,  the 
Khedive  was  the  guest  of  the  Sultan  at 
Constantinople.  On  Dec.  18,  1914,  the 
British  Foreign  Office  announced  a  pro- 
tectorate over  Egypt.  In  a  proclamation 
issued  the  following  day.  Abbas  Hilmi 
was  referred  to  as  "lately  Khedive  of 
Egypt,  who  had  adhered  to  the  King's 
enemies"  and  it  was  declared  that  he 
had  been  deposed.  The  title  of  Khedive 
was  abolished  and  that  of  Sultan  was 
substituted.     See  Egypt. 

ABBASSIDES,  the  name  of  a  dynasty 
who  possessed  the  caliphate  for  524 
years.  There  were  37  caliphs  of  this 
dynasty  who  succeeded  one  another  with- 
out interruption.  They  claimed  descent 
from  Abbas,  the  uncle  cf  Mohammed.  The 
most  famous  caliphs  of  this  dynasty  were 
Almansur  and  Harun-al-Rashid.  The  last 
Abbasside  to  be  caliph  at  Bagdad  was 
Mustasim,  who  was  put  to  death  by  Hu- 
laku  Khan,  a  Mongolian  ruler  of  Persia, 
in   1258. 

ABBAZIA,  a  famous  health  resort  oa 
the  Gulf  of  Quarnero  (Adriatic  Sea), 
about  10  miles  W.  of  Fiume.  The  per- 
manent population  is  only  about  2,500, 
mostly  Croats.  About  40,000  visitors 
frequent  it  annually. 

ABBE  (ab-a'),  originally  the  French 
name  for  an  abbot,  but  often  used  in  the 
general  sense  of  a  priest  or  clergyman. 

ABBE,  CLEVELAND,  an  Amer- 
ican meteorologist;  born  in  New  York 
City,  Dec.  3,  1838,  he  was  director  of  the 
Cincinnati  Observatory  from  1868  to 
1873.  Since  1871  he  has  prepared  the 
official  weather  forecasts  and  storm 
warnings  issued  from  Washington  and  in 
1891  was  appointed  meteorologist  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  greatly  advancing  the  science 
of  meteorology  and  was  honored  by 
numerous  institutions  of  learning  and 
science.  He  published  several  important 
books  on  meteorology  and  allied  subjects. 
He  died  in  1916. 

ABBEVILLE,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Abbeville  co.,  S.  C,  on  the  Southern  and 
the  Seaboard  Air  Line  railroads;  106 
miles  W.  by  N.  W.  of  Columbia,  the  State 
capital.  It  is  in  a  rich,  cotton-growing 
region;  is  noted  for  its  fine  climate, 
which  makes  it  a  popular  resort  for 
Northern  invalids,  and  has  a  National 
bank,  excellent  public  schools,  and  sev- 
eral large  manufactories  connected  with 

2— Vol.  i — Cyc 


t  ABBEY 

the  cotton  industry.  Pop.   (1910)   4.459: 
(1920)  4,570.  /      .  ^57, 

ABBEVILLE,  a  city  of  France,  capi- 
tal  of  the  arrondissement  of  the  same 
name  (department  of  the  Somme),  situ- 
ated on  both  sides  of  the  river  Somme, 
12  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  thriving  manufacturing  towns  in 
France.  Besides  black  cloths  of  the  best 
quality,  there  are  produced  velvets,  cot- 
tons, linens,  serges,  sackings,  hosiery, 
packthread,  jewelry,  soaps,  glasswares, 
etc.  Its  most  interesting  building  is  the 
church  of  St.  Wolfram,  begun  in  1488, 
one  of  the  richest  existing  examples  of 
the  flamboyant  style.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

ABBEY.    See  Monastery. 

ABBEY,  EDWIN  AUSTIN,  an  Amer- 
ican  artist;  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
1,  1852.    Besides  illustrating  many  books 


EDWIN    A.    ABBEY 

and  painting  a  number  of  notable  pictures, 
he  designed  a  series  of  IB  paintings  for 
the  wails  of  the  Boston  Public  Library, 
on  the  subject  of  the  "Holy  Grail."  Dur- 
ing the  last  10  years  of  his  life  he  ex- 
ecuted a  series  of  brilliant  mural  paint- 
ings in  the  Pennsylvania  State  Capitol 
at  Harrisburg.  The  greater  part  of  his 
artistic  life  was  spent  in  London,  where 
he  died  in  August,  1911.  His  work.s  are 
especially  noted  for  their  brilliant  color- 
ing, romantic  treatment,  and  historic 
accuracy. 


ABBEY 


ABBOTT 


ABBEY,  HENRY  EUGENE,  an  Amer- 
ican operatic  manager;  born  in  Akron, 
O.,  June  27,  184G;  was  enpafred  for 
several  years  in  theatrical,  and,  from 
1883,  in  operatic  management,  producing 
Italian  and  German  operas  with  the 
most  distinguished  singers  of  the  day. 
He  died  in  1896. 

ABBOT,  the  superior  of  a  monastery 
of  monks  erected  into  an  abbey  or  priory, 
the  principal  distinction  observed  be- 
tween abbots  are  those  of  regular  and 
commendatory.  The  former  take  the  vow 
and  wear  the  habit  of  their  order: 
whereas  the  latter  are  seculars,  who  have 
received  tonsure,  but  are  obliged  by  their 
bulls  to  take  orders  when  of  prefer  age. 
Other  distinctions  also  arose  among  ab- 
bots when  abbeys  were  flourishing  in 
Europe;  as,  mitered,  those  privileged  to 
wear  the  miter  and  exercise  episcopal 
authority  within  their  respective  i)re- 
cincts;  crosiered,  so  named  from  their 
carrying  the  crosier,  or  pastoral  staff; 
ecumenical,  such  as  exercised  universal 
dominion;  and  cardinal,  from  their 
supi'riority  over  all  others. 

ABBOTSFORD.  the  home  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  situated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Tweed,  and  a  few  miles  above  Melrose. 
It  takes  its  name  from  a  ford  formerly 
used  by  the  monks  of   Melrose. 

ABBOTT,  ALEXANDER  CREVER, 
an  American  hygienist,  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Feb.  20,  1860;  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Maryland,  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  and  the  universities 
of  Munich  and  Berlin.  He  is  a  member 
of  numerous  scientific  societies,  and,  since 
1897,  has  been  Professor  of  Hygiene  and 
director  of  the  laboratory  of  hygiene  in 
the   University  of   Penn.'^ylvania. 

ABBOTT.  BENJAMIN  VAUGHAN, 
an  American  lawyer  and  legal  writer, 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  4,  1830.  He 
published  a  number  of  able  works  on  legal 
subjects,  among  them  a  revision  of  the 
United  States  Statutes.  He  died  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  17,  1890. 

ABBOTT,    CHARLES    GREELEY,    an 

American  astrophysicist,  born  in  Wilton, 
N.  H.,  in  1872.  He  graduated  from  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
in  1894  and  in  the  following  year  joined 
the  staff  of  the  Smithsonian  Astrophys- 
ical  Obsei-vatory.  of  which  institution  he 
became  director  in  1907.  He  is  a  member 
of  many  astronomical  and  other  scien- 
tific societies,  and  has  done  valuable  re- 
search work  in  connection  with  solar 
phenomena.  He  published  "The  Sun" 
(1911). 


ABBOTT,  BBflMA,  American  dramatic 
soprano,  born  in  Chicago,  111.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1849.  She  sang  in  opera  with  great 
success.  She  died  in  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah,  Jan.  5,  1891. 

ABBOTT,  JACOB,  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14,  1803. 
His  works,  comprising  over  200  titles, 
chiefly  of  stories  for  the  young,  were 
widely  read  in  his  own  day.  Among  the 
best  known  are  "The  Rollo  Books"  (28 
vols.)  ;  "The  Franconia  Stories"  (10 
vols.) ;  "The  Marco  Paul  Series"  (6 
vols.).  He  died  in  Farmington,  Me.,  Oct- 
al, 1879. 

ABBOTT.  LYMAN,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  Dec. 
18,  1835.  At  first  a  lawyer,  he  was  or- 
dained   minister   of   the    Congregational 


LYMAN    ABBOTT 

Church  in  1860.  After  a  pastorate  of 
five  years,  in  Indiana,  he  went  to  New 
York,  and  rose  rapidly  to  distinction 
thr->ugh  his  contribution  to  periodical 
literature.  He  was  pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1888-1898,  being  the 
immediate  successor  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher.  He  was  associated  with  Mr. 
Beccher  in  the  editorship  of  the  "Chris- 
tian Union,"  and  in  1893  became  editor  of 
"The  Outlook,"  formerly  the  "Christian 
Union."  His  writings  include  "Jesus  of 
Nazareth"  (1869);  a  "Life  of  Henry 
Ward  Beecher"  (1903);  "In  Aid  of 
Faith"  (1886);  "Christianity  and  Social 
Problems"  (1896);  "Life  and  Letters  of 
Paul"  (1898);  "The  Rights  of  Man" 
(1901) ;  "The  Great  Companion"  (1904); 


ABBREVIATIONS 


S 


ABD-UL-AZIZ 


"The  Spirit  of  Democracy  (1910);  "Let- 
ters to  Unknown  Friends"   (1913) ;  etc. 

ABBREVIATIONS.  See  APPENDIX  in 
last  volume. 

ABDALLAH,  BEN-ABD-EL-MOTTA- 
LIB,  father  of  Mohammed,  born  at  Mecca, 
A.  D.  545;  died  570.  The  paternity  of  the 
Prophet  is  Abdallah's  sole  claim  to  dis- 
tinction. 

ABDAL-MALEK,  or  ABDULMELECH, 
the  son  of  Mirvan,  and  the  fifth  caliph 
of  the  race  of  the  Ommiades.  In  his 
reign  the  Indies  were  conquered  in  the 
East,  and  his  armies  penetrated  Spain 
in  the  West;  he  likewise  extended  his 
empire  toward  the  South  by  making  him- 
self master  of  Medina  and  Mecca.  He 
began  his  reign  in  the  65th  year  of  the 
Hegira,  A.  D.  684;  reigned  25  years  and 
four  of  his  sons  successively  enjoyed  the 
caliphate. 

ABD-EL-KADER  (-Ga'der),  was  the 
third  son  of  a  marabout  of  the  Arab  tribe 
of  Hashem.  Born  in  Oran  in  1807,  the 
early  days  of  Abd-el-Kader  are  lost  in 
obscurity,  but  by  1828  he  had  not  only 
acquired  the  reputation  of  a  scholar,  but 
that  of  a  saint,  from  his  having  twice 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Accom- 
panied by  his  father,  he  preached  a  holy 
war  against  the  French  occupation  of 
Algiers,  and  called  upon  the  faithful  to 
rise  and  expel  the  infidels.  In  1832,  he 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  10,000  war- 
riors with  whom  he  attacked  Oran,  but 
was  several  times  repulsed  with  great 
slaughter.  For  a  period  of  15  years  he 
contrived  to  defend  his  country,  and  fight 
against  the  encroachments  of  France; 
but  in  1847  he  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render. In  1852  Louis  Napoleon  restored 
him  to  freedom  on  condition  that  he 
would  not  return  to  Algiers,  or  conspire 
against  the  French.  He  died  in  Damas- 
cus, May  26,  1883. 

ABD-ER-RAHMAN  I.,  a  Caliph  of 
Cordova,  born  in  Damascus  in  731.  He 
founded  a  Moorish  dynasty  in  Spain, 
made  Cordova  his  capital  and  became  an 
independent  sovereign.  Notwithstanding 
many  rebellions  and  an  expedition  sent 
against  him  by  Charlemagne  he  main- 
tained his  power.  The  mosque  at  Cor- 
dova (now  used  as  a  cathedral),  orna- 
mented with  rows  of  cupolas,  supported 
by  850  pillars  of  jasper,  was  built  by 
him.     He  died  in  787. 

ABD-ER-RAHMAN  III.,  a  Caliph  of 
Cordova,  born  in  891.  From  his  earliest 
youth  his  ambition  was  to  aggrandize 
the  Saracen  power  in  Spain,  a  purpose 
he  carried  out  with  a  success  so  brilliant 
Hs   to   win    for   him   the   title   of    "the 


Great."  He  ascended  the  throne  in  912 
and  set  himself  the  task  of  reviving 
learning,  fostering  trade  and  beautifying 
his  capital.  His  long  reign  of  49  years 
is  pronounced  the  glorious  epoch  of  Moor- 
ish sway  in  Spain.     He  died  in  961. 

ABDICATION,  the  relinquishment  of 
an  office,  and  particularly  the  throne, 
without  a  formal  resignation.  It  differs 
from  resignation,  which  is  applied  to  the 
giving  back  by  a  person  into  the  hands 
of  a  superior  an  office  to  which  that  su- 
perior appointed  him;  while  in  abdica- 
tion one,  theoretically  without  an  earthly 
superior  in  the  country,  relinquishe* 
what  came  to  him  at  first  by  act  of  law. 

ABDOMEN  (1)  That  portion  of  the 
trunk  which  in  man  commences  beneath, 
and  in  mammalia  behind,  the  diaphragm, 
and  terminates  at  the  extremity  of  the 

f)elvis.  The  abdominal  cavity  is  the 
argest  in  the  human  body.  It  is  lined 
with  a  serous  membrane,  called  the  peri- 
toneum. It  contains  the  liver,  with  the 
gall-bladder,  under  its  right  lobe,  the 
stomach,  the  pancreas,  the  spleen,  the 
two  kidneys,  the  bladder  and  the  intes- 
tines. The  more  highly  organized  of 
the  inferior  animals  ha\'e  a  similar  struc- 
ture. (2)  In  entomology,  the  whole  pos- 
terior division  of  the  body  of  an  insect, 
united  to  the  thorax  by  a  small  knot  or 
attachment,  well  seen  in  the  wasp.  It 
includes  the  back  as  well  as  the  parts 
below.  Externally  it  is  made  up  of  a 
series  of  rings. 

ABDOMINALS,  an  order  of  malacop- 
terygious  fishes,  having  the  ventral  fins 
under  the  abdomen  behind  the  pectorals, 
as  the  trout.  They  comprehend  the 
greater  part  of  fresh  water  fishes,  and  * 
constitute  the  fourth  order  of  the  fourth 
class  of  animals  in  the  Linnaean  system. 

ABDUCTION,  the  act  of  abducing  or 
abducting;  a  taking  or  drawing  away, 
and  specifically  an  unlawful  taking.  In 
law,  the  forcible  and  fraudulent  taking 
away  of  women  or  girls. 

ABDUCTOR,  a  muscle,  the  office  of 
which  is  to  pull  back  or  draw  the  member 
to  which  it  is  affixed  from  some  other. 
The  antagonist  is  called  adductor.  In 
law,  a  person  guilty  of  abduction. 

ABD-UL-AZIZ,  the  32d  Sultan  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks,  was  born  Feb.  9,  1830, 
and  succeeded  his  brother,  Abd-ul-Med- 
jid,  in  1861.  His  government  had  great 
difficulties  to  contend  with  in  the  Cretan 
insurrection,  the  struggle  of  Rumania  and 
Servia  for  full  autonomy,  and  finally  the 
outbreak  of  Mohanmiedan  fanaticism.  In 
1871,  the  Sultan  strove  to  get  the  sue- 


ABDTTL-HAMID  II. 


6 


ABELABD 


cession  settled  upon  his  son,  instead  of 
his  nephew  Murad,  in  accordance  with 
Turkish  custom.  He  next  entered  into  in- 
trigues with  Russia,  and  plunged  ever  in- 
to deeper  financial  difficulties.  At  last  a 
conspiracy  forced  him  to  abdicate  the 
throne,  May  30,  1876.  Four  days  later, 
he  was  found  dead. 

ABDTJTL-HAMID  II.,  34th  Sultan  of 
Turki'y,  born  Sept.  22,  1842,  the  second 
son  of  the  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid;  suc- 
ceeded to  tke  throne  in  1876,  on  the  dep- 
osition  of   his    brother,   Murad   V.    De- 


ABDUL-HAMID   II. 

feated  in  the  war  of  1877-1878  with 
Russia,  he  was  compelled  by  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin  to  surrender  a  small  portion 
of  territory  in  Europe  and  Asia,  to 
recognize  the  independence  of  the  suzerain 
states  in  Europei,  and  to  acknowledge 
Bulgaria  as  a  tributary  principality.  In 
1895-1896,  during  the  massacres  of  the 
Armenians,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
negotiations  with  the  European  powers, 
and  communicated  personally  with  Lord 
Salisbury,  protesting  his  intention  to 
grant  an  investigation  and  the  reforms 
urged  by  the  powers.  In  1897,  Greece 
forced  war  on  Turkey  in  behalf  of  the 
Cretans,  and  in  1898  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  forced  Turkey  to  evacuate  the 
island.  As  the  years  progressed,  the 
Sultan's  rule  became  steadily  more 
despotic  and  sanguinary,  until  he  had 
won  the  sobriquet  of  "Abdul  the  Damned." 
It  was  only  when  a  rebellion  broke  out 
in  Macedonia,  July  22,  1908,  that  Abdul 
became  alarmed  and  restored  the  Con- 
stitution which  he  had  abrogated  thirty 
years  before.  The  new  Turkish  Parlia- 
ment opened  Jan.  15,  1909.    On  April  14 


following,  the  Sultan  instigated  a  counter- 
revolution that  failed.  April  24,  forces 
of  the  Young  Turks  entered  the  capital 
and  took  possession  of  the  person  of 
the  Sultan.  He  was  banished  temporarily 
to  Salonica,  whence  he  was  brought  back, 
Nov.  12,  1912,  to  Constantinople  and 
confined  in  a  palace  on  the  Asiatic  side 
of  the  Bosporus.     He  died  Feb.  10,  1918. 

ABDUL-MEDJID,  a  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
born  April  23,  1822;  succeeded  to  the 
throne  July  1,  1839,  at  the  early  age  of 
17,  eight  days  after  the  battle  of  Nezib, 
in  which  the  troops  of  the  Sultan  Mah- 
moud  II.  were  defeated  by  Ibrahim- 
Pasha.  The  interference  of  the  allied 
powers  alone  prevented  the  empire  from 
dismemberment  at  this  juncture.  The 
great  event  of  his  reign  was  the  Crimean 
War,  in  which  France  and  England  allied 
themselves  with  Turkey  against  the  en- 
croachments of  Russia,  and  which  was 
terminated  by  the  fall  of  Sebastopol  after 
a  long  siege,  in  1856.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  Abdul-Aziz  Khan.  He 
died  June  25,  1861. 

ABDURRAHMAN  KHAN,  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan,  was  born  in  1845,  the  eldest 
Bon  of  Ufzul  Khan,  and  nephew  of  the 
Ameer  Shere  AJi.  During  the  civil  war, 
in  1864,  in  Afghanistan,  the  great  vic- 
tories of  Shaikhabad  and  Khelat-i-Ghilzai 
•were  mainly  due  to  his  ability.  In  1868, 
however,  he  was  unable  to  offer  a  suc- 
cessful resistance  to  his  cousin,  Yakoub 
Khan,  who  defeated  him  at  Tinah  Khan. 
Abdurrahman  then  fled  from  the  country. 
The  Russian  General  Kaufmann  per- 
mitted him  to  reside  at  Samarcand.  Here 
he  remained  until  1879,  when  he  slowly 
made  his  way  through  Balkh  to  the  Kabul 
frontier,  and  in  July  of  1880  he  was 
formally  chosen  by  the  leading  men  of 
Kabul  and  acknowledged  by  the  Briti.sh 
Indian  Government  as  Ameer  of  Afghan- 
istan. In  March,  1900,  he  made  an 
official  declaration  of  his  sympathy  with 
England.  Died  Oct.  1, 1901,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son,  Habibullah 
Khan. 

A  BECKET,  THOMAS.    See  Becket. 

ABEL,  the  second  son  of  Adam  and 
brother  of  Cain.  The  latter  was  a  tiller 
of  the  ground;  Abel,  a  shepherd.  Both 
brought  their  offerings  before  the  Lord; 
Cain,  the  first-fruits  of  the  ground;  Abel, 
the  firstlings  of  the  flock.  God  accepted 
the  oflfering  of  Abel;  the  offering  of 
Cain  he  rejected.  The  latter,  instigated 
by  envy,  murdered  his  brother  in  the 
field. 

ABELARD.  PIERRE  (a-ba-lar'),  a 
French  scholastic  philosopher  and  theo- 
logian, born  near  Nantes,  1079.     Lectur- 


ABENCERRAGES 


ABERDEEN 


ing  on  theology,  he  attracted  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Several  of 
his  disciples  afterward  became  famous; 
for  example,  Pope  Celestin  II.,  Peter 
Lombard,  Berengarius,  and  Arnold  of 
Brescia.  The  story  of  his  romantic  and 
tragic  love  for  Heloise  is  told  in  his 
"Story  of  My  Misfortunes,"  in  her  first 
"Letter"  to  him  on  receipt  of  the  "Story," 
and  in  the  two  "Letters"  from  her  that 
followed.  The  poets  have  taken  the  loves 
of  this  unfortunate  pair  as  the  theme  of 
their  elegies  in  every  age  since  the  death 
of  the  lovers.     He  died  April  21,  1142. 

ABENCERRAGES  (a-b-an-sa-razh'), 
the  name  given  by  Spanish  chroniclers 
to  a  noble  family  in  the  Moorish  kingdom 
of  Granada,  several  of  whom  distin- 
guished themselves  immediately  before  the 
fall  of  the  Mahommedan  empire  in  Spain. 
Their  struggles  with  the  family  of  the 
Zegris,  and  tragical  destruction  in  the 
royal  palace  of  the  Alhambra,  in  Granada 
(1466-1484),  seem  to  be  destitute  of 
historical  foundation.  On  these  events, 
Chateaubriand  has  written  a  charming 
work  of  fiction,  "Les  arentures  du  dernier 
Abencerrage." 

ABERCROMBIE.    JOHN,    in    his    day 

the  most  eminent  of  Scottish  physicians, 
was  born  in  1780,  at  Aberdeen,  where  his 
father  was  a  parish  minister.  He  studied 
medicine  in  Edinburgh,  taking  his  degree 
in  1803.  His  principal  professional 
writings  were  treatises  on  the  pathology 
of  the  brain  and  on  diseases  of  the 
stomach.  But  he  is  best  known  by  his 
works  on  "The  Intellectual  Powers" 
(1830;,  and  "The  Moral  Feelings" 
(1833).  These  works  immediately  ac- 
quired a  remarkable  popularity.  Dr. 
Abercrombie  died  suddenly,  Nov.  14,  1844. 

ABERCROMBIE,  SIR  RALPH,  a 
British  general,  born  in  1738.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  in  the  West  Indies, 
in  1795;  in  the  attempt  against  Holland, 
in  1799,  and  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt. 
Mortally  wounded  in  the  beginning  of  the 
battle  of  Alexandria  (March  21,  1801), 
the  general  kept  the  field  during  the  day, 
and  died  some  days  after  his  victory. 

ABERDEEN,  the  chief  city  and  sea- 
port in  the  N.  of  Scotland,  lies  in  the 
S.  E.  angle  of  the  county  at  the  mouth 
and  on  the  N.  side  of  the  river  Dee,  111 
liiles  N.  of  Edinburgh.  William  the  Lion 
<*onfirnied  its  privileges  in  1179;  the 
English  burned  it  in  133G,  but  it  was 
soon  rebuilt,  and  called  New  Aberdeen. 
Old  Aberdeen,  within  the  same  parlia- 
mentary boundary,  is  a  small  town  a 
niile  to  the  N.,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Don,  and  is  the  seat  of  St.  Machar's 
Cathedral   (1357-1527),  now  represented 


by  the  granite  nave,  which,  as  restored 
since  1869,  is  used  as  a  parish  church. 
Among  the  chief  public  edifices  are  the 
county  buildings,  the  postoffice,  the 
Market  Hall,  the  Trades  Hall,  the  Royal 
Infirmary,  the  lunatic  asylum,  the  gram- 
mar school,  the  art  gallery  and  art  school, 
and  Gordon's  College.  The  chief  exports 
are  woolens,  linens,  cotton-yarns,  paper, 
combs,  granite  (hewn  and  polished), 
cattle,  grain,  preserved  provisions,  and 
fish.  Aberdeen  has  the  largest  comb  and 
granite-polishing  works  in  the  kingdom. 
There  are  also  several  large  paper  works. 
Aberdeen  is  at  the  junction  of  three  rail- 
way lines  and  has  steamer  connections 
with  Leith,  Newcastle,  Hull,  and  London. 
The  trade  of  the  port,  which  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  has  steadily  increased.  In 
1911  the  net  tonnage  of  vessels  arriving 
was  1,041,424,  and  departing,  1,020,498. 
In  the  same  year  the  imports  were  valued 
at  over  £1,163,000,  and  exports  at  over 
£1,496,000.  Municipal  ownership  has 
been  extended  to  its  water  and  gas  works, 
its  electric  light  plant  and  tramways, 
public  baths,  markets,  and  cemeteries. 
Its  ratable  property  value  in  1920  was 
more  than  £1,000,000.  Aberdeen  is  repre- 
sented in  Parliament  by  two  members. 
The  population  of  the  parliamentary 
burgh  is  estimated  (1918)  at  166,000. 

ABERDEEN,  a  city  in  South  Dakota, 
the  county-seat  of  Brown  co.  It  is  on 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Min- 
neapolis and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Great 
Northern  railroads,  and  contains  many 
handsome  public  buildings,  including  a 
library,  municipal  building,  court  house. 
Federal  building,  etc.  There  are  parks, 
and  a  fine  school  system,  including  a 
State  Normal  and  an  Industrial  School. 
The  city  is  important  as  a  manufacturing 
center,  especially  for  flour,  brick,  chemi- 
cals, clothing,  and  machinery.  The  town 
was  settled  in  1880.  Pop.  (1910)  10,753; 
(1920,)   14,537. 

ABERDEEN,  a  city  of  Washington,  in 
Chehalis  co.  It  is  on  the  Chehalis  river 
and  on  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  p.nd  the  Oregon 
and  Washington  Railway  and  Navigation 
Co.,  and  is  connected  by  steamship  with 
ports  in  California.  The  city  is  the 
center  of  an  important  lumber  and  agri- 
cultural region.  The  chief  industries  are 
logging,  shingle  mills,  ship  yards,  and 
packing  houses.  Pop.  (1910)  13,660; 
(1920)    15,337. 

ABERDEEN.  GEORGE  HAMILTON 
GORDON,  EARL  OF.  bom  in  1784.  He 
took  office  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  1828,  in  the  ministry 


ABERDEEN.    UNIVERSITY  8 

formed  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
and  in  1843  in  the  Peel  ministry.  In  1853, 
Earl  Aberdeen  was  selected  to  head  a  new 
ministry,  which  for  some  time  was  ex- 
tremely" popular.  He  endeavored  to  pre- 
vent the  country  from  entering  upon  the 
contlict  with  Russia,  but  all  his  efforts 
were  unvailing.  Failing  to  receive  suf- 
ficient support  to  carry  out  his  measures, 
he  rvsigutnl  in  1855.     Dieil  Dec.  14.  1860. 

ABERDEEN.  ITNIVERSITY  OF.  an 
institution  for  higher  eiluoation  at  Aber- 
deen. Scotland.  It  includes  two  colleges, 
King's  and  Marischal.  The  university 
is  coet-lucational  and  has  aKiut  1.300 
student^:.  The  chancellor  in  19*20  was  the 
Duke  of  Richmond  and  Gorvlon,  and  the 
vict^chancellor  and  principal.  Sir  George 
Adam  Smith. 

ABERNETHY.  a  town  in  Perth- 
shirts  Scotland,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Earn  and  the  Tay.  Here  the  first 
Culdee  V  ■   "  '  :ilt.  and  here,  it 

is  said.  had  their  capi- 

tal. A  ^....v ..--  ..^  .^  u  .vor.  73  feet  high, 
still  exists.  r\^semWing  the  famous  round 
towers  of  Ireland. 

ABERNETHY.  JAMES,  a  Scotch 
livil  engineer,  l-  *  -':en  in  1815. 
As  a  K-»y  he  asj?>  on  the  ex- 
tension •"  "-  and  after- 
ward .-  lock  and 
dock  a:  ....  .^:  Swansea, 
Newport,  Cardilf.  and  Hull,  and  the 
C*vour  canal  in  Italy.     He  died  in  1896. 

ABERNETHY,  JOHN,  an  anisent 
English  surcvon.  founder  of  the  School 
of  S:.  Rartholoaww's;  tv>m  in  London, 
Apr-.l  3,  1764.  He  was  educated  at 
Wolverhampton  grammar  school,  and  in 
1779  was  apprenticed  to  the  assistant  sur- 
geon at  St.  Bartholomew's  HosphaL  In 
1787  he  was  himself  dected  assistant 
sur^v?on  to  St.  Bartholomew's,  and  soon 
after  began  to  lecture.  At  first,  he  mani- 
fested extTa<»dinaT7  diftiwtce,  bat  his 
power  soon  derekped  hs^,  and  his 
iectores  at  last  --"■•'^-d  crowds.^  His 
practice    iiicre:^-  '.    his    ceMxrty, 

whkh  the  eece-  ~i   rad«»ess  of 

his  manners  cor  zhten.    He 

fiedat  Enfield.  -~ 

AREKRATIOH.  a  wanderias  iron. 

In  opcics^  a  sphoical  aberratioB  is  dttt 
wanderiac  of  the  Ta;s  of  li^t  from  tiie 
aonaal  path  whiA  takes  ptaice  whca  Uiey 
are  made  to  p^ss  thrmsh  ciuvul  Iwisf.s 
•rare  reflected  froaa  carred  mirrors,  cob- 
adtntlBS  poKtioBS  ti  a  sphere,  instead 
«f  puts  of  m  paraholi  Chromatic  aber- 
ndoB  is  Ae  frair™^  o' >"»r»  ^rith  the 
ttir  cotas  vhadi  takes 
tkroagh 


ABILENE 

In  astronomy,  the  aberration  of  light  is 
that  alteration  in  the  apparent  position  of 
a  star  which  is  produced  by  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  during  the  time  that 
the  light  is  coming  from  the  star  to  the 
eye.  The  effect  of  this  aberration  is 
to  make  each  star  appear  annually  to 
describe  a  minute  circle  of  about  40* 
diameter  parallel  to  the  earth's  diameter. 

In  medicine,  the  passage  of  blood,  or 
any  other  fluid  of  the  body,  from  morbid 
causes,  into  vessels  not  designed  to  re- 
ceive it.  Mental  aberration  is  that 
wandering  from  soundness  of  judgment 
which  is  so  conspicuous  in  the  insane. 

ABESTA,  or  AVESTA.  the  name  of 
one  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Persian 
magi,  which  they  ascribe  to  their  great 
founder  Zoroaster.  The  "Abesta"  is  a. 
commentary  on  two  others  of  their 
religious  books,  called  "Zend"  and 
"Pazend";  the  three  together  including 
the  whole  system  of  the  Ignicolae,  or 
worshippers  of  fire. 

ABHEDANANDA.  SWAMI.  a  British- 
Indian  lecturer  and  author,  bom  in  Cal- 
cutta   in    1S60.      He    was    educated    at 
Calcutta  University,    In  1897  he  came  to 
the    United    States,   where   he   organized 
the  Vendanta  Society  of  New  York  and 
acted   as   its   head.     He  also  established 
■    -  hools  for  tiie  study  of  religion 
red  on  Hindu  philosophy  before 
v.:^:..    t-ujcational    institutions,    -        -  -^ 
etc.      He    was    the   author   of 
nation"    (1899);   "Philosophy  o:     ..    .^ 
(190-2);  "India  and  Her  People"  (19<J6); 
"Great  Saviors  of  the  World"  (1911)  ;  etc. 

ABUAH,  the  second  King  of  Judah. 
son  of  Rehoboam,  and  Solomon's  grand- 
son; reigned  three  years,  beginning  956 
B.  C.  He  attempted  to  reunite  the  di%id<^ 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Jodah.  The  at- 
tempt faUed,  thoogh  he  defeated  Jero- 
boam and  a  superior  force,  and  wrested 
from  the  King  of  Israel  several  cities. 

A  BIT. A.  or  ABYLA.  a  moontain  of 
Africa,  opposite  that  which  is  called 
Calpe,  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  only  18 
miles  distant.  These  two  moantains  are 
named  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  were 
supposed  formerly  to  haye  beoi  united, 
tin  the  hoo  separated  them,  and  tiiereby 
effected  a  ^-^i— ■miM-^tiwi  between  the 
M  editemiiesn  Sea  and  the  Atiantk 
Oeean. 

A-wTT.CTTt,  a  city  of  Texas,  the  eoimty* 
seat  of  Taylor  ok,  160  miles  S.  W.  of 
Forth  Worth.  It  is  on  the  Texas  and 
Pacifie,  Ae  Wi^ita  Valley,  and  the 
.\hilene  Southern  raHroada.  The  town  is 
an  i^^ortant  mdnstnal  community. 
TVs«  are  Soar  and  planing  mills,  cotton 


ABINOTON 


9 


ABOMET 


oil  mills,  and  cotton  gins.  The  city  con- 
tains a  sanitarium,  Federal  court  house, 
library,  parks,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  9,204; 
(1920)  10,274. 

ABINGTON,  a  town  in  Massachusetts, 
in  Pl>Tiiouth  CO.,  about  20  miles  S.  E. 
of  Boston.  It  is  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford,  and  the  Old  Colony 
Electric  railroads.  The  largest  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes. 
The  city  has  an  excellent  school  system 
and  a  library.  In  its  park  is  a  memorial 
arch  to  veterans  of  the  Civil  War  which 
was  dedicated  in  1912.  Abington  was 
founded  in  1680.  Pop.  (1910)  5,455; 
(1920)  5,787. 

ABKHASIA,  a  region  between  the 
south  slope  of  Caucasus  and  the  Black 
Sea,  having  an  area  of  about  2,500 
square  miles.  The  country  is  mountain- 
ous and  has  dense  forests  of  oaks  and 
walnuts.  Maize,  figs,  wines,  and  wheat 
are  produced.  Its  chief  town  is  Sukhum 
Kale.  Under  the  Byzantine  emperors  it 
was  an  independent  state,  called  Abassia. 
In  1154,  the  Russian  Grand  Prince  Islayif 
Mstislavitch  married  an  Abkhasian  prin- 
cess. In  the  15th  century  it  became  sub- 
ject to  Turkey.  After  the  peace  of 
Adrianople  in  1829,  the  region  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia,  but  was  not  fully  paci- 
fied until  1864.  The  inhabitants  differ 
from  the  Cherkess  in  character  and  ap- 
pearance. Their  principal  occupations 
are  agriculture,  grazing,  wine  raising, 
and  bee-keeping.  After  the  Turko-Rus- 
sian  War,  many  of  them  emigrated  to 
Turkey.  They  number  about  21,000. 
Total  pop.  about  150,000. 

ABNOBA,  now  ABENAU.  a  long 
range  of  mountains  in  Germany,  extend- 
ing from  the  Rhine  to  the  Neckar.  haN-ing 
different  names  in  the  different  countries 
through  which  they  stretch:  the  Oden, 
or  Odenwald,  about  the  river  Main;  the 
Spessart,  between  Hesse  and  Franconia; 
Baar,  in  Wvirttemberg. 

ABO.  a  city  in  the  former  Russian 
province  of  Finland,  and  chief  town  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name. 
(Pop.  about  525,000.)  It  is  situated  near 
the  extremity  of  the  promontory  formed 
by  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  and 
is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  river 
Aurajoki.  Previous  to  1817,  Abo  was  the 
capiul  of  Finland.     Pop.  about  55,000. 

ABO.  AKCHIPELAGO  OF.  an  ex- 
tensive group  of  low.  rocky  islands  in  the 
Baltic  Sea,  spreading  along  the  S.  and 
W.  coasts  of  Finland,  opposite  the  city  of 
Abo,  rendering  the  na\ng^tion  difficult 
and  dangerous. 


ABO,  PEACE  OF,  a  treaty  concluded 
Aug.  17,  1743,  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  by  which  Russia  retained  a  part 
of  Finland  and  restored  to  Sweden  the 
remainder  on  condition  that  the  latter 
power  should  elect  the  Prince  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  successor  to  the  throne.  On  Aug. 
30,  1812,  the  Emperor  Alexander  I.,  of 
Russia,  and  the  Crown  Prince  Karl 
Johann,  of  Sweden,  confirmed  the  second 
treaty  between  the  two  countries  already 
signed  March  24th,  containing  a  secret 
article  of  mutual  protection.  It  treated 
of  Napoleon  and  the  subjugation  of 
Norway. 

ABOLITIONISTS,  in  United  States 
history,  those  who  advocated  the  abolition 
of  African  slavery  in  the  Southern 
States.  Agitation  became  acute  after  the 
settlement  of  the  war  troubles  of  1812- 
1815.  In  1833,  the  formation  of  a  Na- 
tional Anti-Slavery  Society  took  place  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1848  of  the  Free  Soil 
Party.  The  abolition  movement  was 
powerfully  promoted  by  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  who  issued  a  newspaper,  "The 
Liberator,"  for  the  better  dissemination 
of  his  views;  and  also  by  Wendell  Phillips, 
Charles  Sumner,  and  others.  The  more 
extreme  agitators  among  them  denied 
the  duty  of  obedience  to  the  Constitution, 
since  it  contained  the  clause  warranting 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  they  de- 
nounced it  as  *'a  covenant  with  death  and 
an  agreement  with  hell."  In  practice  they 
violated  it  by  systematically  assisting  in 
the  escape  of  runaway  slaves.  In  Bos- 
ton, Garrison  was  mobbed,  and  the  aboli- 
tion cause  in  the  United  States  counted 
among  its  martyrs  Elijah  Lovejoy,  shot 
in  Alton,  111.,  in  1837.  and  John  Brown, 
hanged  in  Virginia  in  1859.  In  1840,  the 
abolitionists  divided  on  the  question  of 
the  formation  of  a  political  anti-slavery 
party,  and  the  two  wings  remained  active 
on  separate  lines  to  the  end.  It  was 
largely  due  to  the  abolitionists  that  the 
Civil  War,  when  it  came,  was  regarded 
by  the  North  chiefly  as  an  anti-slavery 
conflict,  and  they  looked  upon  the  Eman- 
cipation Proclamation  as  a  vindication  of 
this  view. 

ABOMA.  a  large  and  formidable 
American  snake,  called  also  the  ringed 
boa.  It  is  the  epicratis  cenchrca.  An- 
ciently it  was  worshipped  by  the  Mexi- 
cans. 

ABOMEY.  the  former  capital  of 
Dahomey,  Africa;  a  walled  town,  con- 
taining several  royal  palaces.  It  is  mostly 
clay-built,  and  the  walls  are  of  mud;  is 
of  large  area,  much  of  which  is  under 
cultivation;  carries  on  important  trade 
with  the  interior  in  palm  oil.  ivory,  and 


ABORIGINES 


10 


ABRASIVES 


gold.  It  has  often  been  the  scene  of 
human  sacrifices,  especially  at  the  preat 
festivals.  The  to\vn  was  captured  by  the 
French  in  1892.  Pop.,  formerly  60,000, 
now  about  10,000.    See  Dahomey. 

ABORIGINES.  (1)  An  old  tribe 
inhabiting  Latium.  (2)  The  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  any  other  land. 
The  aborigines  of  a  country,  as  a  subject 
of  scientific  investigation,  have  received 
great  attention  since  the  publication  of 
Herbert  Spencer's  "Synthetic  Philos- 
ophy." The  greatest  discussion  has  been 
occasioned  by  the  theories  of  Morgan 
with  reference  to  the  aborigines  of  the 
United  States. 

ABORTION,  the  immature  product  of 
an  organ;  any  fruit  or  product  that  does 
not  come  to  maturity,  or  anything  which 
fails  in  its  progress,  before  it  is  matured 
or  perfect. 

ABOUKIR,  a  small  tov^m  of  Egypt, 
about  12  miles  E.  of  Alexandria.  In 
Aboukir  Bay,  Nelson  found  the  French 
fleet  which  had  conveyed  Bonaparte  into 
Egypt,  and  destroyed  or  captured  the 
greatest  part  of  it  (Aug.  1,  1798),  In 
other  respects,  Aboukir  is  not  of  much 
importance. 

ABOULFEDA,  or  ABULFEDA,  the 
hereditary  prince  of  Hamah;  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Arabian  writers  on  his- 
tory and  geography.  Among  his  contem- 
poraries he  was  also  distinguished  both 
as  a  ruler  and  a  warrior. 

ABOUT,  EDMOND  (a-bo'),  a  French 
novelist;  born  in  Dieuze,  Lorraine,  Feb. 
14,  1828.  One  of  the  few  younger  au- 
thors of  note  who  adhered  to  the  second 
empire,  he  enjoyed  the  special  favor  of 
Napoleon  III.,  and  in  1870  accompanied 
the  army  of  Marshal  Macmahon  as  re- 
porter for  "Le  Soir."  In  that  paper, 
after  the  war,  and  from  1875  as  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  "XIX.  Siecle,"  he  was  the 
ehampion  of  the  Moderate  Republicans, 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
in  1884.    He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  17,  1885. 

ABRACADABRA,  a  magical  word 
among  the  ancicMits,  recommended  as  an 
antidote  against  several  diseases.  It  was 
to  be  \vritten  upon  a  piece  of  paper  as 
many  times  as  the  word  contains  letters, 
omitting  the  last  letter  of  the  former 
every  time,  and  suspended  from  the  neck 
by  a  linen  thread.  It  was  the  name  of 
a  god  worshipped  by  the  Syrians,  the 
wearing  of  whose  name  was  a  sort  of 
invocation  of  his  aid.  At  present,  the 
word  is  used  chiefly  in  jest,  to  denote 
something  without  meaning. 


ABRAHAM,  son  of  Terah,  and  brother 
of  Nahor  and  Haran,  the  progenitor  of 
the  Hebrew  nation  and  of  several  cognate 
tribes.  In  obedience  to  a  call  of  God, 
Abraham,  with  his  father  Terah,  his 
wife  Sarah,  and  his  nephew  Lot,  left  his 
native  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  dwelt 
for  a  time  in  Haran,  where  Terah  died. 
After  his  father's  death.  Abraham,  now 
75  years  old,  pursued  his  course,  with 
Sarah  and  Lot,  to  the  land  of  Canaan, 
whither  he  was  directed  by  the  divine  com- 
mand (Genesis,  xii :  5),  when  he  received 
the  general  promise  that  he  should  be- 
come the  founder  of  a  great  nation,  and 
that  all  the  families  of  the  earth  should 
be  blessed  in  him.  As  the  country  was 
suffering  with  famine,  Abraham  jour- 
neyed southward  to  the  rich  cornlands  of 
Egypt.  Abraham  left  Egypt  with  great 
possessions,  and,  accompanied  by  Lot,  re- 
turned to  one  of  his  former  encampments 
between  Bethel  and  Ai.  Abraham  pitched 
his  tent  among  the  oak-groves  of 
Mamre,  close  to  Hebron,  where  the  prom- 
ise that  his  descendants  should  become 
a  mighty  nation  was  confirmed.  At  the 
suggestion  of  Sarah,  who  despaired  of 
having  children  of  her  own,  he  took  as  his 
concubine  Hagar,  her  Egyptian  maid, 
who  bare  him  Ishmael,  in  the  86th  year 
of  his  age.  Thirteen  years  elapsed,  during 
which  revelation  was  made  that  a  son 
of  Sarah,  and  not  Ishmael,  should  in- 
herit both  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
blessings.  The  covenant  was  renewed, 
and  the  rite  of  circumcision  established 
as  its  sign.  At  length,  Isaac,  the  long- 
looked-for  child,  was  bom,  and  Ishmael 
was  driven  out,  with  his  mother  Hagar, 
as  a  satisfaction  to  Sarah's  jealousy. 
Some  25  years  after  this  event,  Abraham 
received  the  strange  command  to  take 
Isaac  and  offer  him  for  a  burnt-offering 
at  an  appointed  place.  He  hesitated  not 
to  obey,  but  the  sacrifice  was  stayed  by 
the  angel  of  Jehovah.  Abraham,  at  the 
goodly  age  of  175,  was  "gathered  to  his 
people." 

ABRAHAM.  PLAINS  OF  and 
HEIGHTS  OF.  a  table-land  near  Quebec, 
rising  above  the  St.  LaAvrence,  where  the 
battle  of  Quebec  was  fought  between  the 
British  and  French  (1759).  A  noble 
monument  now  marks  the  spot. 

ABRASIVES,  term  applied  to  sub- 
stances used  in  polishing  and  grinding. 
They  include  implements  fashioned  from 
natural  materials,  such  as  grindstones, 
millstones,  whetstones,  etc.,  mineral  sub- 
stances used  in  a  granulated  form  and 
artificial  abradants. 

The  familiar  grindstone,  known  from 
the  earliest  times,  is  made  from  a  gritty 
tenacious  sandstone,  found  in  abundant . 


ABRUZZI 


11 


ABSOLUTE 


in  Germany  and  the  British  Isles, 
and  plentiful  in  Ohio  and  other  Western 
States.  Millstones  and  buhrstones,  the 
latter  of  which  are  largely  imported  from 
France,  are  used  in  grinding  coarse 
cereals,  cement  rock  and  certain  minerals. 
The  increasing  use  of  the  roller  process 
in  flour-making  has  decreased  the  de- 
mand for  millstones.  Oilstones,  scythe- 
stones,  and  whetstones  are  chiefly  of 
American  origin,  although  an  appreciable 
amount  is  imported  from  Belgium,  Italy, 
and  France.  Pumice  is  a  volcanic  ash 
used  in  scouring  powders  and  soaps.  It 
is  found  in  Utah  and  Nebraska,  and  is 
also  brought  from  the  Lipari  Islands. 
Crystalline  quartz  is  used  for  sandpaper, 
garnet  for  woodworking  and  shoemaking 
and  corundum  for  metals,  the  latter  being 
the  hardest  material  known  except  the 
diamond.  Alundum  is  a  very  efficient 
abrasive  for  hardened  and  toughened 
steels.  Carborundum  or  carbide  of  sili- 
con is  extensively  used  in  difficult  tasks. 
One  of  the  newest  abrasives  is  electrite, 
which  has  a  composition  between  alun- 
dum and  carborundum.  The  water  power 
of  Niagara  Falls  is  used  for  the  treat- 
ment and  manufacture  of  abrasives  in 
great  plants  that  have  been  established 
near  the  Falls. 

ABBUZZI  (ab-rots'e) ,  PBINCE  LTJIGI 
AMADEO    OF    SAVOY-AOSTA,    DUKE 

OF,  Italian  explorer;  born  in  Madrid, 
Jan.  29.  1873;  nephew  of  King  Humbert; 
in  May,  1899,  he  started  on  an  expedition, 
in  the  specially  prepared  steamer  "Star 
of  Italy,"  for  Franz  Josef  Land,  intend- 
ing, when  frozen  in,  to  use  sledges  in  a 
search  for  the  North  Pole  and  the  bal- 
loon explorer.  Dr.  Andree.  He  returned 
to  Norway  in  September,  1900,  after  hav- 
ing reached  a  point  in  latitude  86°  33' 
N.,  surpassing  Nansen's  farthest  N.  rec- 
ord by  19'.  In  1906  he  led  an  expedition 
into  equatorial  Africa.  A  personal  feat 
was  the  climbing  of  Mt.  Ruwenzori, 
16,600  feet  high,  whose  summit,  so  far 
as  known,  had  never  before  been  reached. 
In  1909,  he  reached  the  top  of  Mt.  Austen 
in  India,  24,000  feet.  During  the  war 
with  Tripoli,  he  headed  an  Italian  squad- 
ron operating  in  the  Adriatic  and  Med- 
iterranean. At  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War,  ho  was  appointed  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Italian  navy,  and 
after  the  entrance  of  his  own  country 
into  the  conflict  in  May.  1915,  he  acted  in 
co-operation  with  the  allied  admirals  in 
controlling  the  waters  of  southern  Eu- 
rope. 

ABRUZZI  AND  MOLISE.  a  political 
division  of  Italy,  including  the  provinces 
of  Aquila,  Teramo,  Chieti.  and  Campo- 
basso.     The  Abruzzi  i."  wild   and   moun- 


tainous, the  Apennines  here  reaching 
their  loftiest  heights,  in  Gran  Sasso 
d'ltalia  nearly  10,000  feet,  in  the  N.,  and 
Majella  over  9,000,  in  the  S.  Cattle- 
raising  is  its  chief  industry.  The  Molise, 
comprising  the  province  of  Campobasso, 
yields  considerable  grain  and  fruit. 
Asphalt  deposits  occur  there.  The  area 
is  6,387  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
1,550,000. 

ABSALOM,  the  third  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel,  remarkable  for  his  beauty. 
He  contrived  to  win  the  aff'ections  of  the 
people,  and  then  stirred  up  a  formidable 
rebellion.  A  battle  was  fought  in  the 
forest  of  Ephraim,  in  which  the  rebels 
were  defeated.  In  the  flight,  as  Absalom 
was  riding  under  a  tree,  he  was  caught 
in  the  branches,  in  which  position  Joab, 
the  commander  of  David's  army,  thrust 
him  through.  The  grief  of  David  for  his 
loss  was  excessive. 

ABSCESS,  a  gathering  of  pus  in  any 
tissue  or  organ  of  the  body.  It  is  so 
called  because  there  is  an  abscessiis  (^^ 
going  away  or  departure)  of  portions  of 
the  animal  tissue  from  each  other  to 
make  room  for  the  suppurated  matter 
lodged  between  them.  It  results  from 
the  softening  of  the  natural  tissues,  and 
the  exudations  thus  produced. 

ABSOLUTE,  opposed  to  relative; 
means  that  the  thing  is  considered  in 
itself  and  without  reference  to  other 
things. 

1.  Absolute  or  non-connotative,  accord- 
ing to  Whately,  is  opposed  to  attributive 
or  connotative.  The  former  does  not 
take  note  of  an  attribute  connected 
with   the  object,   which   the   latter  does. 

2.  According  to  J.  S.  Mill,  it  is  incor- 
rect to  regard  non-connotative  and  ab- 
solute as  synonymous  terms.  He  con- 
siders absolute  to  mean  non-relative,  and 
to  be  opposed  to  relative. 

In  metaphy.sics.  absolute  means  exist- 
ing independently  of  any  other  cause. 

A  case  absolute,  in  grammar,  is  one 
consisting  essentially  of  a  substantive 
and  a  participle,  which  form  a  clause 
not  agreeing  with  or  governed  by  any 
word  in  the  remainder  of  the  sentence. 
In  Greek,  the  absolute  case  is  the  geni- 
tive; in  Latin,  the  ablative;  in  English,  it 
is  considered  to  be  the  nominative. 

In  law,  personal  rights  are  divided 
into  absolute  and  relative — absolute, 
which  pertain  to  men  as  individuals;  and 
relative,  which  are  incident  to  them  aft 
members  of  society,  standing  in  various 
relations  to  each  other.  The  three  chief 
rights  of  an  absolute  kind  are  the  right 
of  personal  security,  the  right  of  personal 
liberty,  and  the  right  of  private  property. 


ABSOLUTION 


12 


ABU-BEKR 


Absolute,  in  natural  philosophy,  is  gen- 
erally opposed  to  relative.  As  this  rela- 
tivity may  be  of  many  kinds,  various 
shades  of  meaning  arise,  thus: 

1.  Absolute  or  real  expansion  of  a 
liquid,  as  opposed  to  its  apparent  expan- 
sion, the  expansion  which  would  arise 
when  the  liquid  is  heated,  if  the  vessel 
containing  it  did  not  itself  expand.  (See 
Atkinson's  "Ganot's  Physics,"  bk.  vi, 
ch.  iii.) 

2.  Absolute  gravity  is  the  gravity  of  a 
body  viewed  apart  from  all  modifying 
influences,  as,  for  instance,  of  the  at- 
mosphere. To  ascertain  its  amount, 
therefore,  the  body  must  be  weighed 
in  vanto. 

3.  Absolute  motion  is  the  change  of 
place  on  a  body  produced  by  the  motion 
so  designated  viewed  apart  from  the 
modifying  influence  arising  from  dis- 
turbing elements   of   another  kind. 

4.  Absolute  space  is  space  considered 
apart  from  the  material  bodies  in  it. 

5.  Absolute  time  is  time  viewed  apart 
from  events  or  any  other  subjects  of 
mental  conception  with  which  it  may  be 
associated. 

6.  Absolute  force  of  a  center:  Strength 
of  a  center. 

Absolute  zero,  an  imaginary  tempera- 
ture so  low  that  there  would  be  no  heat 
left. 

ABSOLUTION,  in  ecclesiastical  usag^e, 
the  freeing  from  sin  or  its  penalties. 

ABSORPTION,  the  act,  operation,  or 
process  of  absorbing,  sucking  in,  or 
swallowing  anj'thing,  or  otherwise  caus- 
ing it  to  disappear  in  another  body.  Ab- 
sorption by  organized  bodies  is  the  tak- 
ing up  or  imbibing,  by  means  of  their 
tissues,  of  material  suitable  for  their 
nourishment. 

In  chemistry,  absorption  is  the  taking 
up  of  a  gas  by  a  liquid,  or  by  a  porous 
solid;  and  in  natural  philosophy  it  is 
the  taking  up  I'ays  of  light  and  heat  by 
certain  bodies  through  which  they  are 
passing. 

Absorption  of  heat  is  the  retention  and 
consequent  disappearance  of  rays  of  heat 
in  passing  into  or  through  a  body  colder 
than  themselves. 

Absorption  of  the  earth  is  a  term  used 
by  Kii'cher  and  others  for  the  subsidence 
of  tracts  of  land  produced  by  earthquakes 
or  other  natural  agencies. 

ABSTINENCE,  the  act  or  habit  of  re- 
fraining from  something  to  which  we 
have  a  propensity,  or  in  which  we  find 
pleasure;  but  it  is  more  particulai-ly 
applied  to  the  privation  or  sparing  use 
of  food.  Abstinence  has  been  enjoined 
and  practiced  for  various  ends,  as  sani- 


tary, moral,  or  religious.  Abstinence  of 
flesh  on  certain  days  is  obligatory  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

ABSTRACT  OF  TITLE,  an  evidence 
of  ownership  in  the  conveyance  of 
property.  It  aims  in  abbreviated  form 
to  trace  as  far  back  as  possible  or  de- 
sirable the  history  of  the  property,  the 
names  of  its  successive  owners  and  ihe 
dates  of  various  transfers.  In  England, 
it  is  customary  for  the  vendor  to  furnish 
abstract  together  with  the  deed,  and  this 
is  frequently  done  in  the  United  States. 
The  practice  in  this  country,  however, 
is  becoming  less  and  less  common,  be- 
cause of  the  work  done  by  title  companies, 
who,  having  assured  themselves  of  the 
validity  and  marketability  of  the  title, 
guarantee  the  buyer  against  loss  up  to 
the  amount  of  his  purchase. 

ABSTRACTION,  the  act  of  dragging 
or  drawing  away  or  separating.  In  dis- 
tillation, it  is  the  operation  of  separating 
the  volatile  parts  in  distillation  from 
those  which  do  not  pass  into  vapor  at  the 
temperature  to  which  the  vessel  has  been 
raised. 

In  mental  philosophy,  it  is  the  act  of 
withdrawing  the  consciousness  from  a 
number  of  objects  with  a  view  to  con- 
centrate it  on  some  particular  one. 

ABT,  FRANZ,  (apt),  a  German  song 
writer;  born  in  Saxony,  Dec.  22,  1819. 
He  studied  theology  at  Leipsic,  but  aban- 
doned it  for  music.  In  1841  he  became 
kapellmeister  at  the  court  theater  at 
Bernburg;  shortly  afterward  relinquish- 
ing the  post  for  a  similar  one  in  Zurich, 
where  he  remained  till  1852.  In  1882  he 
retired  to  Wiesbaden.  Many  of  his  songs 
(for  example,  "When  the  Swallows  Home- 
ward Fly,"  "Good  Night,  Thou  Child 
of  My  Heart,"  "O  Ye  Tears,"  etc.),  have 
endeared  themselves  to  the  heart  of  the 
people  all  over  the  world.  He  died  March 
31,  1885. 

ABU,  a  mountain,  5,650  feet,  in  the 
territory  of  Serohee,  Rajputana,  India,  a 
detached  granite  mass  rising  like  an 
island  from  the  plain  of  Marwar,  near  the 
Aravalli  ridge.  It  is  a  celebrated  place  of 
pilgrimage. 

ABU-BEKR,  the  father  of  Ayesha, 
wife  of  Mohammed,  was  a  man  of  great 
influence  in  the  Korcish  tribe;  and  in  632, 
when  Mohammed  died,  was  made  the  first 
caliph  or  successor  of  the  Prophet.  After 
defeating  his  enemies  in  Arabia,  and 
warring  successfully  against  Babylonia, 
Syria,  and  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Heraclius,  Abu-Bekr  died  634  A.  D.,  aged 
63.     He  was  surnamed  "The  Justk" 


ABU-SIMBEL 


13 


ABYSSINIA 


AFU-SIMBEL,  the  ancient  Aboccis  or 
Abuncis,  a  place  of  ruins  in  Upper  Egypt, 
between  the  first  and  second  cataract, 
having  two  temples  built  by  Ramses  the 
Great  in  1388  and  1392,  one  for  himself 
and  one  for  the  god  Hathor.  They  lie 
a  short  distance  apart,  at  the  foot  of  a 
precipitous  cliff  close  to  the  west  bank 
of  the  Nile.  No  temple  in  Egypt  produces 
so  grand  an  effect  as  the  rock  temple  of 
Ramses  II.,  and  by  moonlight  its  effect 
is  even  finer.  Its  dignified  sculptures 
and  the  gorgeous  colored  representations 


ABYDOS,  a  town  and  castle  ot  Anatolia, 
on  the  Straits  of  Gallipoli.  In  its  neigh- 
borhood Xerxes,  when  he  invaded  Greece, 
crossed  with  his  immense  army  the  Hel- 
lespont, on  a  bridge  of  boats.  Memorable 
also  from  being  the  scene  of  the  loves  of 
Hero  and  Leander,  and  from  Byron  hav- 
ing adopted  its  name  in  his  "Bride  of 
Abydos." 

Also  an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Egypt, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  supposed 
to  have  been  the  ancient  This,  and  to  have 
been  second  only  to  Thebes. 


STATUES   OF  RAMESES   II.   IN   FRONT   OF   THE   TEMPLE   OF    ABU-SIMBEL 
THESE  FIGURES  ARE  SI.\TY-FIVE   FEET  HIGH 


In  its  interior  repay  the  trouble  of  the 
ascent  from  Philae.  This  most  stupen- 
dous work  of  ancient  Egyptian  architec- 
ture was  the  creation  of  Ramses  II.  It 
was  excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock  and 
dedicated  at  first  to  the  leading  deities 
of  Egypt  proper,  Amnion  of  Thebes  and 
Re-Harmakhis,  but  other  deities  were 
worshipped  there  as  well.  In  1892  the 
facade  119  feet  broad  and  over  100  feet 
wide,  was  restored  and  two  walls  had  to 
be  built  to  protect  it  from  the  sand  which 
blew  into  it  from  the  west  desert. 


ABYSSINIA,  a  country  of  eastern 
Africa,  bounded  by  the  Sudan  and  Nubia 
on  the  W,  and  N.,  and  by  the  Italian 
territory  on  the  E.;  area,  about  350,000 
square  miles;  formerly  called  Ethiopia. 
At  present  it  includes  the  kingdoms  of 
Tigre  (with  Lasta),  Amhara,  Gajam, 
and  Shoa,  besides  several  outlying  de- 
pendencies. 

The  country  consists  of  a  huge  table- 
land with  a  mean  elevation  of  7,000 
feet,  and  crossed  by  high  mountain 
ranges. 


ABYSSINIA 


14 


ABYSSINIA 


Topography. — The  declivity  to  the  bor- 
dering tract  on  the  Red  Sea  is  abrupt; 
toward  the  Nile  basin  it  is  more  gradual. 
The  main  mass  has  been  cut  into  a 
number  of  island-like  sections  by  the 
streams,  which  have  worn  their  channels 
into  ravines  of  vast  depth — as  much 
sometimes  as  4,000  feet.  The  principal 
are  the  head-streams  of  the  Blue  Nile, 
issuing  from  the  great  Lake  Tzana, 
Tana,  or  Dembea,  and  the  Atbara,  also  a 
tributary  of  the  Nile;  less  important  are 
the  Mareb  and  the  Haivash.  Isolated 
mountains,  with  naked,  perpendicular 
sides,  present  the  most  singular  forms. 
The  Samen  mountains  have  summits  ris- 
ing to  the  height  of  15,000  feet.  The 
climate,  notwithstanding  its  tropical 
position,  is  on  the  whole  moderate  and 
pleasant  owing  to  its  elevation,  though 
in  the  river  valleys  and  swamps  the  heat 
and  moisture  are  suffocating  and  pesti- 
lential. As  a  whole,  the  country  is  ex- 
ceedingly fruitful;  and  its  productions 
are  of  the  most  varied  nature,  from  the 
pines,  heaths,  and  lichens  of  north  Europe 
to  the  choicest  tropical  plants.  Two,  and 
in  some  places  three,  crops  can  be  raised 
in  one  year. 

Government. — The  political  institutions 
are  feudal,  like  those  of  mediaeval  Europe. 
Education  is  confined  to  teaching  carried 
out  by  the  secular  and  regular  clergy. 
Justice  is  administered  by  governors, 
landed  proprietors,  and  petty  cbiefs.  In 
addition  to  the  local  chiefs  and  their 
followers,  the  king  maintains  a  permanent 
arn\y  called  "Wotader,"  consisting  of  in- 
fantry, artillery,  and  cavalry,  armed  with 
rifles  and  numbering  about  110,000  men. 

Peoples. — The  population  numbers 
some  8,000,000  and  consists  of  various 
elements,  the  chief  being  the  Abyssinians 
proper — a  brown,  well-formed  people  be- 
longing to  the  Semitic  stock.  The  Abys- 
sinians ai'e  composed  of  Ethiopians,  Fa- 
lashas,  Gallas,  etc.  There  are  a  multitude 
of  dialects,  but  the  prevailing  language, 
called  Amharic  or  Amharigna,  is  Semitic, 
with  a  mixture  of  African  words.  Cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  are  largely  raised.  In- 
digo, cotton,  coffee,  and  the  sugar-cane 
are  cultivated  to  some  extent. 

Religion. — This  is  a  debased  Christi- 
anity; but  the  Gallas  and  other  alien 
tribes  are  mostly  Mohammedan,  and 
oartly  also  pagan.  The  head  of  the 
:hurch  is  a  Copt,  appointed  by  the  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  as  are  also  the 
bishops. 

Histoi-y. — Abyssinia  is  a  part  of  what 
was  anciently  called  Ethiopia;  Ityopya  is 
still  the  Abyssinian  name  of  the  country. 
The  first  king,  according  to  the  native 
tradition,  was  Menilehek  or  Menelek,  the 
son  of  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 


The  kingdom  of  Axum,  namea  from  the 
capital,  was  the  nucleus  of  the  state,  and 
attained  its  greatest  extent  in  the  6th 
century.  The  modern  history  of  Abys- 
sinia has  been  mainly  struggles  between 
the  princes  of  various  districts  for  su- 
preme power.  About  1850  an  Amharic 
adventurer,  Ras  Ali,  regent  of  Gondar, 
obtained  dominion  over  successive  prov- 
inces, and  in  1855  had  himself  crowned, 
under  the  name  of  Theodore,  as  Negus. 
He  conceived  a  violent  hatred  for  Euro- 
peans, and,  in  November,  1864,  he  im- 
prisoned the  French  and  English  political 
agents  and  several  missionaries  in  the 
fortress  of  Magdala.  Diplomatic  efforts 
proving  fruitless  for  their  liberation, 
Lord  Napier  invaded  the  highlands  and, 
in  April,  1868,  reached  Magdala  with 
3,500  men.  The  king  made  a  sortie,  but 
was  repulsed.  Then,  after  a  futile  at- 
tempt to  treat,  he  sent  his  prisoners  to 
camp.  On  April  13,  the  British  stormed 
the  castle,  but  the  king  had  meantime 
blown  his  brains  out.  In  July,  1871, 
Kasa,  King  of  Tigre,  defeated  his  chief 
rival  Gobaze  and  was  solemnly  crowned 
as  Negus,  and  took  the  name  of  Johannes 
II.  He  conquered  Menelek  and  brought 
all  the  Abyssinian  provinces  under  his 
scepter.  In  1885  began  the  complications 
with  Italy,  owing  to  the  murder  of  the 
traveler  Bianchi.  The  Italian  troops  in- 
vaded the  Abyssinian  territory.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1887,  Ras  Akula,  supported  by  the 
Negus  himself,  fell  upon  the  Italian  out- 
posts on  the  heights  of  Sahati,  near 
Dogati.  Only  82  wounded  Italians  es- 
caped. Italy  immediately  sent  a  large 
force  to  regain  the  lost  positions,  and 
the  Abyssinians  withdrew.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Mahdists  invaded  the  country 
in  the  west,  and  Johannes,  who  went  to 
resist  them,  was  killed  in  the  two  days' 
battle  near  Metahemeh  in  Kalabat.  King 
Menelek,  of  Shoa,  who  had  been  Johannes' 
secret  ally,  now  seized  the  throne,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1890  was  crowned  Negus 
of  Ethiopia,  under  the  name  of  Menelek 
II.,  and  concluded  in  the  same  year  a 
treaty  of  mutual  protection  with  Italy, 
which  made  Abyssinia  to  some  extent  an 
Italian  protectorate.  This,  however,  was 
repudiated  by  Menelek  in  1893,  and  soon 
afterward  difficulties  with  Italy  arose 
which  culminated  in  1896  in  a  disastrous 
defeat  of  the  Italian  forces.  By  the  con- 
vention of  Adis  Abeba,  Oct.  26,  1896, 
the  independence  of  Abyssinia  \vas  un- 
reservedly recognized,  and  Abyssinia  re- 
served to  Italy  the  strip  along  the  coast 
180  miles  broad.  In  1898,  Great  Britain 
ceded  to  Abyssinia  by  treatv  about  8,000 
square  miles  of  British  Somaliland,  and 
Menelek  declared  the  Mahdists  his  ene- 
mies and  pledged  himself  to  do  all  he 


ABYSSINIAN    CHURCH 


16 


ACADEMY,    AMEEICAN 


could  to  prevent  arms  and  ammunition 
reaching  them   through  his  territory. 

Menelek  died  in  December,  1913,  and 
■was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Lij  Yassu. 
On  Sept.  27,  1916,  the  Emperor  was  de- 
posed during  his  absence  from  the  capital 
by  a  faction  headed  by  the  Metropoli- 
tan Abuna  Mathaeos.  Waizeru  Zauditu, 
daughter  of  Menelek,  was  chosen  as  ruler 
in  his  stead.  During  the  World  War, 
Abyssinian  troops  were  allied  with  the 
British  in  the  East  African  campaign. 
On  July  14,  1919,  an  Abyssinian  dele- 
gation arrived  in  Washington  and  was 
received  by  President  Wilson.  They 
brought  gifts  and  letters  from  the  Em- 
press and  the  Heir  Apparent,  Ras  Taffari, 
congratulating  America  on  the  victorious 
outcome  of  the  war. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH,  the  name  of 
a  sect  of  the  Christian  Church  established 
\n  Abyssinia.  The  forms  and  ritual  of  the 
\byssinian  Church  are  a  strange  com- 
pound of  paganism,  Judaism,  and  Christi- 
anity. It  is  governed  by  a  bishop,  who 
is  styled  abuna. 

ACACIA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  mimosas,  one  of  the  leading  divi- 
sions of  the  great  leguminous  order  of 
plants.  They  abound  in  Australia,  in 
India,  in  Africa,  tropical  America  and 
generally  in  the  hotter  regions  of  the 
world.  Nearly  300  species  are  known 
from  Australia  alone.  They  are  easily 
cultivated  in  greenhouses,  where  they 
flower,  for  the  most  part,  in  winter  or 
early  spring.  The  type  is  perhaps  the 
Acacia  Arabica,  or  gum  arable  tree,  com- 
mon in  India  and  Arabia.  It  looks  very 
beautiful  with  its  graceful,  doubly  pin- 
nate leaves  and  its  heads  of  flowers  like 
little  velvety  pellets,  of  bright  gamboge 
hue.  Other  species  than  the  A.  Arabica 
produce  gum  arable.  That  of  the  shops 
is  mostly  derived  from  the  A.  vei-a,  a 
stunted  species  growing  in  the  Atlas 
mountains  and  other  parts  of  Africa. 

ACADEMICS,  a  name  given  to  a 
series  of  philosophers  who  taught  in  the 
Athenian  Academy,  the  scene  of  Plato's 
discourses. 

ACADEMY,  the  gymnasium  in  the 
suburbs  of  Athens  in  which  Plato  taught, 
and  so  called  after  a  hero,  by  name  Aca- 
demus,  to  whom  it  was  said  to  have 
originally  belonged.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  a  high  school  designed  for  the 
technical  or  other  instruction  of  those 
who  have  already  acquired  the  rudiments 
of  knowledge;  also  a  university. 

inciently,  there  were  two  public  acade- 
mies: one  at  Rome,  founded  by  Adrian, 
in  which  all  the  sciences  were  taught, 
but  especially  jurisprudence;  the  other  at 


Berytus,  in  Phoenicia,  in  which  jurists 
were  principally  educated.  Academy  is 
the  name,  also,  of  a  society  or  an  associ- 
ation of  artists,  linked  together  for  the 
promotion  of  art,  or  of  scientific  men, 
similarly  united  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  or  of  persons  united  for  any  more 
or  less  analogous  object. 

ACADEMY.  FRENCH,  an  institution 
founded  in  1635  by  Cardinal  Richelieu 
for  the  purpose  of  refining  the  French 
language  and  style.  It  became  in  time 
the  most  influential  of  all  literary  so- 
cieties in  Europe.  Together  with  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Let- 
tres,  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political 
Sciences  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
it  composes  the  National  Institute  of 
France.  It  published  in  1694  the  first  edi- 
tion of  a  dictionary.  The  French  Acad- 
emy originated  in  a  simple  meeting  of 
friends  who  met  at  the  house  of  Conrart, 
one  of  their  number.  These  reunions  were 
held  informally  for  many  years.  At  last 
they  attracted  the  attention  of  Richelieu, 
who,  in  1634,  proposed  to  form  an  Acad- 
emy, and,  from  the  13th  of  March  in 
that  year,  a  record  was  kept  of  their 
transactions  and  a  director  or  chancellor 
and  a  perpetual  secretary  were  appointed. 
The  Academy  was  definitely  formed  by 
letters  patent  of  Louis  XIII.,  in  January, 
1635;  they  were  registered  by  Parlia- 
ment July  10,  1637.  At  first  the  number 
was  30.  Ordinary  members  receive  1,500 
francs  a  year.  In  1880  the  discussion  of 
the  qualifications  of  candidates  which  had 
been  in  vogue  for  more  than  10  years 
was  abolished,  but  restored  in  1896.  In 
1671  the  sessions  of  the  Academy  became 
public.    See  Institute    of  France. 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LET- 
TERS. AMERICAN,  an  organization 
established  in  1898.  The  qualification 
for  membership  is  notable  achievement 
in  arts,  music,  or  literature.  The  mem- 
bership is  limited  to  250.  The  first  seven 
members  were  chosen  in  1917.  They  were 
William  Dean  Howells,  Augustus  Saint 
Gaudens,  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman, 
John  La  Farge,  Samuel  Langhom 
Clemens,  John  Hay,  and  Edward  A. 
MacDowell.  The  Academy  holds  an- 
nually a  series  of  public  meetings  in  dif- 
ferent cities  of  the  United  States. 
William  Dean  Howells,  until  his  death  in 
1920,  was  president  of  the  Academy. 
Robert  Underwood  Johnson  was  per- 
manent secretary. 

In  1920  the  membership  list  was  as 
follows:  John  Singer  Sargent.  Daniel 
Chester  French,  John  Burroughs,  James 
Ford  Rhodes,  Horatio  William  Parker, 
Robert  Underwood  Johnson.  George 
Washington    Cable,    Henry    Van    Dyke, 


ACADEMY,  ROYAL 


16 


ACANTHUS 


William  Crary  Brownell,  Basil  Lanneau 
Gildersleeve,  Woodrow  Wilson,  Arthur 
Twining  Hadley,  Henry  Cabot  Lodge, 
Edwin  Howland  Blashfield,  Thomas 
Hastings,  Brander  Matthews,  Thomas 
Nelson  Page,  Elihu  Vedder,  George  Ed- 
ward Woodberry,  George  Whitefield  Chad- 
wick,  Abbott  Henderson  Thayer,  George 
de  Forest  Brush,  William  Rutherford 
Mead,  Bliss  Perry,  Abbott  Lawrence  Low- 
ell, Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Paul  Way- 
land  Bartlett,  Owen  Wister,  Herbert 
Adams,  Augustus  Thomas,  Timothy  Cole, 
Cass  Gilbert,  William  Roscoe  Thayer, 
Robert  Grant,  Frederick  MacMonnies, 
William  Gillette,  Paul  Elmer  More,  Bar- 
rett Wendell,  Gari  Melchers,  Elihu  Root, 
Brand  Whitlock,  Hamlin  Garland,  Paul 
Shorey,  Charles  Piatt,  Maurice  Francis 
Egan,  Archer  Huntington. 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS,  THE  ROYAL, 
a  British  institution  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  painting,  sculpture,  and  design- 
ing; founded  in  1768  by  George  IIL,  with 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  president.  It  is 
composed  of  a  president  (P.  R.  A.),  40 
academicians  (R.  A.),  and  30  associates 
(A.  R.  A.),  which  include  professors  of 
painting,  architecture,  anatomy,  and  per- 
spective. 

ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN,  NATION- 
AL, an  American  institution,  in  New 
York  City,  founded  in  1826,  conducting 
schools  in  various  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  and  holding  semiannual  exhibitions 
at  which  prizes  are  awarded.  The  mem- 
bership consists  of  academicians,  who 
are  the  corporate  body  and  use  the  title 
N.  A.  (National  Academicians),  and 
the  associates,  who  use  the  title 
A.  N.  A. 

ACADEMY  OF  FINE  ARTS,  THE,  a 
French  institution,  originally  founded  in 
1648  at  Paris  under  the  name  of  the 
Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture.  In 
1795  it  was  joined  to  the  Academy  of 
Architecture,  and  has  borne  its  present 
name  since  1819.  See  Institute  op 
France. 

ACADEMY  OF  INSCRIPTIONS  AND 
BELLES  LETTRES,  an  insUtution 
founded  at  Paris  by  Colbert  in  1663,  un- 
der the  name  of  Petite  Academie.  It  was 
composed  originally  of  four  members, 
chosen  by  the  ministry  to  belong  to  the 
Academie  Frangaise.  In  1702  the  Acad- 
emy assumed  its  definitive  form;  40 
academicians  were  named.  In  1803  the 
Academy  was  reconstituted  and  became 
the  third  class  of  the  Institute.  Com- 
parative philology.  Oriental,  Greek,  and 
Roman  antiquities  and  epigraphy  have 
received  the  attention  of  the  Academy. 
See  Institute  of  France. 


ACADEMY  OF  NATURAL  SCL 
ENCES  OF  PHILADELPHIA,  an  insti- 
tution founded  in  1812.  It  has  one  of  the 
best  natural  history  collections  in  the 
world — especially  rich  in  stuffed  birds — 
and  a  valuable  scientific  library.  It  has 
published  "Journals"  since  1817,  and 
"Proceedings"  since  1841. 

ACADEMY  OF  P01.ITICAL  AND 
SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  AMERICAN,  an  in- 
stitution  organized  at  Philadelphia  in 
1889  and  incorporated  in  1891.  It  has 
a  large  number  of  members  and  pub- 
lishes bi-monthly  "Annals." 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  THE  NA- 
TIONAL, an  American  institution,  char- 
tered by  Congress  in  1863,  consisting  of 
150  members,  elected  from  among  the 
most  distinguished  scientific  men  of  the 
United  States;  analogous  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London. 

ACADIA,  a  former  French  colony  in 
North  America,  including  Nova  Scotia 
and  nearly  all  of  New  Brunswick,  settled 
in  1604.  When,  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  it  was  given  to  the  English,  the 
inhabitants,  having  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance,  were  ordered  to  leave 
their  homes.  The  story  of  their  sorrow 
is  touchingly  introduced  into  Longfellow's 
"Evangeline." 

ACANTHACE.ffi,  an  order  of  mono- 
petalous  exogens,  with  two  stamina;  or, 
if  there  are  four,  then  they  are  didyna- 
mous.  The  ovary  is  two-celled,  with 
hard,  often  hooked,  placentae,  and  has 
from  one  or  two  to  many  seeds.  There 
are  often  large,  leafy  bracts.  The  acan' 
thacese  are  mostly  tropical  plants,  many 
of  them  being  Indian.  They  have  both 
a  resemblance  and  an  affinity  to  the  Scro- 
phulariaceas  of  this  country,  but  are 
distinguishable  at  once  by  being  prickly 
and  spinous.  In  1846  Lindley  estimated 
the  known  species  at  750,  but  it  is  be- 
lieved that  as  many  as  1,500  are  now  in 
herbariums.  The  acanthus,  so  well 
known  in  architectural  sculpture,  is  the 
type  of  the  order. 

ACANTHITE,  a  silver  sulphide  classed 
by  Dana  under  his  chalcocite  group. 
Composition  AgS.  It  has  about  86.71  of 
silver  and  12.70  of  sulphur.  It  is  or- 
thorhombic;  the  crystals  are  generally 
prisms  with  slender  points. 

ACANTHUS,  the  name  of  three  an- 
cient cities:  (1)  in  Egypt,  (2)  in  Caria, 
and  (3)  in  Macedonia.  The  latter  city 
is  noted  for  the  construction,  across  the 
neck  of  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Atl.os, 
of  the  great  canal  through  which  sailed 
the  fleet  of  Xerxes  on  its  way  to 
Greece. 


ACANTHirS 


17 


ACCIDENT 


ACANTHUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the 
typical  one  of  the  order  acanthacess,  or 
acanthads.  In  English  it  is  inelegantly 
termed  bear's  beech,  or,  more  euphoni- 
ously, brank  ursine.  In  architecture,  it 
is  the  imitation,  in  the  capitals  of  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders,  of  the 
leaves  of  a  species  of  acanthus,  the  A. 
spinosus,  which  is  found  in  Greece.  The 
acanthus  first  copied  is  supposed  to  have 
been  growing  around  a  flower  pot;  and 
the  merit  of  adopting  the  suggestion 
thus  afforded  for  the  ornamentation  of 
the  capital  of  a  pillar  is  attributed  to 
Callimachus. 

ACAPULCO  (ak-a-pool'ko) ,  a  seaport 
in  Mexico  on  the  Pacific  Ocean;  has  a 
large  and  nearly  land-locked  harbor,  but 
the  climate  is  unwholesome.  It  exports 
hides,  cedar  timber,  and  fruit.  Nearly  the 
whole  city  was  destroyed  by  earthquakes 
in  1799,  in  1837,  and  again  in  1852.  Pop. 
about  7,500. 

ACARNANIA,  or  AKARNANIA,  a 
province  of  ancient  Greece,  forming  the 
westernmost  portion;  named,  according 
to  tradition,  from  Acarnan,  son  of  Alamae- 
on,  who  settled  the  region.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  inhabi- 
tants were  rude  and  piratical,  and  they 
always  remained  behind  the  other  Greeks 
in  civilization.  They  were  good  slingers 
and  faithful  and  courageous  soldiers. 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  a  province  of 
Macedonia.  It  is  now,  with  -lEtolia,  a 
province  of  the  Grecian  kingdom.  Pop. 
about  150,000;   capital  Missolonghi. 

ACCELERATION,  in  natural  philoso- 
phy, the  rate  of  increase  of  velocity  of  a 
moving  body  in  a  unit  of  time.  If  the 
acceleration  is  uniform,  as  in  the  case 
of  a  body  falling  or  ascending  under  the 
action  of  gravity,  the  velocity  is  propor- 
tional to  the  time,  and  the  space  moved 
through  varies  as  the  square  of  the  time. 
The  acceleration  of  gravity  is  the  in- 
creasing rate  of  motion  with  which  a 
falling  body  approaches  the  earth,  and 
is  reckoned  as  a  little  more  than  32  feet 
a  second.  Minus,  or  negative,  accelera- 
tion is  the  corresponding  loss  of  motion. 
In  astronomy,  the  secular  acceleration 
of  the  moon's  mean  motion  is  an  increase 
of  about  11  seconds  per  century  in  the 
rapidity  of  the  moon's  mean  motion.  It 
was  discovered  by  Halley  and  explained 
by  Laplace. 

ACCENT,  that  stress  or  emphasis 
given  by  the  voice  to  a  certain  syllable 
or  syllables  of  a  word,  or  to  certain  notes 
in  a  bar  of  music;  also,  the  peculiar  in- 
tonation of  one  spoken  language  when 
compared  with  another.  The  term  fur- 
ther   denotes    marks    used    in    printing 


or  writing  to  show  the  position  of  the 
stress.  There  is  a  certain  analogy  be- 
tween accent  and  emphasis,  emphasis 
doing  for  whole  words  or  clauses  of  sen- 
tences what  accent  does  for  single  syl- 
lables. Marks  sometimes  called  accents 
are  used  in  mathematics,  e.  g.,  a'  +  6' 
(read  a  prime  plus  b  prime).  Accent  in 
music  is  the  greater  intensity  given  to 
certain  notes,  as  distinguished  from  their 
length  in  time  and  their  quality  or  timbre. 
In  geometry  and  trigonometry  a  circle  at 
the  right  of  a  figure  indicates  degrees,  one 
mark,  minutes,  two  marks,  seconds  of  a 
degree,  as  13°  4'  5".  In  mensuration 
and  engineering,  the  mark  denotes  feet, 
inches,  and  lines,  as  4'  6"  10"'. 

ACCEPTANCE,  a  bill  of  exchange 
drawn  on  one  who  agrees  absolutely  or 
conditionally  to  pay  it,  according  to  the 
tenor  of  the  document  itself.  To  render 
it  so  valid  that,  if  the  drawee  fail  to 
liquidate  it,  the  drawer  may  be  charged 
with  costs,  the  promise  of  the  drawer 
must  be  in  writing  under  or  upon  the 
back  of  the  bill. 

ACCESSORY,  in  law,  one  who  is  not 
the  chief  actor  in  an  offense  nor  present 
at  its  commission,  but  still  is  connected 
with  it  in  some  other  way.  Accessories 
may  become  so  before  the  fact  or  after 
the  fact.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  defines  an 
accessory  before  the  fact  as  one  who, 
being  absent  at  the  time  of  the  crime 
committed,  does  yet  procure,  counsel,  or 
command  another  to  commit  a  crime.  If 
the  procurer  be  present  when  the  evil 
deed  is  being  done,  he  is  not  an  accessory, 
but  a  principal.  An  accessory  after  the 
fact  is  one  who,  knowing  a  felony  to 
have  been  committed,  receives,  relieves, 
comforts,  and  assists  the  felon. 

ACCIDENT,  an  unforeseen  occurrence, 
particularly  if  it  be  of  a  calamitous 
character. 

In  logic:  (a)  Whatever  does  not  really 
constitute  an  essential  part  of  a  person 
or  thing;  as  the  clothes  one  wears,  the 
saddle  on  a  horse,  etc.  (b)  The  qualities 
or  attributes  of  a  person  or  thing,  as  op- 
posed to  the  substance.  Thus  bitterness, 
hardness,  etc.,  are  attributes,  and  not  part 
of  the  substance  in  which  they  inhere, 
(c)  That  which  may  be  absent  from 
anything,  leaving  its  essence  still  un- 
impaired. 

Accidents,  in  logic,  are  of  two  kinds, 
separable  and  inseparable.  If  walking  be 
the  accident  of  a  particular  man,  it  is  a 
separable  one,  for  he  would  not  cease  to 
be  that  man  though  he  stood  still; 
while  on  the  contrary,  if  Spaniard  is 
the  accident  connected  with  him,  it  is  an 
inseparable  one,  since  he  never  c&tk  cease 


ACCIDENT  INSTTRANCE 


18 


ACETIC  ACID 


to  be,  ethnologically  considered,  what  he 
was  born. 

In  grammar,  a  property  attached  to  a 
word  which  nevertheless  does  not  enter 
into  its  essential  definition. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE,  a  form  of 
insurance  which  pays  persons  a  stated 
sum  in  compensation  for  bodily  Injury. 
Usually  it  is  provided  that  insurance  is 
made  only  against  injuries  caused  by 
v^iolent  accidental  or  external  means.  It 
does  not  cover  self-inflicted  injury.  There 
were  in  1920  about  fifty  companies  en- 
gaged in  this  form  of  insurance,  although 
not  all  of  these  were  limited  to  accident 
insurance.  Losses  paid  for  this  form  of 
insurance  aggregate  about  $10,000,000 
yearly. 

ACCOLADE,  in  heraldry,  the  ceremony 
by  which  in  mediaeval  times  one  was 
dubbed  a  knight.  On  the  question  what 
this  was,  antiquaries  are  not  agreed.  It 
has  been  made  an  embrace  round  the 
neck,  a  kiss,  or  a  slight  blow  upon  the 
cheek  or  shoulder. 

ACCORDION,  a  well-known  keyed 
instrument  with  metallic  reeds.  ^  The 
sounds  are  produced  by  the  vibration  of 
the  several  metallic  tongues,  which  are 
of  different  sizes,  air  being  meanwhile 
supplied  by  the  movement  of  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  instrument,  so  as  to  consti- 
tute a  bellows.  The  accordion  was  in- 
troduced into  America  from  Germany 
about  1828. 

ACCOUNT,  in  banking,  commerce,  law, 
and  ordinary  language,  a  registry  of 
pecuniary  transactions;  such  a  record  as 
is  kept  by  merchants,  by  housewives,  and 
by  all  prudent  people,  with  the  view  of, 
day  by  day,  ascertaining  their  financial 
position.  A  bill  or  paper  sent  in  by 
tradespeople  to  those  who  do  not  pay  for 
goods  on  delivery. 

An  open  account,  or  an  account  cur- 
rent, is,  commercially,  one  in  which  the 
balance  has  not  been  struck;  in  banking, 
it  is  one  which  may  be  added  to  or  drawn 
upon  at  any  time,  as  opposed  to  a  deposit 
account,  where  notice  is  required  for 
withdrawals. 

ACCOUNTING,  a  profession  which 
has  grown  out  of  the  increased  com- 
plexity of  keeping  and  adjusting  business 
transactions.  It  is  concerned  chiefly  with 
the  problem  of  classification  of  uncertain 
items  in  the  course  of  business  and  with 
the  problems  of  valuation.  The  skilled 
accountant  must  have  a  wide  knowledge 
of  business  in  general  and  a  special 
knowledge  of  the  field  in  which  he  is 
engaged.  In  recent  years  the  principles 
of  accounting  have  been  increasingly  ap- 


plied to  the  control  of  production.  This 
is  known  as  cost  accounting.  The  depart- 
ment of  accounting  has  become  an  im- 
portant one  in  recent  years  in  nearly 
all  schools  and  colleges  which  have  a 
business  department.  There  are  also 
many  schools  which  give  instruction  only 
in  accounting.  Chartered  accountants 
are  able  to  command  a  high  rate  of  pay 
for  their  services. 

ACCUMULATOR.  See  Storage  Bat- 
tery. 

ACER,  a  genus  of  arborescent  or 
shrubby  plants,  order  acerinese,  many  of 
which  are  extremely  valuable  for  the  sake 
either  of  their  timber,  or  of  their  orna- 
mental appearance.  The  acer  rubrum,  or 
red  maple,  is  a  tree  50  feet  in  height, 
very  common  in  low  woods  throughout 
the  Atlantic  States.  The  wood,  partic- 
ularly that  of  the  variety  called  curled 
maple,  is  much  used  in  cabinet  work.  The 
acer  saccfutrinum,  or  sugar  tree,  is  a  tree 
70  feet  in  height,  3  feet  in  diameter,  found 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  con- 
stituting the  greater  part  of  some  of  the 
forests  of  New  England.  The  wood  is 
hard  and  has  a  satin  luster,  but_  it  is 
readily  attacked  by  insects,  and  is  not 
of  much  value,  except  when  its  grain  is 
accidentally  waved,  and  then  it  is  in  re- 
quest for  the  cabinet-makers.  The  sac- 
charine matter  contained  in  its  ascending 
sap,  obtained  by  tapping  the  trunk  in  the 
spring,  is  perhaps  the  most  delicious  of 
all  sweets;  an  ordinary  tree  yields  from 
5  to  10  pounds  in  a  season. 

ACETANILID,  more  commonly  known 
as  anti-febrin.  Formula  CaH»  NHCOCH,. 
Its  melting  point  is  237°  F.  It  boils  at 
563°  F.  It  dissolves  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  hot  water,  less  readily  in  cold  water. 
Its  principal  use  in  medicine  is  as  a 
sedative  and  febrifuge,  but  it  should  be 
used  with  great  caution  unless  pre- 
scribed by  a  physician. 

ACETIC  ACID,  the  acid  which  imparts 
sourness  to  vinegar,  vinegar  being  simply 
acetic  acid  diluted,  tinged  with  color  and 
slightly  mingled  with  other  impurities. 
The  formula  of  acetic  acid  is 

CHaOCOH).  ot^f^Q  \  ,  or  ^^g^^  f  O 

=:methyl-formic  acid.  It  is  formed  by  the 
acetous  fermentation  of  alcohol.  Acetic 
acid  is  a  monatomic  monobasic  acid.  Its 
salts  are  called  acetates.  A  molecule  of 
acetic  acid  can  also  unite  with  normal 
acetates  like  water  of  crystallization.  Its 
principal  salts  are  those  of  potassium, 
sodium,  and  ammonium,  a  solution  of 
which  is  called  spiritus  mindereri.  The 
acetates  of  barium  and  calcium  are  very 


ACETIC  ETHERS 


19 


ACHAIA 


soluble.  Aluminum  acetate  is  used  in 
dyeing.  Lead  acetate  is  called  sugar  of 
lead,  from  its  sweet  taste.  It  dissolves 
in  1%  parts  of  cold  water;  it  also  dis- 
solves oxide  of  lead,  foiming  a  basic 
acetate  of  lead.  Basic  cupric  acetate  is 
called  verdigris.  Acetic  acid  below  15.5° 
forms  colorless  transparent  crystals  (gla- 
cial acetic  acid),  which  melt  into  a  thin, 
colorless,  pungent,  strongly  acid  liquid, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  water.  It 
boils  at  118°.  Its  vapor  is  inflammable. 
Pyroligneous  acid  is  impure  acetic  acid, 
formed  by  the  destructive  distillation,  at 
red  heat,  of  dry  hard  wood,  as  oak  and 
beech. 

ACETIC    ETHERS    [example,    ethyl 

acetate, 

C2H3O     I     f\-t 

CM.  S  "J 
are  formed  by  replacing  the  typical  H 
in  acetic  acid  by  a  radical  of  an  alcohol, 
as  ethyl,  etc.  Ethyl  acetate  is  a  fra- 
grant liquid,  sp.  gr.  0.890,  boils  at  74°; 
methyl  acetate  boils  at  56°. 

ACETONES,    or   KETONES,    are   the 

aldehydes  of  secondary  alcohols  (see 
Alcohol)  .  Thus  secondary  propyl  alco- 
hol, when  oxidized,  loses  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen,  and  gives  dimethyl  ketone, 
ordinarily  known  as  acetone. 

Secondary  Propyl  Alcohol. 

CH.— CHOH— CH3— H, 


=CH. 


Acetone. 

-CO— CH,. 


A  series  of  such  acetones  is  known,  of 
which  acetone  is  typical.  It  may  be  pre- 
pared by  distilling  acetate  of  calcium.  It 
is  a  limpid  liquid,  having  a  taste  like 
that  of  peppermint,  and  is  readily  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  water.  Its  sp.  gr. 
is  about  .79,  its  boiling  point  being  130' 
F.  (56°  C).  It  has  recently  been  used 
in  America  for  the  manufacture  of  chlo- 
roform, which  is  obtained  from  it  by 
distillation  with  bleaching-powder.  It  is 
a  solvent  for  gums  and  resins,  as  well 
as  for  gun-cotton. 

ACETYLENE,  a  hydrocarbon  having 
the  formula  C2H;,  also  called  ethine.  The 
carbon  atoms  are  united  to  each  other 
by  three  bonds.  It  is  produced  by  pass- 
ing an  electric  current  between  carbon 
poles  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  and 
also  by  the  incomplete  combustion  of 
hydrocarbons.  It  is  a  colorless  gas,  spe- 
cific gravity,  0.92,  has  a  peculiar  odor, 
and  burns  with  a  bright  flame;  it  forms 
a  red  precipitate  with  ammoniacal  cu- 
prous chloride,  which,  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen^  is  converted  into  ethy- 
lene, CMu 

ACETYLENE  GAS,  an  illuminating 
gas  formed  by  the  action  of  water  on 
Calcium  Carbide  (q.  v.).  This  gas  has 

3 — Vol.  I — Cyo 


come  into  general  favor  with  cyclists  for 
its  brilliancy,  safety,  and  the  persistence 
of  its  flame  in  all  circumstances.  Recent 
experiments  made  to  produce  cheaper 
calcium  carbide,  by  a  new  process,  re- 
sulted in  demonstrating  that  it  can  be 
produced  at  a  cost  of  from  half  a  cent  to 
three  cents  a  pound,  or  one-fifth  its  orig- 
inal cost.  This  will  bring  acetylene 
gas  within  the  reach  of  every  one,  and 
it  will  probably  eventually  supersede 
many  other  forms  of  lighting.  One 
kilogram  of  calcium  carbide  produces 
about  300  litres  of  acetylene  gas.  Acety- 
lene takes  fire  at  480°  Cent.;  at  700°  it 
decomposes  into  carbonic  acid  and  hy- 
drogen. 

ACETYLENE  LAMP,  a  lamp  designed 
for  utilizing  acetylene  as  an  illuminant. 
Acetylene  lamps  have  come  into  general 
use  among  cyclists.  In  some  of  the  lamps, 
cartridges  filled  with  calcium  carbide  are 
used,  and  the  dropping  of  the  water  into 
the  cartridge  is  regulated  by  an  adjust- 
able valve.  The  acetylene  flame  is  very 
brilliant. 

ACIlLffiA,  a  Greek  province.  See 
Achaia. 

ACH.ffiANS,  a  generic  term  employed 
by  Homer  to  designate  the  whole  Hellenic 
host  before  Troy,  from  their  mythological 
ancestor,  Achseus,  grandson  of  Helen. 

ACH.ffiI  (ak-a-e,  or  ak-i'e),  the  de- 
scendants of  Achaeus,  the  son  of  Zuthus, 
and  grandson  of  Helen.  Ach^us,  having 
committed  manslaughter,  was  compelled 
to  take  refuge  in  Laconia,  where  he  died, 
and  where  his  posterity  remained  under 
the  name  of  Achaei,  until  they  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  Heraclidae.  Upon  this,  they 
passed  into  the  northern  parts  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and,  under  the  command  of 
Tisamenus,  the  son  of  Orestes,  took  pos- 
session of  the  country  of  the  lonians,  and 
called  it  Achaia.  The  successoi'S  of  Tisa- 
menus ruled  until  the  time  of  Gyges' 
tyranny,  when  Achaia  was  parceled  into 
12  small  republics.  Three  of  these — 
Patrae,  Dymae,  and  Pharae — became  fa- 
mous as  a  confederacy,  284  B.  C,  under 
the  name  of  the  Achaean  League.  At  last, 
however,  they  were  attacked  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and,  after  one  year's  hostilities,  the 
Achaean  League  was  totally  destroyed, 
B.  c.  147. 

ACHAIA,  a  small  Greek  district  lying 
along  the  N.  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus. 
Achaia  forms,  along  with  Elis,  a  depart- 
ment in  the  modern  kingdom,  and  its 
chief  town  is  Patras.  As  the  Achaians 
(Achaeans)  were  the  ruling  people  of  the 
Peloponnesus  in  heroic  times.  Homer 
speaks  of  the  Greeks  generally  as  Ach- 


ACHARD 


20 


ACIDS 


aioi.  Their  12  little  towns  formed  a  con- 
federacy, renewed  in  281  B.  C,  and  sub- 
sequently extended,  under  the  name  of 
the  Achsean  League,  throughout  Greece, 
until  146  B.  C,  when  Greece  fell  under 
the  power  of  Rome.     Pop.  225,000. 

ACHARD,  LOUIS  AMEDEE  (a-shar'), 
a  French  novelist  and  publicist,  born  in 
1814.  Originally  a  merchant,  he  became 
a  contributor  to  several  papers  in  Paris 
in  1838.  After  the  revolution  of  1848 
he  was  for  a  time  active  as  a  political 
writer  in  support  of  the  royalist  cause. 
He  depicts  pre-eminently  conflicts  in 
family  life  and  society.     He  died  in  1875. 

ACHATES,  a  friend  of  ^neas,  whose 
fidelity  was  so  exemplary  that  fidus  Acha- 
tes (the  faithful  Achates)  became  a 
proverb. 

ACHERON,  the  river  of  sorrow,  which 
flowed  round  the  infernal  realms  of 
Hades,  according  to  the  mythology  of  the 
ancients. 

ACHESON,     EDWARD     GOODRICH, 

an  American  inventor,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, Pa.,  in  1856.  He  received  an  academ- 
ic education  and  for  a  short  time  acted 
as  assistant  of  Thomas  A.  Edison.  He 
invented  carborundum,  silicon,  and  sev- 
eral methods  of  making  graphite.  He 
has  received  medals  from  many  American 
and  foreign  scientific  societies,  and  has 
been  president  of  the  American  Chemical 
Society  and  an  officer  and  member  of 
many  other  chemical  societies. 

ACHILLES  (ak-il'ez),  son  of  Peleus, 
king  of  the  Myrmidons,  in  Thessaly,  and 
of  Thetis,  daughter  of  Nereus.  He  joined 
the_  Grecian  army,  in  which  he  was  pre- 
eminent in  valor,  strength,  swiftness,  and 
beauty.  Before  Troy  a  quarrel  broke  out 
between  him  and  the  general-in-chief, 
Agamemnon,    which    led    him    to    with- 

'  draw  entirely  from  the  contest.  In  con- 
sequence, the  Trojans  reduced  the  Greeks 
to  extreme  distress.  The  Greek  council 
of  war  now  sent  its  most  influential 
members  to  soothe  the  anger  of  Achilles, 
and  to  induce  him  to  return  to  arms,  but 

/  without  eifect.  Rage  and  grief,  caused 
by  the  death  of  his  friend  Patroclus, 
slain  by  Hector,  induced  Achilles  to  re- 
turn to  battle.  At  the  close  of  a  day  of 
slaughter  he  killed  Hector,  and  dragged 
him  at  his  chariot  wheels  to  the  camp. 
Here  ends  the  history  of  Achilles,  so  far 
as  it  is  derived  from  Homer.  By  later 
authors,  a  variety  of  fable  is  mixed  up 
with  this  simple  narrative.  Thetis  is  said 
to  have  dipped  him,  while  an  infant,  in 
the  Styx,  which  rendered  him  invulner- 
able except  in  the  heel  by  which  she  held 
him,  and  he  was  killed  at  last  by  a  wound 
in  the  heel. 


ACHILLES  TENDON,  a  tendon,  so 
called  because,  as  fable  reports,  Thetis, 
the  mother  of  Achilles,  held  him  by  that 
part  when  she  dipped  him  in  the  river 
Styx  to  make  him  invulnerable.  It  is  the 
strong  and  powerful  tendon  of  the  heel, 
which  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  divers 
muscles,  and  which  extends  from  the 
calf  to  the  heel.  When  this  tendon  is 
cut  or  ruptured,  the  use  of  the  leg  is 
immediately  lost;  and,  unless  the  parts" 
be  afterward  successfully  united,  the 
patient  will  remain  a  cripple  for  life. 

ACHMET  TEWFIK  PASHA,  a  Turk- 
ish statesman,  born  in  1818  at  Constan- 
tinople. His  father  was  a  Greek  convert; 
his  mother  was  a  Jewess.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris.  He  was  appointed  com- 
mander^ for  the  Porte,  and  displayed 
great  diplomatic  talent,  and  was  sent,  in 
1851,  as  Ambassador  to  Persia.  On  his 
return  he  became  a  member  of  the  state 
council  and  of  the  military  coumcil.  He 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
Turkish  reform  party.  In  1860  and  1861 
he  was  Ambassador  to  Paris.  He  trans- 
lated Moliere  into  Turkish,  and  wrote  a 
geographical  text-book  for  schools.  In 
1877  the  Sultan  appointed  him  President 
of  the  first  Turkish  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
In  1878  he  was  Premier  and  signed  the 
Peace  of  Santo  Stefano.  He  died  in 
June,  1891. 

ACHROMATIC.  See  TELESCOPE. 

ACI  (a'che),  or  ACI  REALE,  a  sea- 
port town  in  Sicily,  province  of  Cata- 
nia, well  built  with  lava,  having  a  castle 
and  many  fine  edifices.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  silks,  linens,  cutlery,  and 
filigree  work.     Pop.  about  37,000. 

ACIDS,  in  chemistry,  a  salt  of  hy- 
drogen in  which  the  hydrogen  can  be 
replaced  by  a  metal,  or  can,  with  a  basic 
metallic  oxide,  form  a  salt  of  that  metal 
and  water.  Acid  oxides  of  the  same  ele- 
ment are  distinguished  by  the  termination 
of  -OKs  and  -ic — as  sulphurous  and  sul- 
phuric— the  latter  containing  the  most 
oxygen;  they  are  also  called  anhydrides. 
They  unite  with  water  and  form  acids 
having  the  same  terminations.  By  re- 
placement of  the  hydrogen  by  a  metal 
they  form  salts  distinguished  by  the  ter- 
minations -ite  and  -ate  respectively.  These 
acids  are  called  oxygen  acids.  Many 
acids  are  formed  by  direct  union  of  hy- 
drogen with  an  element,  as  hydrochloric 
acid  (HCl),  hydrosulphuric  acid  (H2S), 
or  with  an  organic  radical,  as  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  H(CN).  Acids  which  are 
soluble  in  water  redden  blue  litmus,  and 
have  a  sour  taste.  Organic  acids  can  be 
produced  by  the  oxidation  of  an  alcohol 
or  aldehyde.     They  contain  the   monad 


ACLAND 


21 


ACRE 


radical  (HO'OC),  once  if  they  are  mono- 
basic, twice  if  dibasic,  etc.  They  are 
also  classed  as  monatomic,  diatomic,  etc., 
according  as  they  are  derived  from  a 
monatomic  or  diatomic  alcohol,  etc.  Many 
organic  acids  occur  in  the  juices  of  vege- 
tables, some  in  animals,  as  formic  acid 
in  ants. 

ACLAND,  SIR  HENRY  WENT- 
WORTH  DYKE,  an  English  sanitarian, 
born  in  1815.  He  was  an  expert  on  chol- 
era and  the  various  forms  of  plague. 
From  1857  to  1894  he  was  Professor  of 
Medicine  at  Oxford,  besides  serving  on 
various  sanitary  bodies.  He  was  author 
of  "Memoirs  of  the  Cholera,"  etc.  He 
died  Oct.  16,  1900. 

ACNE,  a  genus  of  skin  diseases  con- 
taining those  characterized  by  pustules, 
which,  after  suppurating  imperfectly,  be- 
come small,  hard,  red,  circumscribed 
tubercles  on  the  skin,  resolving  them- 
selves but  slowly.  Among  the  leading 
species  of  the  genus  are  (1)  the  A.  sim- 
plex, consisting  of  small  var-i,  which 
break  out  on  the  face,  the  shoulders,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  back;  (2)  A.  fol- 
iicularis,  or  maggot-pimple;  (3)  the  A. 
indurata,  or  stone-pock;  and  (4)  the  A. 
resacess,  or  carbuncle  face. 

ACOLYTE,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  one  of  the  inferior  orders  of  the 
clergy,  whose  office  it  is  to  attend  upon 
the  deacons  and  subdeacons  in  the  min- 
istry of  the  altar,  to  light  and  hold  the 
candles,  to  bear  the  incense,  to  present 
the  priest  with  wine  and  water,  etc.  In 
the  primitive  Church,  the  acolytes  were 
in  holy  orders,  and  ranked  next  to  the 
subdeacons;  but,  at  the  present  time, 
the  duties  of  the  acolyte  are  very  often 
performed  by  laymen  and  chorister  boys. 

ACONCAGUA,  a  province  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Chile,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the 
province  of  Quillota,  E.  by  the  Andes, 
and  S.  by  Santiago.  Area,  5,406  square 
miles.  The  mountain  Aconcagua  is  the 
loftiest  of  the  Andes,  being  23,910  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Productions 
are  maize,  wheat,  beans,  pumpkins,  mel- 
ons, and  other  garden  produce;  vine- 
yards and  orchards  are  plentiful,  and 
in  summer  numerous  flocks  are  pastured 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes.  Gold  is 
found  and  copper  is  worked  in  mines. 
Pop.  about  130,000.  Chief  town  San 
Felipe.  On  the  S.  side  of  the  mountain 
Aconcagua  rises  a  river  of  the  same  name. 

ACONITE,  a  plant  of  the  genus  aco- 
nitnm,  the  aconitum  tmpellus,  familiarly 
known  as  the  monk's-hood,  or  wolf's- 
bane.  Its  active  principle,  the  aconitine, 
is  a  virulent  poison.     It  is  a  native  of 


Europe,  and  is  cultivated  as  a  garden 
plant  for  the  sake  of  its  handsome  purple 
flowers. 

ACONITINE,  or  ACONITIA,  a  power- 
ful  vegetable  alkaloid,  prepared  from  the 
root  of  the  aconitum  napellus  (aconite). 
It  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  of  poisons, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  a  very  valuable 
medicine.  An  ointment  containing  aconi- 
tine is  often  used  in  cases  of  neuralgia, 
acute  rheumatism,  and  diseases  of  the 
heart.  Its  narcotic  action  is  so  active 
that  a  fiftieth  of  a  grain  may  endanger 
the  life  of  an  adult.  The  most  elf ectual 
antidote  in  case  of  poisoning  is  warm 
water,  administered  till  it  produces  vom- 
iting, after  which  stimulant  remedies 
should  be  applied  internally  and  exter- 
nally. 

ACORN,  the  well  known  fruit  of  the 
oak.  In  the  early  ages,  acorns  constituted 
a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  man. 
(Ovid's  "Metamorphosis,"  i,  106;  Vergil's 
"Georgics,"  i,  8.)  At  present  they  are 
used  for  the  feeding  of  pigs,  etc. 

ACORN  SHELL,  the  popular  name  for 
the  balanus  and  other  cirripeds,  which  in- 
habit a  tubular  shell  whose  base  is  usually 
formed  of  calcareous  laminae.  Its  shell 
is  composed  of  many  pieces,  and  thus 
capable  of  enlargement  to  the  wants  of 
the  inclosed  animal.  These  curious,  but 
common,  shells  are  found  in  all  seas. 
They  are  affixed  to  marine  bodies,  and 
their  peduncle  is  sometimes  found  a  foot 
long. 

ACORUS,  a  genus  of  plants,  order 
orontiacese.  The  acorns  calamus,  or  sweet 
flag,  a  member  of  this  genus,  is  the  only 
native  aromatic  plant  of  northern  cli- 
mates. It  blossoms  during  the  months 
of  May  and  June. 

ACOUSTICS.  See  Sound. 

ACQU/  (ak'we),  a  district  of  north 
Italy,  province  of  Alessandria,  on  the 
N.  side  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines.  Area, 
445  square  miles.  Productions,  corn  and 
fruit.  Silk  worms  are  reared  as  a  branch 
of  industry. 

Acqui,  its  capital  on  the  Bormida,  18 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Alessandria.  It  has 
commodious  sulphur  baths.  Pop.  about 
18,000. 

ACRE,  (1)  Originally,  any  field,  what- 
ever its  superficial  area. 

(2)  From  about  the  time  of  Edward  I. 
the  word  became  more  definite,  and  its 
limits  were  prescribed  by  the  Statutes 
31  and  35  Edward  I.,  and  24  Henry  VIII. 
By  the  Act  5  George  IV.,  the  varying 
measures  of  the  acre  current  in  the  king- 
dom were  reduced  to  one  uniform 
standard.      The    imperial    acre    contains 


ACBE 


22 


ACROSTIC 


4,840  square  yards,  the  Scottish  one, 
6,104.12789  square  yards,  and  the  Irish 
one,  7,840  square  yards.  The  imperial 
acre  is  current  in  the  United  States.  The 
old  Roman  jugeruvi,  generally  translated 
acre,  was  about  five-eighths  of  the  im- 
perial acre. 

ACRE  (a'kr),  or  ST.  JEAN  D'ACRE, 
a  seaport  of  Syria,  formerly  called 
Ptolemais;  on  a  promontory  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Carmel.  It  was  taken  by  the 
first  crusaders  in  1104,  retaken  by  the 
Saracens  in  1187,  recovered  by  the  Chris- 
tians under  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  in 
1191,  and  given  to  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem.  In  1291  it  again  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens.  Bona- 
parte attempted  to  storm  this  place  in 
1799,  but  retreated  after  a  siege  of  61 
days.  It  was  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
in  1832,  and  again  by  the  combined 
English  and  Austrian  squadrons,  in  1840. 

ACROCORINTHXTS,  a  ste^p  and  lofty 
mountain,  shaped  as  a  truncated  cone, 
overhanging  the  city  of  Corinth,  1,885 
feet  in  height,  on  which  was  built  a 
citadel. 

ACROPOLIS,  the  high  part  of  any 
ancient  Greek  city,  usually  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  city,  and  frequently  its 
citadel.  Notable  among  such  citadels  were 
the  Acropolis  of  Argos,  that  of  Messene, 
of  Thebes,  and  of  Corinth,  but  pre-emi- 


upon  a  separate  spur  or  butte  of  Hy- 
mettus.  The  hill  rises  out  of  the  plain, 
a  mass  of  rock  about  260  feet  high.  The 
summit  of  this  rock  forms  an  uneven 
plain  500  by  1,150  feet  at  the  maximum 
breadth  and  length.  Within  this  area 
were  reared,  chiefly  in  the  days  of  Peri- 
cles, remarkable  specimens  of  architec- 
tural art.  The  buildings  were  grouped 
around  two  principal  temples,  the  Parthe- 
non and  the.  Erechtheum.  Between  these 
temples  stood  the  statue  of  Athena 
Promachos  (fighter  in  front),  by  Phidias, 
the  helmet  and  spear  of  which  were  the 
first  objects  visible  from  the  sea.  About 
these  center  pieces  were  lesser  temples, 
statues,  theaters,  fanes,  and  odea  (mu- 
sic halls).  Among  the  famous  buildings 
on  the  sides  of  the  Acropolis  were  the 
Dionydac  theater  and  the  Odeum  of 
Pericles,  and  the  Odeum,  built  by  Herodes 
Atticus  in  honor  of  his  wife,  Regilla. 
The  ravages  of  accident  and  war  and 
Athenian  marble-merchants  have  largely 
destroyed  and  despoiled  these  classic 
works.     See  Athens. 

ACROSTIC,  a  poetical  composition, 
disposed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  ini- 
tial letters  of  each  line,  taken  in  order, 
form  a  person's  name  or  other  complete 
word  or  words.  This  kind  of  poetical 
triflings  was  very  popular  with  the 
French  poets  from  the  time  of  Francis 
I.  until  Louis  XIV. 


THE  ACROPOLIS  AT   ATHENS,   AS  IT   WAS   IN    THE   TIME   OF   PERICLES 


nently  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  to  which 
the  name  is  now  chiefly  applied.  The 
Acropolis  of  Athens  was  the  original  city 
of  Athens,  later  the  upper  city,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  lower,  and  was  built 


In  the  Old  Testament  there  are  12 
psalms  written  according  to  this  principle. 
Of  these,  the  119th  Psalm  is  the  most  re- 
markable; it  consists  of  22  stanzas,  each 
of  which  commences  with  a  Hebrew  letter. 


ACT 

and  is  called  by  its  name.  Acrostic 
verse  is  no  longer  cultivated  by  the  poets. 
Edgar  Allan  Poe  wrote  some  striking 
acrostics,  varying  the  form  with  great 
ingenuity. 

ACT,  in  dramatic  language,  a  portion 
of  a  play  performed  continuously,  after 
which  the  repi'esentation  is  suspended  for 
a  little.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Horace 
there  were  five  acts  in  a  drama,  but  this 
number  is  frequently  modified  on  the 
modern  stage. 

In  parliamentary  language,  an  act  of 
congress,  legislature,  etc. 

In  law:  (1)  Anything  officially  done  by 
the  court,  as  the  phrases  "Acts  of  Court," 
"Acts  of  Sederunt,"  etc.  (2)  An  instru- 
ment in  writing  for  declaring  or  proving 
the  truth  of  anything. 

ACT  or  SETTLEMENT,  an  act  of  the 
Parliament  of  England  in  1701,  vesting 
the  hereditary  right  to  the  English 
throne  in  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover, 
and  her  Protestant  descendants,  consti- 
tuting the  source  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  house  of  Hanover  or  Brunswick,  the 
present  ruling  line.  The  act  prohibited 
the  king  (or  queen)  from  going  to  war 
in  defense  of  non-English  powers  without 
the  assent  of  Parliament. 

ACTA  SANCTORUM,  or  MARTY- 
RUM,  the  collective  title  given  to  several 
old  writings,  respecting  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches,  but  now  applied  especially  to 
one  extensive  collection  begun  by  the 
Jesuits  in  the  17th  century.  Commenced 
by  the  Jesuit  Roeweyd,  continued  by 
J.  Holland,  the  work  was  carried  on 
after  the  latter's  death  by  a  society  of 
learned  Jesuits,  who  were  styled  Bolland- 
ists  until  1794.  In  recent  times,  the  un- 
dertaking has  been  resumed,  until  over 
60  volumes  have  been  published. 

ACT.a3A,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  ranunculacex,  or  crow- 
foots. One  species,  the  A.  spicata  =  the 
bane-berry,  or  herb-christopher,  is  in- 
digenous to  many  lands.  It  bears  black 
berries,  which  are  poisonous.  With  alum, 
they  yield  a  black  dye.  The  roots  are 
antispasmodic,  expectorant,  and  astrin- 
gent. A.  racemosa,  the  snakeroot,  receives 
its  English  name  from  being  used  in  the 
United  States  as  an  antidote  against  the 
bite  of  the  rattlesnake. 

ACTINIA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  pol- 
yps with  many  arms  radiating  from 
around  their  mouth,  in  a  manner  some- 
what resembling  the  rays  of  the  sun  sur- 
rounding his  disc,  or  a  double  flower. 
Prom  this  arrangement  of  the  tentacles, 
coupled  with  the  bright  colors  of  these 


23 


ACTION 


animals,  they  are  called  also  animal 
flowers.  Though  simple  and  not  aggre- 
gated, they  still  have  a  somewhat  close 
afllnity  to  the  coral-building  polyps. 

ACTINOGRAPH,  an  instrument  for 
recordmg  the  variations  of  chemical  in- 
fluence of  the  solar  rays  and  of  other 
radiations. 

ACTINOLITE  (Greek  aktis,  genit. 
aktinos—a  ray,  and  lithos=a.  stone.  The 
translation  of  the  German  stmhlstein=: 
radiated  stone),  a  variety  of  amphibole. 
It  is  the  actmote  of  Haiiy.  Its  affinity 
and  composition  are  indicated  by  Dara's 
compound  name  for  it — magnesia-lime- 
iron  amphibole.  It  is  bright  green,  or 
grayish-green,  the  green  color  being  im- 
parted by  the  iron  it  contains. 

ACTINOMETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  chemical  effects  of  radia- 
tion from  any  source,  especially  the  sun. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS,  the  name  now 
given  to  a  disease  long  known  to  occur 
in  cattle,  but  confounded  with  tubercle 
or  sarcoma.  In  1877,  Bollinger,  of  Mu- 
nich, showed  that  little  yellow  grains 
are  always  present,  consisting  of  a  minute 
fungus,  with  its  mycelium  arranged  in 
a  radiate  manner.  To  this  fungus  he 
gave  the  name  actinomyces;  and  further 
observation  has  confirmed  his  view  that 
it  is  the  cause  of  the  disease.  Actinomy- 
cosis is  most  common  in  cattle;  occurs 
also  in  pigs,  and  (rarely)  in  man. 

ACTINOTHERAPY,  the  method  of 
treating  diseases  by  chemical  or  actinic 
rays.    See  Phototherapy. 

ACTINOZOA,  a  class  of  animals  in- 
cluded in  the  radiata  of  the  system  of 
Cuvier,  but  combined  with  hydrozoa  to 
form  the  class  coelenterata  in  the  systems 
of  Frey,  Leuckart,  and  Huxley.  It  con- 
tains the  sea-anemones  and  coral  polyps. 

ACTION,  in  law,  a  judicial  proceeding 
before  a  court  of  justice  to  secure  redress 
for  the  infringement  of  a  right.  In  courts 
of  equity  a  corresponding  proceeding  is 
termed  a  suit.  Actions  are  classified  as 
civil  and  criminal.  Civil  actions  are  in- 
stituted to  enforce  a  private  right  or  to 
obtain  redress  for  a  private  wrong.  Civil 
actions  ai'e  personal,  when  claiming  re- 
covery of  personal  property  oif  damages 
in  lieu  thereof;  real,  when  concerning  the 
recovery  of  land,  rents,  etc.;  or  mixed, 
when  partaking  of  the  character  of  both. 
Criminal  actions  are  brought  by  the  state 
against  some  person  accused  of  having 
committed  a  crime.  Statutory  actions 
are  based  on  statutes,  while  common- law 
actions  are  enforced  without  the  aid  of 
a  statute. 


ACTIUM 


24 


ADAM  and  EVE 


ACTIUM,  a  town  and  promontory  of 
Epirus,  famous  for  the  naval  victory 
which  Augustus  obtained  over  Antony 
and  Cleopatra,  the  2d  of  September,  B.  C. 
31,  in  honor  of  which  the  conqueror  built 
there  the  town  of  Nicopolis,  and  restored 
the  Actian  games  instituted  in  honor  of 
Apollo. 

ACTON,  JOHN  EMERICH  EDWARD 
DALBERG,  1st  BARON,  an  English 
historian,  born  in  1834  in  Naples.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Munich 
and  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
French,  German,  and  Italian  literature 
and  history.  After  extensive  travels  in 
America,  France,  and  other  European 
countries,  he  returned  to  England  and 
served  in  Parliament  for  six  years.  Acton 
was  a  Roman  Catholic  and  was  one  of  the 
most  prominent  laymen  of  that  church. 
He  succeeded  Cardinal  Newman  as  editor 
of  the  "Rambler,"  and  in  this  capacity 
wrote  hundreds  of  book  reviews  and  other 
articles.  He  also  edited  other  publi- 
cations. His  chief  work,  however,  was 
the  study  and  writing  of  history.  In 
1895  he  became  regius  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Cambridge  University 
and  served  in  that  chair  until  his  death. 
During  this  period  he  planned  and  carried 
out  the  "Cambridge  Modern  History," 
securing  the  assistance  of  prominent 
historians  in  Europe  and  America.  His 
published  writings  include  "The  History 
of  Freedom  and  Other  Essays"  (1907) ; 
"Historical  Essays  and  Studies"  (1907). 
After  his  death  "Lectures  in  Modern 
History"  was  published.  He  died  in 
1902. 

ACTORS'  CHURCH  ALLIANCE  OF 
AMERICA,  an  organization  formed  in 
1899  by  Walter  E.  Bentley,  an  actor  who 
had  formerly  been  a  clergyman.  Its  ob- 
ject was  to  foster  a  better  understanding 
between  the  stage  and  the  church,  to 
urge  that  no  theatrical  performances  be 
given  on  Sunday,  and  to  promote  the  wel- 
fare of  actors.  It  is  affiliated  with  a 
British  organization  of  similar  aims  and 
has  had  a  steady  growth.  Its  member- 
ship is  over  5,000,  and  it  has  at  its  call 
1,500  chaplains  in  more  than  400  cities 
of  America. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  the  fifth 
book  of  the  New  Testament.  It  contains 
narrative  of  the  achievements  of  the  lead- 
ing apostles  and  especially  of  St.  Paul. 
Its  author  was  St.  Luke,  who  was  Paul's 
companion  from  the  time  of  his  visit  to 
Troas  to  the  advanced  period  of  his  life 
when  he  penned  the  second  epistle  to 
Timothy.  Internal  evidence  would  seem 
to  show  that  it  was  written  in  all  proba- 
bility about  A.  D.   61.     The  undesigned 


coincidences  between  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  are 
numerous  and  important. 

ACTUARY,  in  civil  law,  a  registrar 
or  clerk  of  a  court;  also  an  officer  of  a 
mercantile  or  insurance  company,  skilled 
in  financial  calculations,  specially  on  such 
subjects  as  the  expectancy  of  life.  He  is 
generally  manager  of  the  company,  under 
the  nominal  or  real  superintendence  of  a 
board  of  directors. 

ADA,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  the  county- 
seat  of  Pontotoc  CO.  It  is  on  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the  Oklahoma 
Central  railroads.  Its  most  important 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cement 
and  asphalt  and  the  growing  of  cotton. 
It  is  the  center  of  an  important  agricul- 
tural and  mineral-producing  region  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  normal  school. 
Pop.    (1910)    4,349;    (1920)    8,012. 

ADAGIO  (ad-azh'e-o),  a  slow  or  very 
slow  movement  or  measure  of  time  in 
music.  The  distinctive  feature  of  the 
adagio  being  its  power  of  expression,  it 
affords  the  most  direct  means  to  the  com- 
poser of  manifesting  his  individuality  of 
feeling.  The  finest  specimens  of  the 
adagio  are  found  in  the  works  of  the 
old  masters,  above  all  in  Beethoven. 

ADALBERT,  ST.,  the  apostle  of  the 
Prussians,  was  a  native  of  Prague,  and 
was  chosen  its  bishop  in  982.  His  aus- 
terity irritated  the  lawless  and  but  re- 
cently converted  Bohemians,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  his  diocese.  He  after- 
ward preached  without  much  success  to 
the  heathen  Poles  and  Prussians,  and 
was  murdered  by  the  latter,  April  23, 
997.  His  body  was  buried  in  the  cathe- 
dral at  Gnesen,  and  afterward  carried 
to  Prague. 

ADAM  and  EVE,  the  names  of  the 
first  pair  of  human  beings  in  the  account 
of  the  creation  given  in  the  book  of 
Genesis.  Adam  Is  strictly  a  generic  name, 
applicable  to  both  man  and  woman,  as 
used  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  but  it  came 
to  be  a  proper  name,  used  with  the  article, 
as  in  chapters  ii,  iii,  and  iv.  The  orgin 
of  the  name  is  uncertain,  but  is  usually 
connected  with  the  Hebrew  root  Adam, 
"to  be  red."  It  is  often  derived  from 
Adamah,  "the  ground,"  but  this  is  taking 
the  simpler  from  the  more  developed 
form.  The  Asssn-ian  equivalent  is 
Adamu,  "man,"  used  only  in  a  general 
sense,  not  as  a  proper  name.  This  is 
connected  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and 
Professor  Sayce  with  Adamatu,  "red 
skins,"  the  Assyrian  word  by  which  the 
dark-skinned  Accadians  of  primitive 
Babylonia  are  designated  in  the  bilingual 


ADAM  and  EVE 


25 


ADAM'S  PEAK 


tablets.  Eve  is  the  Hebrew  Havvah, 
which  name,  according  to  Gen.  iii:  20, 
Adam  gave  her  as  the  "mother  of  all  liv- 
ing." Literally,   the  word   means   "life." 

The  early  part  of  Genesis  contains  two 
somewhat  different  accounts  of  the  crea- 
tion of  Adam.  In  the  earlier  account 
(i:  26-30),  the  creation  of-  man  and 
woman  is  given  after  the  creation  of 
the  animals;  in  the  second  account  (chap- 
ter ii) ,  the  creation  of  Adam  is  mentioned 
before  that  of  the  animals,  and  the  form- 
ing of  Eve  afterward.  The  first  narrator 
is  commonly  called  the  Elohistic,  from  his 
use  of  the  name  Elohim  for  God;  the 
second,  the  Jehovistic,  from  his  using 
the  name  Jehovah  Elohim.  The  Elo- 
histic narrator  simply  states  that  God 
created  man  in  His  own  image.  Man 
is  created  at  the  close  of  the  six  days' 
work  as  the  lord  of  the  whole  lower  world, 
for  whom  all  things  are  made.  The 
Jehovistic  narrator  gives  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  Paradise,  the  original  sin  of 
Adam  and  Eve,  their  subjection  to  the 
curse,  and  expulsion  from  Eden.  It  is, 
in  Ewald's  phrase,  the  history  proper 
of  the  creation  of  man.  The  first  con- 
dition of  Adam  and  Eve  is  one  of  in- 
nocent simplicity.  They  are  placed  in 
Eden,  where  they  are  allowed  to  taste 
freely  of  the  fruit  of  every  tree  save  one. 
Temptation  comes  from  without,  through 
the  serpent's  persuading  Eve  that  the 
divine  prohibition  is  really  intended  to 
keep  human  beings  from  becoming  as 
wise  as  God.  Eve  yields  to  the  temp- 
tation, and  leads  Adam  also  into  her  sin; 
and  thus  the  moral  consciousness  of  man 
awoke,  and  spiritual  death  passed  upon 
mankind.  Adam  and  Eve  are  then  driven 
out  of  Paradise,  and  prevented,  by  the 
cherubim  and  a  flaming  sword  which 
turned  every  way,  from  returning  "to 
take  also  of  the  tree  of  life,  and  eat, 
and  live  forever."  Adam  lives  930  years; 
has  three  sons,  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth,  then 
sons  and  daughters. 

Such  is  the  form  of  the  story  which  has 
usually  been  interpreted  by  orthodox 
Jews  and  Christians  as  a  narrative  of 
literal  history,  notwithstanding  many 
difficulties  about  the  anthropomorphic 
details,  and  the  admitted  uncertainty  of 
the  point  where  the  literal  ends  and  the 
figurative  begins.  Many  of  the  later 
Jews  explained  the  story  as  an  allegory. 
Philo,  the  foremost  writer  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  explains  Eve  as  the  sen- 
suous part,  Adam  as  the  rational  part, 
of  human  nature.  The  serpent  attacks  the 
sensuous  element,  which  yields  to  the 
temptation  of  pleasure,  and  next  enslaves 
the  reason.  Clement  and  Origen  adapted 
this  interpretation  somewhat  awkwardly 
to    Christian    theology.      Augustine    ex- 


plained the  story  as  history,  but  admitted 
a  spiritual  meaning  superinduced  upon 
the  literal;  and  his  explanation  was 
adopted  by  the  reformers,  and,  indeed, 
generally,  by  the  orthodox  within  the 
Romish  and  the  various  Protestant 
churches  alike.  More  modern  critics  have 
sought  to  separate  the  kernel  of  history 
from  the  poetical  accretions,  and  attribute 
the  real  value  of  the  story,  not  to  its 
form,  but  to  the  underlying  thoughts. 
Martensen  describes  it  as  a  combination 
of  history  and  sacred  symbolism,  "fig- 
urative presentation  of  an  actual  event." 
The  narrative  may  be  regarded  as  em- 
bodying the  philosophy  of  the  Hebrew 
mind  applied  to  the  everlasting  problem 
of  the  origin  of  sin  and  suffering;  a 
question  the  solution  of  which  is  scarcely 
nearer  us  now  than  it  was  to  the  prim- 
itive Hebrews. 

The  story  of  Adam  has  been  a  rich  sub- 
ject both  in  literature  and  art.  It  was 
frequently  treated  by  the  medieval  paint- 
ers, and  formed  the  material  of  many 
mysteries  and  other  poems.  Of  more 
modern  works,  it  is  enough  to  mention  the 
splendid  epic  of  Milton,  "Paradise  Lost." 
Here  Adam  and  Eve  are  the  archetypal 
man  and  woman,  sketched  with  outlines 
that  can  only  be  compared  for  grand 
simplicity  with  Michael  Angelo's  two 
frescoes  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  of  Adam 
and  Eve  coming  into  life. 

ADAM,  PAUL,  a  French  writer,  born 
in  1862.  He  took  part  in  politics  and  was 
defeated  for  election  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  began  to  write  in  1885. 
His  first  work  showed  the  influence  of 
Zola;  his  later  writings,  however,  turned 
to  the  romantic  and  symbolistic  school. 
His  work  included  "Red  Robes"  (1891); 
"Child  of  Austerlitz"  (1902);  "The  Sun 
of  July"  (1903);  "Stephanie"  (1913). 
He  also  wrote  and  collaborated  in  the 
writing  of  several  plays. 

ADAM'S  BRIDGE  or  RA-MA'S 
BRIDGE,  a  chain  of  shoals  across  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar,  between  Hindustan  and 
the  island  of  Ceylon. 

ADAM'S  PEAK,  a  mountain  in  the 
S.  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  It  is  a  resort 
of  Moslem  and  Buddhist  pilgrims. 
Height,  7,420  feet.  The  native  name  is 
Samanella.  The  cone  forming  the  suni- 
mit  is  a  naked  mass  of  granite,  termi- 
nating in  a  narrow  platform,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  which  is  a  hollow,  5  feet  long, 
having  a  resemblance  to  a  human  foot- 
step. Mohammedan  tradition  makes  this 
the  scene  of  Adam's  penitence,  after  his 
expulsion  from  Paradise;  he  stood  1,000 
years  on  one  foot  weeping  for  his  sin; 
hence  the  mark.     To  the  Buddhists,  the 


ADAMS 


26 


ADAMS 


impression  is  the  Sri-pada,  or  sacred 
footmark,  left  by  Buddha  on  his  depar- 
ture from  Ceylon;  and  the  Hindus  have 
the  same  tradition  in  respect  to  Siva. 

ADAMS,  a  town  of  Massachusetts  in 
Berkshire  co.  which  includes  three  vil- 
lages. It  is  about  16  miles  N.  of  Pitts- 
field  and  is  on  the  Boston  and  Albany 
railroad  and  on  the  Hoosic  river.  Mount 
Greylock,  the  highest  elevation  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, is  within  the  town  limits. 
There  is  a  public  library,  many  churches, 
a  statue  of  William  McKinley  and  a 
Quaker  meeting  house.  The  town  has 
manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  and  paper  and  lime  products. 
Pop.    (1910)   13,026;   (1920)    12,967. 

ADAMS,  BROOKS,  an  American  law- 
yer and  writer;  born  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  in 
1848.  He  was  the  son  of  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  and  a  brother  of  Henry  and 
Charles  Francis  Adams.  After  graduat- 
ing from  Harvard  in  1870,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  practiced  law  until 
1881.  His  chief  interest,  however,  was 
the  writing  of  essays  on  economic  sub- 
jects. His  works  include  "Law  of  Civili- 
zation and  Decay,"  and  "America's  Eco- 
nomic Supremacy"  (1900);  "The  New 
Empire"  (1902);  "Economics  and  Public 
Affairs"  (1913);  "The  Theory  of  Social 
Revolution"    (1913),  etc. 

ADAMS,  CHARLES  FOLLEN,  an 
American  dialect  poet;  born  at  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  April  21,  1842;  author 
of  "Leedle  Yawcob  Strauss,  and  Other 
Poems"  (1878);  "Dialect  Ballads" 
(1887),  etc. 

ADAMS,     CHARLES    FRANCIS,     an 

American  statesman;  born  in  Boston, 
Aug.  18,  1807;  was  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  in  1848,  twice  elected  to  Con- 
gress, was  Minister  to  England  from 
1861  to  1868,  and  member  of  the  Geneva 
Arbitration  Commission  of  1871.  His 
chief  literary  work  was  "Life  and  Works 
of  John  Adams"  (10  vols.,  1850-1856), 
his  grandfather.  He  also  edited  the  writ- 
ings of  his  father,  John  Quincy  Adams. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  21,  1886. 

ADAMS,     CHARLES     FRANCIS,     an 

American  publicist  and  lawyer,  son  of  the 
preceding;  born  in  Boston,  May  27,  1835. 
He  served  in  the  Union  army  during  the 
Civil  War.  Besides  notable  articles  in 
the  "North  American  Review,"  on  rail- 
road management,  he  has  published 
"Chapters  of  Erie"  (1871);  "Three  Epi- 
sodes of  Massachusetts  History"  (1892); 
"Essays  on  Educational  Topics"  (1879), 
and  a  biography  of  his  father  (1900). 
For  several  years  he  was  President  of 
the  Union  Pacific  railway.  Died  at 
Washington,  D.   C,  March  20,  1915. 


ADAMS,    CHARLES    KENDALL,    an 

American  historian  and  educator;  bom 
at  Derby,  Vt.,  Jan.  24,  1835.  He  became 
President  of  Cornell  University  (1885), 
of  the  American  Historical  Association 
(1890),  of  the  University  of  Wisconsisn 
(1892),  and  editor-in-chief  of  "Johnson's 
Universal  Cyclopaedia"  (1892).  He  died 
July  26,  1902. 

ADAMS,  FRANKLIN  PIERCE,  an 
American  humorous  writer;  bom  in 
Chicago  in  1881.  He  graduated  from  the 
Armour  Scientific  Academy  in  1899  and 
for  one  year  after  attended  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.  Beginning  newspaper 
work  on  the  Chicago  "Journal,"  he  was 
successively  editor  of  the  New  York 
"Evening  Mail"  and  New  York  "Trib- 
une." In  the  two  latter  papers  he  con- 
ducted a  daily  humorous  column  which 
was  widely  read.  His  published  works 
include  "In  Other  Worlds"  (1912);  "By 
and  Large"  (1914)  ;  "Weights  and  Meas- 
ures"  (1917). 

ADAMS,  GEORGE  BURTON,  an  Amer- 
ican educator;  born  in  Fairfield,  Vt.,  in 
1851.  He  graduated  from  Beloit  College 
in  1873  and  carried  on  post-graduate 
studies  in  Germany.  He  was  professor 
of  history  in  Drury  College  from  1877  to 
1888.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  same  chair  in  Yale  Uni- 
versity. From  1895  to  1910  he  was 
editor  of  the  "Historical  RevieA^"  He 
edited  many  important  books  and  docu- 
ments dealing  with  the  history  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  was  the  author  of 
"Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages"; 
"The  Growth  of  the  French  Nation"; 
"The  Origin  of  the  English  Constitution," 
etc.  He  also  wrote  articles  and  delivered 
many  addresses  on  historical  subjects. 

ADAMS,  HENRY,  an  American  his- 
torian; bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  16, 
1838;  grandson  of  J.  Q.  Adams.  He  was 
for  some  time  editor  of  the  "North 
American  Review,"  and  Professor  of  His- 
tory in  Harvard  College.  He  wrote  "The 
Life  of  Albert  Gallatin"  (1879);  "John 
Randolph"  (1882),  etc.  His  principal 
work  is  the  "History  of  the  United  States 
from  1801  to  1817,"  which  constitutes  an 
authoritative  history  of  that  period.  An 
autobiography,  at  first  printed  for  private 
circulation  only,  was  brought  out  for  gen- 
eral circulation  in  1919  as  "The  Educa- 
tion of  Henry  Adams"  and  received  much 
attention.    He  died  May  27,  1918. 

ADAMS,  HENRY  CARTER,  an  Amer- 
ican editor;  born  in  Davenport,  la.,  in 
1851.  He  graduated  from  Iowa  College  in 
1874  and  afterward  studied  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  and  in  Berlin  and  Paris. 
After  graduating  from  Andover  Theolog- 


ADAMS 


27 


ADAMS 


ical  Seminary  in  1875,  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  on  political  science  in  Cornell 
University  in  1880  and  in  1887  became 
professor  of  political  economy  and 
finance  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 
He  was  director  of  the  Division  of  Trans- 
portation in  the  eleventh  census  and  from 
1887  to  1911  was  statistician  of  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Commission,  being 
during  the  same  period  also  in  charge  of 
the  Division  of  Statistics  and  Accounts 
of  that  commission.  From  1913  to  1916 
he  acted  as  financial  adviser  to  the 
Chinese  Republic.  He  was  a  member  of 
many  economic  societies  and  received 
honorary  degrees  from  Iowa  College, 
University  of  Michigan  and  Johns  Hop- 
kins University.  He  wrote  "Taxation  in 
the  United  States,  1787  to  1816"  (1884); 
"Public  Debt^"  (1887);  "Description  of 
Industry"  (1918) ;  "American  Railway 
Accounting"  (1918). 

ADAMS,    HERBERT,    an    American 

sculptor;  born  at  Concord,  Vt.,  in  1856. 
He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools 
and  at  the  Institute  of  Technology  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  studied  art  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Paris.  He  received 
awards  at  the  Chicago,  Paris,  St.  Louis, 
and  San  Francisco  expositions.  In  1915 
he  was  awarded  the  medal  of  honor  by 
the  Architectural  League  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  received  a  prize  from  the 
National  Academy  of  Design.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Commission  of  Fine  Arts 
of  the  United  States  Government,  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
a  member  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Letters  and  of  other  societies 
relating  to  art. 

ADAMS,  JOHN,  the  second  President 
of  the  United  States;  was  born  at  Brain- 


was  one  of  the  selectmen  deputed  by  the 
several  towns  of  the  province,  who  met 
in  convention  at  Boston.  In  1773,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State. 
He  advocated  and  seconded  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  In  1780  he  repre- 
sented the  United  States  in  Holland,  and 
in  1782  co-operated  with  Franklin  and 
the  other  American  commissioners  in 
negotiating  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Eng- 
land. In  1785  he  became  the  first  Min- 
ister Residentiary  to  the  court  of  St. 
James,  and  stayed  in  England  till  1788. 
In  1789,  when  Washington  was  elected 
President,  he  was  made  Vice-President, 
and  in  1793  had  the  same  office  again 
conferred  upon  him.  In  1797,  on  the 
retirement  of  Washington,  he  was  chosen 
President,  and  at  the  close  of  his  term 
of  four  years,  being  defeated  for  re- 
election by  a  majority  of  eight  votes, 
given  to  his  Democratic  adversary,  Jeffer- 
son, he  retired  from  public  life,  and  died 
at  Quincy,  July  4,  1826. 


JOHN   ADAMS 


tree,  near  Boston,  on  Oct.  19,  1735.  He 
practiced  as  a  lawyer,  and,  in  1770,  he 


JOHN    QUINCY  ADAMS 

ADAMS,  JOHN  QUINCY,  sixth  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  American  orators,  diplo- 
matists, and  statesmen,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  John  Adams,  second  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  was  bom  at 
Braintree,  Mass.,  July  11,  1767.  In 
1794  he  proceeded  to  Holland  as  Minister, 
and  in  1797  to  Berlin,  where  he  negoti- 
ated a  treaty  with  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment. In  1803  he  was  elected  United 
States  Senator,  and  in  1805  appointed 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Harvard.  In 
1809  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Rus- 
sia. In  1815  he  went  to  London  as 
United  States  Minister,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1817,  when  he  was  appointed 


ADAMS 


28 


ADDIS  ABEBA 


Secretary  of  State  under  Monroe.  He 
was  elected  President  of  the  United 
States  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  1825,  there  having  been  no  election  by 
the  people  the  previous  year.  He  was 
defeated  for  re-election  in  1828.  In  1831 
he  was  returned  to  Congress,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death,  Feb.  23,  1848. 

ADAMS.    MAUDE    KISKADDEN,    an 

American  actress;  born  at  Salt  Lake  City, 
Nov.  11, 1872;  daughter  of  an  actress  who 
was  leading  woman  of  a  stock  company 
in  that  city,  under  the  stage  name  of 
Adams.  At  16  years  of  age  Miss  Adams 
joined  E.  H.  Sothern's  company  in  the 
"Midnight  Bell";  afterward  she  was  in 
Charles  Frohman's  stock  company,  and 
later  supported  John  Drew.  She  made  a 
great  success  in  many  plays  from  the 
pen  of  Sir  J.  M.  Barrie,  notably  in 
The  "Little  Minister"  and  "Peter  Pan." 
She  has  also  essayed  successfully  some 
Shakespearean  parts  and  the  title  roles 
in  Rostand's  "L'Aiglon"  and  "Chante- 
cler." 

ADAMS,  SAMUEL,  an  American 
statesman  and  Revolutionary  patriot; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1722.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
in  1765,  was  a  delegate  to  the  first  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  Philadelphia,  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. He  was  active  in  framing  the 
constitution  of  his  native  State,  which 
he  served  as  President  of  the  Senate, 
Lieutenant-Governor  (1789-1794),  and 
Governor  (1794-1797).  He  was  zealous 
for  popular  rights,  and  fearless  in  his 
opposition  to  monarchisni.  He  died  in 
1803. 

ADAMS,  SAMUEL  HOPKINS,  an 
American  writer;  born  in  Dunkirk,  N.  Y., 
in  1871.  He  graduated  from  Hamilton 
College  in  1891  and  at  once  began  news- 
paper work  in  New  York.  From  1903 
to  1905  he  was  a  member  of  the  editorial 
staff  of  "McClure's  Magazine."  He  wrote 
"The  Great  American  Fraud,"  an  expose 
of  the  patent  medicine  business  (1906); 
"The  Clarion"  (1914);  "Our  Square  and 
the  People  in  It"  (1917),  and  contributed 
many  stories  and  articles  to  newspapers 
and  magazines. 

ADAMS,     WILLIAM    TAYLOR,     an 

American  author  and  editor,  best  known 
by  the  pseudonym  "Oliver  Optic";  bom 
July  30,  1822.  He  was  a  voluminous  and 
highly  popular  writer  of  fiction  for  young 
readers,  his  works  including  several 
series  of  travel  and  adventure:  "Young 
America  Abroad,"  "Starry  Flag  Series," 
and  others.     He  died  March  27,  1897. 

ADAMSON  LAW.  See  Railways. 


ADDAMS,  JANE,  an  American  philanf 
thropist  and  social  worker;  born  in 
Cedarville,  111.,  Sept.  6,  1860.  She  was 
graduated  at  Rockford  College  in  1881, 
and  after  post-graduate  studies  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States,  became  an 
active  social  reformer.  She  inaugurated 
in  1889  the  establishment  known  as  Hull 
House,  an  adaptation  of  the  "social  set- 
tlement" plan  to  Chicago  conditions.  She 
has  acted  as  street-cleaning  inspector  in 
Chicago,  and  has  lectured  on  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  the  poor 
in  great  cities.  In  1912  she  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  formation  of  the  Pro- 
gressive party.  Besides  many  contribu- 
tions to  current  periodicals  she  has  pub- 
lished a  number  of  books. 

ADDER,  etymologically  nadder,  the  n 
having  been  attracted  to  the  article  and 
lost,  the  common  English  name  of  the 
viper  (Vipera  betnis) .  Its  color  is  yellow- 
ish brown  or  olive,  with  a  double  series 
of  black  spots  along  the  back.  The  sides 
are  a  little  paler  and  are  also  spotted 
with  black.     The  adder  has  a  broad,  tri- 


EUROPEAN   ADDER 

angular  head  and  a  short  tail.  It  rarely 
exceeds  two  feet  in  length.  The  adder  is 
the  only  poisonous  reptile  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  is  found  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe.  In  the  United  States  the 
name  is  popularly  applied  to  several 
harmless  snakes,  but  the  true  adder  does 
not  occur. 

ADDING  MACHINES,  contrivances 
designed  to  simplify  and  facilitate  the 
making  of  arithmetical  computations.  In 
recent  years  they  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved. They  include  cash  registers, 
electric  tabulating  machines,  and  mul- 
tiplying and  dividing  machines.  Prac- 
tically all  banks  and  most  large  business 
concerns  are  now  supplied  with  some 
form  of  these  labor-saving  devices. 

ADDIS  ABEBA,  the  chief  city  and 
capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  the  province  of 
Shoa.  It  is  situated  in  an  elevated 
country  nearly  10,000  feet  high.  The 
town  is  practically  without  streets  and 
is  intersected  by  deep  ravines.  It  con- 
tains the  royal  palace,  which  is  a  preten- 
tious but  flimsy  structure,  and  is  the 
seat  of  several  schools.  The  permanent 
population  is  about  50,000.  The  treaty 
between  Italy  and  Abyssinia  was  signed 


ADDISON 


29 


ADELAIDE 


in  this  city  on  Oct  26,  1896.  By  its 
terms  Italy  resigned  her  claims  to  a 
protectorate  over  the  country. 

ADDISON,  CHRISTOPHER,  British 
statesman;  born  June  19,  1869,  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  and  pursued 
medical  studies  at  St.  Bartholomew's 
Hospital.  He  became  a  lecturer  on  anat- 
omy, and  wrote  many  works  on  medical 
subjects.  In  1914  he  became  Parliamen- 
tary Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  in  the  Coalition  Cabinet  of 
Lloyd  George  was  made  Minister  of 
Munitions.  Later,  he  was  appointed 
minister  in  charge  of  reconstruction. 

ADDISON,  JOSEPH,  an  English  es- 
sayist, poet, and  statesman;  born  at  Mils- 
ton,  May  1,  1672.  In  1693.  he  began  his 
literary  career  with  a  poetical  address  to 
Dryden.  Next  year  appeared  his  "Ac- 
count of  the  Greatest  English  Poets,"  and 
a  translation  of  the  fourth  book  of  the 
"Georgics."  In  1697  he  composed  a 
Latin  poem  on  the  "Peace  of  Ryswick," 
and  this,  with  a  poem,  "To  the  King,"  re- 
sulted in  that,  through  Charles  Montagu, 
Earl  of  Halifax,  he  obtained,  in  1699,  a 
pension  of  £300,  and  spent  four  years  in 


JOSEPH   ADDISON 

France,  Italy,  Austria,  Germany  and  Hol- 
land, one  of  the  results  of  his  travels 
being  his  "Letter  to  Lord  Halifax." 
"The  Campaign,"  a  poem  celebrating  the 
victory  of  Blenheim  (1704),  secured  for 
him  a  commissionship  of  excise.  Elected 
to  Parliament  for  Malmesbury,  he  kept 

He  contributed  largely  to  the  "Tatler," 
started  by  his  friend  Steele,  in  1709;  41 
papers  being  wholly  by  Addison,  and  34 


by  him  and  Steele  conjointly.  In  March, 
1711,  was  founded  the  "Spectator,"  274 
numbers  of  which  (those  signed  with  one 
of  the  letters  CLIO),  were  the  work  of 
Addison,  As  a  light  essayist,  he  has 
no  equal  in  English  literature.  His 
tragedy,  "Cato"  (1713),  aroused  such 
vehement  party  enthusiasm  that  it  kept 
the  stage  35  nights.  In  1716  Addison 
married  the  Dowager  Countess  of  War- 
wick and  in  1717  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary of  State,  but  resigned  his  post, 
owing  to  his  failing  health,  in  March, 
1718.  He  died  at  Holland  House,  June 
17,  1719. 

ADDISON'S  DISEASE,  the  name  of  a 

peculiar  skin  disease,  first  described  by 
Dr.  Thomas  Addison,  an  English  physi- 
cian. Its  symptoms  are  anaemia,  ex- 
cessive debility,  loss  of  appetite,  faint- 
ness,  flabbiness  of  the  muscles,  and  a 
dingy  brownish  discoloration  of  the  skin. 
The  patient  generally  suffers  from  dys- 
pepsia, vomiting,  and  nervous  troubles. 
The  disease  has  sometimes  been  allevi- 
ated by  careful  nursing,  but  no  cure  for 
it  has  been  found,  and  in  the  end  it  is 
invariably  fatal. 

ADE,  GEORGE,  an  American  journal- 
ist and  author,  born  in  Indiana  in  1866. 
He  has  published  "Arte:  a  Story  of 
the  Streets  and  Town";  "Pink  Marsh" 
(1897),  a  dialect  story,  etc.  Later  he  es- 
tablished a  reputation  as  a  satirical 
humorist  by  his  "Fables  in  Slang"  and 
wrote  many  successful  plays  and  musi- 
cal comedies,  such  as  "The  Sho-Gun," 
"Slim  Princess"  and  "Sultan  of  Sulu," 
etc.  He  was  made  a  trustee  of  Purdue 
University  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

ADELAIDE,  the  capital  of  South 
AustraKa,  7  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Port 
Adelaide,  on  St.  Vincent  Gulf.  It  stands 
on  a  large  plain,  and  is  walled  in  on  the 
eastern  and  southern  sides  by  the  Mount 
Lofty  range;  the  town  proper  is  inclosed 
by  a  wide  belt  of  garden  shrubbery.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  in  1836,  and 
named  after  the  queen  of  William  IV. 
The  Torrens  divides  the  town  into  North 
and  South  Adelaide,  the  former  being 
occupied  chiefly  with  residences,  and  the 
latter  forming  the  business  portion  of  the 
town.  Five  substantial  iron  bridges  span 
the  Torrens,  which  has  been  formed  by 
a  dam  into  a  lake  IVz  miles  long.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  regularly  laid  out, 
especially  in  Adelaide  proper,  to  the 
south  of  the  river,  where  they  cross  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  are  planted 
with  trees.  Among  the  public  buildings 
are  the  new  Parliament  Houses,  govern- 
ment   oflices,    postofRce,    and    townhall; 


ADELPHI   COLLEGE 


30 


ADEN,  GULF  OF 


South  Australian  Institute,  with  museum, 
library  and  art  galleries;  hospitals;  an 
extensive  botanical  garden;  etc.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  woolen,  leather, 
iron,  and  earthenware  goods;  but  the 
chief  importance  of  Adelaide  depends  on 
its  being  the  great  emporium  for  South 
Australia.  Wool,  wine,  wheat,  flour  and 
copper  ore  are  the  staple  articles  of  ex- 
port. There  are  a  number  of  colleges 
and  Adelaide  University  and  a  school 
of  mines.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Glenelg, 
on  the  sea,  5  miles  away,  is  a  favorite 
watering  place.  Pop.,  with  suburbs,  about 
350,000.  Port  Adelaide,  its  port,  dates 
from  1840.  It  is  a  principal  port  of 
call  for  vessels  arriving  from  Europe. 

ADELPHI  COLLEGE,  an  institution 
of  higher  learning  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
formerly  known  as  the  Adelphi  Academy. 
Since  1912  both  men  and  women  have 
been  admitted  for  the  degree  of  A,  B. 
There  were,  in  the  year  1919-1920,  502 
students  and  31  teachers.  The  president 
is  F.  D.  Blodgett. 

ADELSBERG  (a'dels-barg),  a  town 
in  the  pro\'ince  of  Carniola,  Austria;  24 
miles  S.  W.  of  Laibach.  The  grotto  of 
Adelsberg,  over  5  miles  long,  is  famous 
for  its  stalactites,  stalagmites,  and  sub- 
terranean streams.     Pop.  about  4,500. 

ADEN,  a  peninsula  and  town  belong- 
ing to  Great  Britain,  on  the  S.  W.  coast 
of  Arabia,  105  miles  E.  of  the  strait  of 


rising  to  1,776  feet.  It  is  joined  to  the 
mainland  by  a  narrow,  level,  and  sandy 
isthmus.  The  town  is  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  peninsula,  stands  in  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  barren,  cinder-like  rocks. 
The  main  crater  is  known  as  the  Devil's 
Punch-bowl.  Frequently  the  heat  is  in- 
tense; but  the  very  dry,  hot  climate, 
though  depressing,  is  unusually  healthy 
for  the  tropics.  The  Romans  occupied 
it  in  the  1st  century  A.  D.  Till  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Cape  route  to  India  (1498), 
it  was  the  chief  mart  of  Asiastic  produce 
for  the  Western  nations;  but,  in  1838, 
it  had  sunk  to  be  a  village  of  600  in- 
habitants. The  increasing  importance 
of  the  Red  Sea  route  gave  Aden  great 
value  as  a  station  for  England  to  hold; 
and,  in  1839,  after  a  few  hours'  contest, 
Aden  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
It  is  of  high  importance,  both  in  a  mer- 
cantile and  naval  point  of  view,  especially 
as  a  great  coaling  station;  it  has  a  gar- 
rison and  strong  fortifications.  During 
the  World  War  an  unsuccessful  attack 
against  Aden  was  made  by  the  Turks. 
The  population  and  resources  of  the  place 
have  rapidly  increased  since  1838,  and 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  in  1869  gave 
it  a  great  impetus.  The  annual  value 
of  its  imports  and  exports  each  exceeds 
£2,000,000.  Aden,  which  is  politically  con- 
nected with  Bombay,  has  a  population  of 
about  50,000.'  The  majority  of  the  natives 
are  Arabs  and  Somalis,  from  Africa,  all 
gpeaking  Arabic. 


THE   HARBOR   OF   ADEN 

Bab-el-Mandeb,  the  entrance  to  the  Red  ADEN,  GULF  OF,  the  portion  of  sea 
Sea.  The  peninsula  is  a  mass  of  volcanic  lying  between  the  N.  coast  of  Aden,  ter- 
rocks,  5  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and    minating  E,   with  Ras  Jerdaffon    (Cape 


ADENITIS 


31 


ADJUTANT 


Gardafui),  and  the  S.  coast  of  Arabia, 
between  Ras  Arrah  and  Ras  Agab;  the 
former  in  latitude  12°  40'  N.,  longitude 
44°  E.;  the  latter  in  latitude  15°  15'  N., 
longitude  51°  30'  E.  Its  length  from  E. 
to  W.  is  thus  about  480  miles ;  its  breadth 
from  N.  to  S.  varying  from  160  to  200 
miles. 

ADENITIS,  inflammation  of  the  lym- 
phatic glands.  It  almost  always  exists 
with  angeioleucitis — inflammation  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels.  It  is  produced  when 
an  open  wound  of  any  kind  comes  in 
contact  with  irritating  or  poisonous  mat- 
ter, generally  from  without,  though  some- 
times also  generated  within  itself. 

ADENOIDS',  a  growth  of  spongy  tissue 
in  the  region  of  the  pharynx,,  lying  above 
and  back  of  the  soft  palate.  The  growth 
begins  at  the  age  of  three  months  and 
during  the  first  three  years  is  of  a  soft, 
spongy  nature.  It  becomes  harder  and 
more  fibrous  as  age  increases.  The 
growth  becomes  detrimental  to  health 
when  it  is  unusual  in  size.  It  is  now  a 
very  general  custom  to  remove  it  as 
early  as  possible.  The  presence  of  over- 
grown adenoids  affects  the  child  mentally 
and  physically  and  their  removal  in 
most  cases  causes  immediate  improve- 
ment. 

ADERSBACH  ROCKS,  a  range  of 
mountains  in  the  district  of  Glatz,  valley 
of  the  Riesengebirge,  Silesia,  remarkable 
as  being  divided,  for  several  miles,  into 
detached  perpendicular  columns  by  fis- 
sures from  600  to  1,200  feet  in  depth. 

ADIGE  (ad'e-zha),  a  considerable 
river  of  north  Italy,  which  has  its 
source  i^  the  Alps  of  "Tyrol,  above  Brixen, 
where  it  is  called  Etsch;  it  enters  Italy 
by  Bolzano  and  the  valley  of  Trento, 
flows  in  a  southern  direction  by  Roveredo, 
parallel  to  and  for  the  most  part  about 
6  miles  from,  the  lake  of  Garda,  then, 
turning  abruptly  toward  the  E.,  passes 
through  Verona  and  Legnano;  it  after- 
ward enters  the  great  Delta,  between  the 
Brenta  and  the  Po,  and,  forming  several 
branches,  empties  its  waters  into  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  a  deep  and  rapid 
stream,  dividing,  by  its  course,  the  old 
Venetian  territories  from  Lombardy 
proper.  The  valley  of  the  Adige  saw 
much  fighting  during  the  Napoleonic 
wars  and  again  during  the  World  War. 

ADIPIC  ACID  (formula:  CoH.oO^ 
(C4Hs)"  (C0  0H)2),  an  organic  diatomic 
dibasic  acid,  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  fats  by  nitric  acid. 

ADIPOCERE,  a  chemical  substance 
in  its  character  somewhat  resembling 
wax  or  spermaceti.  It  arises  through 
the  chemistry  of  nature,  when  the  bodies 


of  men  and  animals,  buried  in  soil  of  a 
certain  kind,  are  subjected  to  the  action 
of  running  water,  or  otherwise  brought 
in  contact  with  moisture. 

ADIPOSE  TISSUE,  a  membrane  in  a 
state  of  great  tenuity,  fashioned  into 
minute  cells,  in  which  fat  is  deposited. 
It  occurs  in  man,  and  in  the  inferior  ani- 
mals, both  when  mature  and  when  of  im- 
perfect development. 

ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS,  the 
highest  range  in  New  York  State,  stretch- 
ing from  near  Canada,  on  the  N.,  to  near 
the  Mohawk  river  on  the  S.,  a  distance 
of  120  miles ;  and  from  Lakes  George  and 
Champlain,  on  the  E.,  to  an  indefinite 
line  on  the  W.,  covering  an  area  of  about 
12,000  square  miles,  and  occupying  parts 
of  Clinton,  Essex,  Franklin,  and  Hamilton 
counties.  These  mountains,  the  geologi- 
cal formation  of  which  is  chiefly  granite, 
run  in  five  parallel  ranges;  the  highest 
range,  or  Adirondack  proper,  is  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  district,  and  the  peaks  rise 
to  a  great  height.  Mt.  Marcy  is  5,345 
feet;  Gray  peak,  4,900  feet;  White  Face, 
4,870  feet,  etc.  This  whole  district,  some- 
times called  the  Adirondack  Wilderness, 
is  covered  with  dense  forests,  except  the 
tallest  peak,  and  some  of  these  forests  are 
still  unexplored.  The  1,000  lakes  in  the 
valleys  beautifully  diversify  the  scenery. 
These  lakes  and  streams  are  well  stocked 
with  trout  and  bass,  and  in  this  district 
are  found  black  bears,  wild  cats,  deer, 
otter,  hawks,  wild  duck,  eagles,  rabbits, 
partridges,  etc.;  but  no  venomous  serpents 
of  any  sort.  There  are  extensive  deposits 
of  iron  ore,  chiefly  magnetite.  Forest 
products  supply  the  most  important  in- 
dustries. Paper-pulp  mills  use  more  of 
the  lumber  than  sawmills.  The  region 
has  become  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  frequented  recreation  grounds  of  the 
northeastern  United  States. 

ADIRONDACK  PARK,  a  large  dis- 
trict, principally  forest  land,  set  apart 
•by  the  State  of  New  York,  in  1892,  for 
the  protection  of  the  watershed  of  the 
Hudson  and  other  rivers  of  the  State, 
for  public  recreation,  and  for  the  practi- 
cal study  of  forestry.  It  covers  Hamilton 
county,  and  parts  of  Essex,  Franklin, 
Herkimer,  and  St.  Lawrence  counties, 
and  contains  many  mountains  and  lakes. 

ADJUTANT,  in  military  lanpruage,  in 
the  United  States  army,  an  officer  selected 
by  the  colonel,  whose  duties  in  respect 
to  his  regiment  are  similar  to  those  of 
an  adjutant-general  with  an  army. 

In  zoology,  the  popular  name  of  ciii- 
conia  argala,a  grallatorial  bird,  belonging 
to  the  stork  family.  Its  size  is  very 
great,  its  ordinary  height  in  the  erect 


ADJUTANT-GENERAL 


32 


ADMIRALTY 


attitude  being  5  feet.  The  beak  is  of 
enormous  size  and  strength;  the  head  is 
large,  and  the  neck  proportionally  mus- 
cular. The  adjutant  is  a  native  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  India,  and  is  very  use- 
ful in  removing  noxious  animals  and 
carrion,  v^rhich  it  devours  with  great  vo- 
racity. In  its  wild  state  it  usually  lives 
in  companies,  and  chiefly  frequents  the 
mouths  of  rivers;  it  may  be  readily  do- 
mesticated, but  is  very  apt  to  display  its 
voracity  by  purloining  articles  of  food. 
From  this  bird,  and  from  an  allied  spe- 
cies in  Senegal,  the  beautiful  marabou 
feathers  are  obtained. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL,  an  officer 
of  the  military  staff  who  is  one  of  the 
assistants  of  the  commanding  officer  in 
the  field.  His  chief  work  is  concerned 
with  the  issuing  and  executing  of  orders 
and  carrying  on  the  paper  details  and 
routine.  In  the  army  of  the  United 
States  there  is  also  a  department  known 
as  the  Adjutant-General's  Department, 
presided  over  by  a  general  officer  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  the 
title  of  adjutant-general.  In  time  of 
war  the  adjutant-general  is  one  of  the 
important  officers  in  the  service.  He  has 
charge  of  recruiting,  the  collecting  of 
military  information,  and  the  preparation 
and  custody  of  records.  The  States  also 
have  at  the  head  of  their  militia  organi- 
zations an  officer  known  as  the  adjutant- 
general.  See  Military  Organization, 
United  States. 

ADLER,  CYRUS,  an  American  educa- 
tor and  theologian;  born  in  Van  Buren, 
Ark.,  in  1863.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1883. 
After  post-graduate  studies  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  he  became  librarian 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1892, 
serving  until  1905.  He  was  curator  of 
historic  archaeology  and  historical  re- 
ligions in  the  United  States  National 
Museum  from  1889  to  1908.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  president  of  Dropsie  Col- 
lege for  Hebrew  and  Cognate  Learning. 
He  was  president  of  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors of  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary 
of  America  and  from  1890  president  of 
this  institution,  and  served  as  special 
commissioner  to  Turkey.  Egypt,  and 
other  countries.  He  vvrrote  many  articles 
on  Semitic  philology  and  allied  subjects, 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Jewish 
Encyclopedia,"  and  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Editors  of  the  "New  Jewish 
Translation  of  the  Bible." 

ADLER,  FELIX,  an  American  lecturer 
and  scholar;  bom  at  Alzey,  Germany, 
1851.  The  son  of  an  eminent  Jewish 
rabbi,  he  emigrated  when  young  to  the 


United  States,  where,  and  at  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg,  he  was  educated.  After  be- 
ing for  some  time  professor  at  Cornell 
University,  he  founded  in  New  York 
(1876)  the  Society  of  Ethical  Culture,  of 
which  he  is  lecturer.  Similar  societies 
have  been  established  elsewhere  in  the 
United  States  and  in  other  countries. 
He  is  an  effective  writer  and  speaker. 
Since  1902  he  has  been  professor  of  pol- 
itical and  social  ethics  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. During  1908-1909  he  was  the 
Roosevelt  exchange  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin.  He  is  chairman  of 
the  National  Child  Labor  Commission. 
He  has  published  a  number  of  books  on 
religion  and  social  and  political   ethics. 

ADMINISTRATION,  in  law,  the  man- 
agement of  the  personal  estate  of  anyone 
dying  intestate,  or  without  an  executor. 
If  the  deceased  leaves  real  estate,  the 
estate  devolves  upon  heirs  related  by 
blood;  if  personal  property  is  left  and  no 
executors  named,  administrators  are  ap- 
pointed by  some  court.  In  the  United 
States  a  surrogate  or  judge  of  probate 
appoints  the  administrator,  and  grants 
letters  of  administration  as  authority. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  official 
terms  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  Governors  of  States,  and 
to  their  official  advisers. 

ADMIRAL,  the  title  of  the  highest 
rank  of  naval  officer.  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  Arabic  amir,  or  emir.  In  Great 
Britain,  there  were  formerly  three  grades 
of  admirals,  commanding  subdivisions, 
known  as  the  red,  the  white,  and  the 
blue,  from  the  colors  of  their  flags,  but 
this  distinction  is  now  abolished.  ^  In 
the  Brtish  navy,  admirals  are  classified 
as  admirals,  vice-admirals,  and  rear- 
admirals,  ranking  respectively  with 
generals,  lieutenant-generals,  and  major- 
generals.  These  distinctions  were  adopted 
in  the  United  States  navy  during  the 
Civil  War;  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  be- 
ing established  in  1862,  vice-admiral,  in 
1864,  and  admiral,  in  1866,  all  created 
for  Farragut.  The  first  9  rear-admirals 
rank  with  major-generals  and  the  sec- 
ond 9  with  brigadier-generals.  Their  pay 
on  the  retired  list  is  75  per  cent,  of  active 
service  pay.  The  flag  of  an  admiral  is 
rectangular  blue  with  four  white  stars, 
flown  at  the  main;  that  of  a  vice-admiral 
is  the  same  shaped  flag  with  three  stars 
flown  at  the  fore;  that  of  the  rear-ad- 
miral has  two  stars,  flown  from  the 
mizzen. 

ADMIRALTY,  that  department  of  the 
British  Government  which,  subject  to  the 
control  of  Parliament,  has  the  supreme 
direction    of   naval    affairs.     The   high 


ADMIRALTY  INLET 


33 


ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI 


court  of  admirality  is  that  court  which 
has  jurisdiction  over  maritime  causes. 
Its  judge  was  originally  the  lord  high 
admiral,  or  his  deputy,  but  is  now  ap- 
pointed by  commission  from  the  crown. 
The  term  is  applied  to  the  building  where 
the  lords  of  the  admiralty  transact  their 
business.  In  the  United  States  all  ad- 
miralty and  maritime  jurisdiction  is  as- 
signed by  the  Constitution  to  the  Federal 
courts. 

ADMIRALTY  INLET,  a  narrow  body 
of  water  connecting  Puget  Sound  with 
the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  Seattle, 
Tacoma,  and  Port  Townsend  are  the 
chief  cities  on  the  Inlet. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLAND,  a  mountain- 
ous island,  90  miles  long,  off  the  W.  coast 
of  Alaska,  to  the  N.  E.  of  Sitka;  belongs 
to  the  United  States. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
40  islands,  to  the  N.  E.  of  New  Guinea; 
Baseo,  the  largest  of  them,  being  60  miles 
in  length,  and  is  mountainous,  but  fruit- 
ful. The  total  area  of  the  islands  is 
600  square  miles.  They  were  discovered 
by  Schouten,  in  1616.  Some  are  volcanic, 
others  are  coral  islands.  They  abound  in 
cocoa-nut  trees,  and  are  inhabited  by  a 
race  of  tawny,  frizzle-headed  savages  of 
the  Papuan  stock,  about  4,000  in  number. 
Together  with  New  Britain  and  some 
adjoining  groups,  they  were  annexed  by 
Germany,  in  1885,  and  became  part  of 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago.  During  the 
World  War  they  were  occupied  by 
Australian  forces.  The  Paris  Peace  Con- 
ference, on  May  7,  1919,  decided  that 
the  mandate  over  them  should  be  held 
by  Australia. 

ADOLESCENCE.  A  well-defined  period 
of  life  extending  from  puberty  to  21  in 
females  and  25  in  males.  It  is  marked 
by  an  unusual  rapid  physical  growth, 
and  the  mental  development  during  this 
time  is  also  rapid.  In  recent  years  edu- 
cators have  come  to  lay  special  stress  on 
the  importance  of  developing  the  in- 
dividual during  this  period. 

ADONAI  (a-d5'ni),  a  Hebrew  name 
for  the  Supreme  Being;  a  plural  form 
of  Adon,  "lord,"  combined  with  the  pro- 
noun of  the  first  person.  In  reading  the 
Scriptures  aloud,  the  Jews  pronounce 
"Adonai"  wherever  the  old  name  "Jhvh" 
is  found  in  the  text;  and  the  name 
"Jehovah"  has  arisen  out  of  the  con- 
sonants of  "Jhvh"  with  the  vowel  points 
of  Adonai. 

ADONIS  (a-do'nis),  son  of  Myrrha, 
daughter  of  Cinyras,  King  of  Cyprus, 
was  born  in  Arabia.  Before  the  birth 
of   her   son    she   was   transformed   into 


the  tree  which  produces  the  fragrant 
gum,  called  by  her  name;  this,  however, 
did  not  hinder  his  being  brought  into  the 
world  in  due  season;  he  grew  up  a  model 
of  manly  beauty,  and  was  passionately 
beloved  by  Aphrodite  (Venus),  who  quit- 
ted Olympus  to  dwell  with  him.  Hunt- 
ing was  his  favorite  pursuit,  until,  having 
gone  to  the  chase  against  the  entreaties 
of  his  mistress,  he  was  mortally  wounded 
in  the  thigh  by  a  wild  boar.  Venus,  com- 
ing too  late  to  his  rescue,  changed  his 
blood  into  flowers.  After  death,  he  was 
said  to  stand  as  high  in  the  favor  of 
Persephone  (Proserpine)  as  before  in 
that  of  Aphrodite;  but,  the  latter  being 
inconsolable,  her  rival  generously  con- 
sented that  Adonis  should  spend  half 
the  year  with  his  celestial,  half  with 
his  infernal,  mistress. 

ADOPTION,  the  act  of  taking  a  stran- 
ger into  one's  family,  as  a  son  or  daugh- 
ter; or  the  taking  of  a  person,  a  society, 
etc.,  into  more  intimate  relations  than 
formerly  existed  with  another  person 
or  society;  or  the  taking  as  one's  own, 
with  or  without  acknowledgment,  an 
opinion,  plan,  etc.,  originating  with 
another;  also  the  selecting  one  from 
several  courses  open  to  a  person's  choice. 

In  law,  both  ancient  and  modern,  the 
act  of  taking  a  stranger  into  one's  fam- 
ily constituted  the  person  so  adopted  one's 
heir  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

ADORATION  OF  THE  MAGI,  a  sub- 
ject treated  by  great  artists,  from  Lo- 
renzo Monaco,  representative  of  the 
Florentine  school,  early  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury, to  Rubens,  in  the  17th  century, 
who  painted  it  15  times.  Florentine  art, 
on  this  subject,  reached  its  best  expres- 
sion through  Botticelli.  A  celebrated 
picture,  by  him,  is  in  the  Ufflzi,  Florence. 
In  this  picture,  the  three  kings  are  por- 
traits of  Gosino,  Giuliano,  and  Giovanni 
de  Medici,  while  the  Virgin  occupies  a 
hut  among  ruins  and  rocks.  Botticelli's 
pupil,  Filippino  Lippi,  has  also  some  con- 
temporary portraits  in  his  painting  in  the 
Uffizi.  The  entire  scene  of  Tintoretto's, 
in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  at  Venice,  is 
lighted  by  radiance  coming  from  the  body 
of  the  Child.  He  represents  the  Venetian 
school,  and  his  fresco  was  made  famous 
by  Ruskin  in  his  "Stones  of  Venice." 
In  Rembrandt's  painting,  in  Buckingham 
Palace,  the  Virgin  and  the  Child  are 
seated  at  the  right,  while  before  them 
kneel  the  Magi;  in  the  background  are 
the  kings  and  old  men;  in  the  distance 
are  camels.  The  picture  by  Albert  Diirer 
is  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  In  the  Musee 
de  Peinture,  at  Brussels,  Belgium,  is  the 
painting  by  Rubens.  Another  of  Rubens', 
in  the  Museum  of  Antwerp,  Belgium,  has 


ADORNO 


34 


ADRIAN  VI. 


life-size  figures.  Paolo  Veronese's  splen- 
did picture  is  in  the  Museum  at  Dresden. 
The  noted  triptych,  called  the  "Dombild," 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  by  Meister 
Stephan  (died  1451),  is  considered  the 
finest  work  of  the  early  German  school. 
Modern  painters  have  also  produced  ex- 
cellent works  on  this  subject.  Burne- 
Jones  has  a  tapestry  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford.  The  fresco  in  the  Church  of  the 
Incarnation,  in  New  York  City,  is  the 
work  of  La  Farge. 

ADORNO,  a  great  plebeian  family  in 
Italy.  It  furnished  many  doges  to  Ge- 
noa. For  165  years  they  struggled  fpr 
supremacy,  especially  with  the  Fregosi, 
and  were  definitely  destroyed  by  Andrea 
Doria,  in  1528. 

ADOUR  (ad-or'),  a  river  of  France, 
which  rises  6  miles  to  the  E.  of  Bareges, 
in  the  department  of  the  Upper  Pyre- 
nees, and,  running  by  Tarbes  and  Dax, 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  3  miles 
beyond  Bayonne,  where  it  joins  the  Nive. 
Its  course,  through  many  fertile  valleys, 
is  about  180  miles. 

ADOWA,  or  ADUA,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal towns  in  the  kingdom  of  Tigre,  Abys- 
sinia, with  houses  built  in  a  conical  form, 
and  arranged  into  streets.  It  is  the 
great  mart  between  the  interior  and  the 
coast,  and  reaps  the  advantage  of  a 
transit  trade  between  the  Red  Sea  ports 
and  Gondar.  It  was  here  that  the  Ital- 
ians were  decisively  defeated  by  the 
Abyssinians  in  1896.  Population,  though 
greatly  varying,  about  3,000. 

ADRENALIN,  the  active  principle 
of  the  adrenal  glands.  It  is  the  most 
powerful  astringent  used  and  was  dis- 
covered in  1901.  It  occurs  as  a  light 
brown  powder  having  a  bitter  taste. 

ADRIA,  in  the  province  of  Rovigo, 
northern  Italy,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  Europe.  So  late  as  the  12th  century 
A.  D.,  it  was  a  flourishing  harbor  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  It  still  retains  several  in- 
teresting remains  of  Etruscan  and  Ro- 
man antiquity,  with  a  fine  cathedral. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

ADRIAN,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Lenawee  co.,  Mich.;  on  the  Raisin  river, 
and  the  Wabash,  the  Lake  Shore,  and 
the  Toledo  and  Western  railroads;  30 
miles  N.  W.  of  Toledo,  0.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Adrian  College  (Methodist 
Protestant) ,  the  State  Industrial  Home 
for  Girls,  and  St.  Joseph's  Hospital  and 
Academy  (Roman  Catholic),  and  has 
important  manufactures  and  a  large 
farming  trade.  Pop.  (1910)  10,763; 
(1920)   11,878. 


ADRIAN,  or  HADRIAN,  PUBLIUS 
.ffiLIUS,  a  Roman  emperor,  bom  at 
Rome,  76  A.  D.  Entering  the  army  quite 
young,  he  became  tribune  of  a  legion, 
and  married  Sabina,  the  heiress  of  Tra- 
jan, whom  he  accompanied  on  his  expe- 
ditions, and  became  successively  praetor, 
governor  of  Pannonia,  and  consul.  On 
Trajan's  death,  in  117,  he  assumed  the 
government,  made  peace  with  the  Per- 
sians, and  remitted  the  debts  of  the  Ro- 
man people.  No  monarch  informed  him- 
self more  by  traveling  than  Adrian.  In 
his  reign,  the  Christians  underwent  a 
dreadful  persecution.  Adrian  died  at 
Baije,  in  139,  He  had  great  virtues, 
which  were,  however,  blended  with  as 
great  vices. 

ADRIAN  I.,  Pope,  born  at  Rome; 
succeeded  Stephen  III.  in  772.  Adrian 
died  after  a  pontificate  of  nearly  24 
years,  795.  Adrian  was  a  man  of  talent 
and  dexterity. 

ADRIAN  II.,  bom  at  Rome;  succeeded 
Nicholas  I.  in  the  papal  chair  in  867. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Adrian,  Pho- 
tius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  with- 
drew from  the  Church  of  Rome.  Adrian 
died  in  872. 

ADRIAN  III.,  bom  at  Rome;  suc- 
ceeded Marinus  in  884,  and  died  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

ADRIAN  IV.,  the  only  Englishman 
who  was  ever  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
the  papal  chair,  succeeded  Anastasius 
IV.  in  1154.  His  name  was  Nicholas 
Breakespere;  and  for  some  time  he  filled 
a  mean  situation  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Albans.  Eugenius  III.  created  him  car- 
dinal in  1146,  and,  in  1148,  made  him 
legate  to  Denmark  and  Norway,  which 
nations  he  converted  to  the  Christian 
faith.  When  nominated  pope,  he  granted 
to  Henry  II.  a  bull  for  the  conquest  of 
Ireland.  He  died,  supposedly  of  poison, 
in  1159. 

ADRIAN  v.,  a  Genoese,  succeeded 
Innocent  in  1276,  and  died  five  weeks 
after  his  election. 

ADRIAN  VI.,  bom  at  Utrecht,  of  an 
obscure  family,  advanced  himself  by  his 
talents  to  the  post  of  vice-chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Louvain.  Ferdinand 
of  Spain  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Tor- 
tosa.  After  Ferdinand's  death  he  was 
co-regent  of  Spain  with  Cardinal  Xi- 
menes.  He  was  elected  pope  in  1522, 
after  the  death  of  Leo  X.,  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  Charles  V.,  whose  au- 
thority was  then  spreading  over  Italy. 
He  died  in  1525. 


ADBIAN  COLLEGE 


35 


ADULLAM 


ADRIAN  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  of  higher  education  in 
Adrian,  Mich.,  founded  in  1852.  The 
students  number  about  200  and  the  fac- 
ulty about  25.  The  property  is  valued  at 
about  $250,000.  The  library  contains 
about  10,000  volumes.  The  president  for 
1919  was  E.  W.  Anthony,  D.  D. 

ADRIANOPLE  (Turkish,  Edirne;  Bul- 
garian, Odrin),  formerly  the  third  city  of 
European  Turkey,  stands  on  the  navigable 
Maritza  (the  ancient  Hebrus) ,  198  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople  by  rail.  The 
city  has  upward  of  80,000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  about  half  are  Turks.  The 
splendid  mosque  of  Selim  II,,  the  palace, 


airplanes.  As  a  result  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  with  Turkey,  Adrianople  was 
lost  to  Turkey  and  became  part  of 
Greece. 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  a  large  arm  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  extending,  in  a  N.  W. 
direction,  between  the  E.  coast  of  Italy 
and  the  W.  coast  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula, being  terminated  to  the  S,  by  the 
Strait  of  Otranto,  45  miles  wide.  In  the 
N.  it  forms  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  and  in 
the  N.  E.  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  The  W. 
coast  is  comparatively  low  and  has  few 
inlets,  and  the  N.  is  marshy  and  edged 
with  lagoons.  On  the  other  side,  the 
coasts  of  Illyria,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and 


THE     MOSQUE    OF    SULTAN    SELIM   II.   AT  ADRIANOPLE 


and  the  immense  bazaar  of  Ali  Pasha, 
may  be  named  as  its  principal  features. 
It  has  a  silk  factory,  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  attar  of  roses  and  wine.  Founded 
or  greatly  improved  by  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  Adrianople  was  the  seat  of  the 
Ottoman  sultanate  from  1366  to  1453. 
In  the  Balkan  War  of  1912-1913,  Adri- 
anople, after  a  stubborn  defense  of  five 
months,  was  surrendered  to  the  Balkan 
allies,  March  26,  1913.  By  the  Treaty  of 
London,  May  30,  1913,  it  was  ceded  to 
Bulgaria,  but  in  the  war  that  ensued  be- 
tween the  former  allies,  the  Turks  reoc- 
cupied  the  city,  July  20,  1913.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Constantinople,  Sept.  29,  1913, 
Bulgaria  formally  restored  Adrianople 
to  Turkey.  During  the  World  War  the 
city  was   raided   many  times  by  enemy 

4: — Vol.  I — Cyc 


Albania  are  steep,  rocky,  and  barren, 
with  many  inlets,  and  begirt  with  a 
chain  of  almost  innumerable,  small,  rocky 
islands. 

The  total  area  of  the  sea,  including 
islands,  is  calculated  at  52,220  square 
miles — the  area  of  the  islands  being 
1,290;  the  mean  depth  is  110  fathoms, 
the  greatest  depth,  565  fathoms.  The 
most  considerable  rivers  flowing  into  the 
sea  are  the  Adige  and  the  Po.  Venice, 
Trieste,  Ancona,  Bari,  and  Brindisi  are 
the  chief  ports,  Brindisi  having  special 
importance. 

ADULLAM  (ad-ul'iam),  one  of  the 
cities  of  the  plain,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
fortified  by  King  Rehoboam.  The  Cave 
of  Adullam.  where  David  hid  when  pur- 


ADULTEBATION  36 

sued   by   the   Philistines,   was    probably 
near  the  Dead  Sea. 

ADULTERATION,  the  act  of  debasing 
a  pure  or  genuine  article  for  pecuniary 
profit,  by  adding  to  it  an  inferior  or 
spurious  article,  or  taking  one  of  its 
constituents  away.  Another  definition 
which  has  been  given  is:  "The  act  of 
adding  intentionally  to  an  article,  for 
purposes  of  gain,  any  substance  or  sub- 
stances the  presence  of  which  is  not  ac- 
knowledged in  the  name  under  which  the 
article  is  sold."  In  England,  as  early  as 
the  13th  century,  the  legislature  at- 
tempted, though  with  but  partial  suc- 
cess, to  strike  a  blow  against  it,  in  the 
Act  51  Henry  III.,  stat.  6,  often  quoted 
as  the  "Pillory  and  Tumbril  Act."  In 
the  United  States,  and  in  the  principal 
European  countries,  the  laws  against 
adulterations  are  carefully  drawn  and 
systematically  administered.  See  Pure 
Food  Law.  Deliberate  adulterations  are 
of  two  classes:  (1)  Those  which  are  in- 
jurious to  health,  and  (2)  those  which 
produce  no  seriously  hurtful  effects. 
Careful  investigation  has  demonstrated 
that  adulterations  of  the  latter  class  are 
comparatively  rare.  The  articles  most 
liable  to  adulteration  are  milk,  butter, 
spices,  coffee,  syrup,  and  molasses,  cream 
of  tartar,  honey,  vinegar,  jellies  and 
jams,  olive  oil  and  canned  goods.  Ac- 
cording to  reports  by  American  official 
analysts,  most  of  the  staple  articles  of 
common  household  consumption,  while 
frequently  subjected  to  considerable  so- 
phistication, are  seldom  injuriously  adul- 
terated. 

ADULTERY,  unlawful  intercourse  be- 
tween two  married  persons  not  standing 
to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  husband 
and  wife,  or  between  a  married  person 
and  another  unmarried.  In  the  former 
case,  it  has  been  called  double,  and  in  the 
latter,  single  adultery.  Adultery  is  con- 
sidered in  England  a  ground  for  total 
divorce.  In  the  United  States  there  is 
a  wide  diversity  in  the  laws  relating  to 
this  offense.  In  some^  States  it  has  been 
made  a  crime,  while,  in  others,  civil  pro- 
ceedings are  allowed  substantially  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  English  law. 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  AS- 
SOCIATION FOR  THE,  an  association 
of  scientific  men  of  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  coun- 
tries. Its  purpose  is  to  place  emphasis 
upon  the  unity  of  workers  in  all  branches 
of  science  and  to  give  a  stronger  impulse 
to  scientific  work,  iQoth  practical  and  theo- 
retical. The  society  publishes  "Reports" 
and  offers  special  facilities  for  carrying 
on  original  and  difficult  scientific  work. 


ADVERTISING 

The  international  association  was  formed 
in  1889  and  the  first  meeting  was  held  in 
Paris  in  the  following  year.  The  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  was  founded  in  1847.  It  is  organ- 
ized in  11  sections,  each  of  which  holds 
its  convention  at  the  annual  meeting  of 
the  association  held  during  the  summer. 
The  sections  include  those  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  me- 
chanical science  and  engineering,  geology 
and  geography,  zoology,  botany,  anthro- 
pology and  psychology,  social  and  eco- 
nomic science,  physiology  and  experimen- 
tal medicine,  and  education.  The  mem- 
bership is  about  8,000.  Similar  national 
associations  exist  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  South  Africa,  Australia,  and 
other  countries. 

ADVENT,  a  term  applied  by  the 
Christian  Church  to  certain  weeks  be- 
fore Christmas.  Anciently,  the  season 
of  Advent  consisted  of  six  weeks,  and 
this  is  still  the  duration  of  it  in  the  Greek 
Church.  In  the  Catholic  Church,  how- 
ever, and  in  the  Protestant  Churches  that 
observe  Advent,  it  only  lasts  four  weeks, 
beginning  with  the  Sunday  nearest  St. 
Andrew's  Day  (Nov.  30),  either  before  or 
after.  It  is  appointed  to  be  observed 
as  a  season  of  devotion,  being  intended 
to  commemorate  the  coming  of  Christ 
in  the  flesh,  and  to  direct  the  thoughts 
to  His  second  coming.  This  season  was 
observed  with  great  austerity  by  the 
primitive  Christians. 

ADVENTISTS,  a  sect  in  the  United 
States,  founded  by  William  Miller,  and 
sometimes  called  Millerites,  which  be- 
lieved that  Christ's  second  coming  would 
occur  in  October,  1843.  When  their  hopes 
were  not  realized,  the  number  of  be- 
lievers decreased.  The  Adventists  still 
look  with  certainty  for  the  coming  of 
Christ,  but  not  at  a  fixed  time.  They  are 
now  divided  into  the  following  bodies: 
Evangelical,  Advent  Christian,  Seventh 
Day,  Church  of  God,  Life  and  Advent 
Union,  and  Churches  of  God  in  Jesus 
Christ.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  Sev- 
enth Day  Adventists,  with  (in  1919)  4,181 
churches,  162,667  members,  1,102  or- 
dained ministers,  5,610  Sabbath  schools, 
1,446  young  people's  societies,  41  publish- 
ing houses  printing  142  periodicals,  32 
sanitariums,  and  total  contributions 
amounting  to  over  $6,985,000.  Of  the  77 
educational  institutions  connected  with 
the  church  16  have  college  courses.  The 
other  four  branches  had  a  total  member- 
ship (1919)  of  about  45,000,  with  850 
churches  and  970  ministers. 

ADVERTISING,  in  its  primary  sense, 
a  notification.  In  some  form  it  has 
existed   from   the   earliest   times,   wher- 


ADVERTISING 


37 


ADVERTISING 


ever  men  were  gathered  into  communities 
and  it  became  necessary  for  whatever 
reason  to  impart  information.  In  its 
primitive  form  it  was  verbal  and  carried 
on  by  messengers.  The  town  crier  re- 
tailing the  news  of  his  small  community 
to  his  fellows  in  the  market  place  was 
an  advertiser.  Later  on,  when  writing 
became  known,  the  written  work  began 
to  take  the  place  of  the  word  of  mouth. 
Advertisements  have  been  found  in  the 
clay  libraries  of  Chaldea  and  in  the 
papyri  of  Egypt.  It  was  early  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  commerce,  although  when 
illiteracy  was  the  rule,  this  often  took 
the  form  of  pictures  or  symbols.  Store- 
keepers, for  instance,  who  sold  milk  had 
the  picture  of  a  cow  displayed  so  as  to 
tell  illiterate  servants  where  they  could 
find  what  they  wanted.  Tavern  signs 
displayed  in  crude  pictorial  form  the 
special  claims  or  merits  of  the  hostelry. 

With  the  invention  of  printing,  an 
immense  impetus  was  given  to  advertis- 
ing. The  gazettes  and  other  printed 
sheets  of  the  England  of  some  centuries 
ago  devoted  an  increasing  amount  of 
their  limited  space  to  notification  of  run- 
away apprentices  or  wives,  or  ex- 
tolled the  merits  of  some  particu- 
lar coffee  or  play  house.  Nostrums  of 
all  kinds  were  widely  advertised  and 
formed  a  target  for  the  wit  and  satire 
of  Addison.  To  such  an  extent  had  this 
developed  in  the  time^  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,,  that  in  the  innocence  of  his 
heart  he  asserted  that  the  art  of  ad- 
vertising had  reached  perfection. 

In  the  sense  of  the  word  in  which  ad- 
vertising is  used  to-day,  it  is  a  com- 
paratively modern  development.  In  the 
United  States  its  really  important  be- 
ginnings were  contemporaneous  with  the 
growth  of  newspapers,  the  extension  and 
perfecting  of  the  postal  service,  the 
building  of  railroads,  and  the  in- 
vention of  the  telegraph.  It  began 
to  be  seen  that  merchandise  could  be 
sold  at  a  profit  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
community  in  which  the  business  or 
manufacturing  plant  was  located.  At 
first,  however,  the  field  was  so  largely 
engrossed  by  the  sellers  of  patent  medi- 
cines, nostrums,  and  shady  schemes,  de- 
signed to  ensnare  the  gullible,  that  there 
was  a  tinge  of  disrepute  connected  with 
it,  and  respectable  merchants  were  dif- 
fident about  being  found  in  such 
company.  Gradually  a  saner  view  mani- 
fested itself,  and  efforts  which  became 
increasingly  successful  were  made  to 
drive  out  the  quacks  and  adventurers 
and  leave  the  field  to  reputable  concerns. 
Flamboyant,  exaggerated  and  untruth- 
ful statements  in  some  cases  wrought 
their  own  cure  by  their  very  excesses. 


The  process  of  elimination  of  this  class 
of  advertising  was  accelerated  by  the 
co-operation  of  the  postal  authorities  and 
the  publishers  of  reputable  papers  and 
magazines.  To-day  the  fraudulent  or  il- 
legitimate advertisement  is  the  exception, 
where  formerly  it  was  the  rule.  Ad- 
vertising matter  is  carefully  scanned  by 
the  leading  periodicals,  and  if  dubious 
is  declined.  Some  papers  even  go  so  far 
as  to  refund  at  their  own  cost  any  loss 
suffered  by  reliance  on  an  advertisement 
inserted   in  their  columns. 

While  newspapers  and  periodicals  are 
the  chief  advertising  media,  they  by  no 
means  engross  the  field.  Billboards  and 
electrically  lighted  signs  acquaint  the 
public  by  day  and  night  with  the  merit 
of  a  given  article  and  impress  upon  the 
mind  the  name  or  trade-mark  of  the 
manufacturer.  Street-car  advertising  is 
carried  on  to  a  vast  extent,  and  when  it 
is  remembered  that  5,000,000,000  cash 
fares  are  paid  annually  in  the  United 
States  the  importance  of  this  medium 
is  made  manifest.  Hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars  are  spent  every  year  in  mail 
order  advertising,  where  through  the 
medium  of  a  letter,  circular,  or  catalogue, 
the  advertisement  goes  direct  from  the 
merchant  to  his  potential  customer.  The 
work  is  furthered  by  large  and  well- 
equipped  advertising  agencies,  who  act 
as  skilled  advisers  to  the  business  man 
who  seeks  a  market  for  his  goods,  and 
enable  him  to  get  the  largest  return  at 
the  least  expenditure. 

The  psychology  of  advertising  has 
been  a  subject  of  incessant  study,  and  it 
has  been  accepted  that  at  least  four  ele- 
ments are  essential  to  every  effective  ad- 
vertisement. It  must  (1)  attract  at- 
tention. Hence  the  value  of  clever 
slogans  and  attractive  headlines.  It 
must  (2)  arouse  interest.  This  is  done 
by  a  clear,  simple,  not  too  long  statement 
of  the  merits  of  the  article  in  question. 
It  must  (3)  create  desire.  This  is  done 
by  showing  how  the  acquisition  of  this 
article  will  benefit  the  reader  personally. 
And  it  must  (4)  inspire  decision  on  the 
part  of  the  person  addressed  to  make  that 
article  his  own.  There  are  infinite 
variations,  but  an  advertisement  that 
lacks  any  one  of  these  four  elements  is 
practically  worthless. 

Advertising  has  reached  its  highest  de- 
velopment in  the  United  States  where  it 
has  become  a  recognized  element  of 
nearly  every  large  business.  So-called 
"national"  advertising  is  carried  on 
through  magazines  and  papers  of  wide 
circulation  and  these  are  able  through 
this  circulation  to  demand  for  their  space 
extremely  large  sums,  ranging  from  $1,- 
000  to  $5,000  per  page  for  one  insertion. 


APVEBTISING 


38 


^GEAN  ISLANDS 


Although  advertising  has  reached  such 
an  enormous  development  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  still  generally  considered 
to  be  in  an  empirical  condition.  The 
methods  and  forms  to  be  used  in  adver- 
tising campaigns  to  a  great  extent  are 
left  in  the  hands  of  advertising  experts 
to  determine  the  mediums  to  be  used.  By 
keeping  a  strict  account,  by  means  of 
"keys,"  of  the  number  of  inquiries  re- 
ceived through  each  medium,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  a  large  extent  to  arrive  at  a 
knowledge  of  their  respective  values  as 
advertising  mediums.  In  spite  of  this, 
however,  there  still  remains  a  large  ele- 
ment of  chance.  Attempts  to  reduce  this 
element  have  been  made  on  an  elaborate 
scale  by  Professor  Walter  Dill  Scott 
and  others,,  who  have  analyzed  adver- 
tising over  a  number  of  years  in  an 
elaborate  manner,  and  have  been  able 
to  arrive  at  an  estimate  of  averages 
which  have  been  v,f  great  value. 

During  the  World  War  all  the  lead- 
ing governments  involved  entered  upon 
advertising  on  a  large  scale,  first  to 
secure  enlistments  in  their  armies  and 
afterward  to  raise  the  large  sums  nec- 
essary for  carrying  on  the  war  and  for 
the  relief  work  which  accompanied  it. 
While  all  agencies  of  advertising  were 
employed  in  this  work,  the  most  notable 
and  picturesque  method  was  the  employ- 
ment of  posters,  many  of  them  executed 
with  great  care  by  the  most  eminent 
artists  in  the  various  countries.  Many 
of  these  were  of  great  beauty  and  ar- 
tistic merit. 

The  development  of  advertising  has 
been  accompanied  by  abuses.  These 
usually  take  the  form  of  disfiguring 
public  places  and  landscapes  with  ad- 
vertising signs,  especially  along  the  lines 
of  railways.  Societies  have  been  or- 
ganized to  prevent  this,  with  excellent  re- 
sults. Several  railways  have  undertaken 
to  rid  the  landscapes  through  which  their 
lines  pass  of  objectionable  signs.  Similar 
efforts  have  been  made  to  limit  the 
erection  of  billboards  in  cities  to  places 
where  their  presence  would  be  most  in- 
offensive. 

Accompanying  the  conditions  of  the 
business  world  which  followed  the  World 
War,  advertising  took  on  a  great  im- 
petus in  1919  and  1920.  This  resulted 
not  only  from  a  desire  on  the  part  of 
business  men  to  increase  their  revenue, 
but  also  from  the  fact  that  many  firms 
found  it  more  profitable  to  invest  large 
sums  of  money  in  advertising  than  to 
pay  them  out  in  the  form  of  taxation  on 
their  surplus  profits.  As  a  result  of 
this,  many  magazines  of  large  circu- 
lation acquired  an  enormous  revenue 
through  increased  advertising.    In  many 


cases  the  space  given  to  the  advertising 
pages  greatly  exceeded  those  devoted 
to  text  matter,  even  in  magazines  de- 
voted to  general  literature.  There  are 
many  journals  devoted  to  the  technique 
of  advertising  and  several  of  these  have 
a  very  wide  general  circulation. 

ADVOCATE,  (1)  Originally  one  whose 
aid  was  called  in  or  invoked;  one  who 
helped  in  any  business  matter;  (2)  In 
law,  at  first,  one  who  gave  his  legal  aid 
in  a  case,  without,  however,  pleading,  this 
being  the  function  of  the  patronus;  (3) 
The  advocatus  fisci,  who  attended  to  the 
interests  of  the  fiscus,  or  the  emperor's 
privy  purse. 

In  the  old  German  empire,  a  person 
appointed  by  the  emperor  to  do  justice. 

In  the  Mediaeval  Church,  one  appointed 
to  defend  the  rights  and  revenues  of  a 
church  or  monastery.  The  word  advo- 
cate, in  the  sense  of  a  defender  of  the 
Church,  was  ultimately  superseded  by 
that  of  patron,  but  it  still  lingers  in  the 
term  advowson. 

In  English  law,  originally  one  who 
pleaded  a  cause  in  a  civil,  but  not  in  a 
criminal,  court. 

Now,  in  English  and  American  law, 
one  who  pleads  a  cause  in  any  court,  civil 
or  criminal.  It  is  not,  properly  speaking, 
a  technical  word,  but  is  used  only  in  a 
popular  sense,  as  synonymous  with  bar- 
rister or  counsel. 

In  the  army  the  judge-advocate  is  the 
officer  through  whom  prosecutions  before 
courts-martial  are  conducted.  There  is 
also  a  judge-advocate-general  for  the 
army  at  large. 

In  Scotch  law  an  advocate  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  advocates,  or 
Scottish  bar. 

wffiDILE,  in  ancient  Rome  magistrates 
who  had  charge  of  public  and  private 
buildings,  of  aqueducts,  roads,  sewers, 
weights,  measures,  the  national  worship, 
and,  specially,  when  there  were  no  cen- 
sors, public  morality.  There  were  two 
leading  divisions  of  aediles — cereales  and 
curule.  Their  insignia  of  office  were  like 
those  of  the  old  kings — the  toga  prsetexta 
(a  purple  robe),  and  the  sella  curulis,  or 
curule  chair,  ornamented  with  ivory. 

iEDUI  (id'we  or  ed-ii'e),  one  of  the 
most  powerful  tribes  in  Gaul  at  the  time 
of  Caesar's  arrival  (58  B.  c).  They 
formed  an  alliance  with  Caesar,  who 
freed  them  from  the  yoke  of  Ariovistus, 
but  they  joined  the  rest  of  the  Gauls 
under  Vercingetorix  in  the  great  and 
final  struggle  for  independence.  After 
his  victory,  Caesar  treated  them  leniently 
for  the  sake  of  their  old  alliance.  Their 
principal  town  was  Bibracte. 

.ffiGEAN  ISLANDS.   See  ARCHIPELAGO. 


^GEAN  SEA 


JENEAS 


^GEAN  SEA  (e-je'an  or  !'ga-an),  the 
old  name  of  the  gulf  between  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece,  now  usually  called  the  Gre- 
cian Archipelago. 

.ffiGEUS  (ig'os  or  ej'us),  a  king  of 
Athens,  son  of  Pandion,  and  father  of 
Theseus.  When  the  latter  sailed  to  Crete 
to  deliver  Athens  from  the  intolerable 
burden  of  the  tribute  due  to  the  Mino- 
taur, he  promised  his  father  to  hoist 
white  sails  on  his  return  as  a  signal  of 
safety.  But  the  hero  forgot  his  promise 
in  the  joy  of  triumph;  and  his  father, 
who  was  anxiously  watching  for  the  sign 
of  victory,  seeing  only  the  black  sails  of 
his  son's  ship  as  it  approached  the  coast 
of  Attica,  believed  that  he  had  perished, 
and  flung  himself  into  the  sea,  which 
from  him  was  named  the  ^Egean. 

iEGINA  (e-jl'na),  a  Greek  island  about 
40  square  miles  in  area,  in  the  Gulf  of 
^gina  (the  ancient  Saronicus  Sinus). 
It  is  mountainous,  with  deep  valleys  and 
chasms.  The  modern  town  of  iEgina 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town, 
at  the  N.  W.  end  of  the  island.  The  is- 
land contains  about  8,000  inhabitants. 
The  most  ancient  name  of  the  island  was 
(Enone,  and  the  Myrmidons  dwelt  in  its 
valleys  and  caverns.  For  a  century  be- 
fore the  Persian  war  it  was  a  prosper- 
ous state;  during  this  period  it  was  also 
the  chief  seat  of  Greek  art.  Its  sailors 
covered  themselves  with  glory  at  Salamis. 

^ginetan  Sculptures. — ^Egina  holds 
an  important  position  in  the  history  of 
Greek  art.  On  an  eminence  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  island  stand  the  ruins 
of  a  temple  of  Pallas  Athene.  Among 
these  ruins  a  series  of  statues  were  ex- 
cavated in  1811,  which  are  now  the  most 
remarkable  ornaments  of  the  Glyptothek 
at  Munich.  One  group  represents  a  com- 
bat of  Greeks  and  Trojans  for  the  body 
of  Achilles.  The  figures  are  true  to  na- 
ture, with  the  structure  of  bones,  mus- 
cles, and  even  veins,  distinctly  marked, 
but  there  is  no  individuality,  all  the  faces 
having  that  uniform  forced  smile  which 
is  characteristic  of  all  sculpture  before 
the  time  of  Phidias.  Probably  they  date 
from  not  more  than  fifty  years  before 
Phidias. 

^GIS  (e'jis  or  I'gis),  the  shield  of 
Zeus,  which  had  been  fashioned  by  He- 
phaestus   (Vulcan). 

AEHRENTHAL,  ALOIS  LEXA, 
COUNT  VON,  a  statesman  of  the  former 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  born  in  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  Bonn  and  Prague 
Universities,  entered  the  diplomatic  serv- 
ice in  1877,  and  was  rapidly  advanced 
until  1888,  when  he  was  appointed  Minis- 
ter to  Rumania.    In  the  following  year 


he  became  Ambassador  to  Russia  and 
served  in  this  capacity  until  1906,  when 
he  was  appointed  Premier  and  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian Empire.  It  was  largely  through  his 
influence  that  the  Turkish  provinces  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  annexed  to 
the  Austrian  Empire.  At  first  he  worked 
in  close  co-operation  with  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand,  heir  to  the  throne. 
This  association  continued  until  1910, 
when  Aehrenthal  withdrew  from  the  ag- 
gressive party  and  became  the  head  of 
the  peace  party.  The  two  men  quar- 
reled and  Von  Aehrenthal  offered  his 
resignation  which,  however,  was  not  ac- 
cepted by  the  Emperor,  who  fully  sup- 
ported his  peace  policy.  In  the  turmoil, 
however,  his  health  had  suffered  and  he 
died  in  1912. 

^LFBIC,  an  Anglo-Saxon  abbot,  sur- 
named  Grammaticus;  born  about  955. 
He  wrote  in  vigorous  Old  English,  com- 
piled a  Latin  grammar  and  glossary,  and 
translated  most  of  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  canons  for  the  reg- 
ulation of  the  clergy.  He  died  about  1020. 

-ffiNEAS  (en-e'as),  a  Trojan  prince, 
son  of  Anchises  and  the  goddess  Venus. 
The  care  of  his  infancy  was  intrusted  to 
a  nymph;  but  at  the  age  of  5  he  was  re- 
called to  Troy.  He  married  Creusa,  Pri- 
am's daughter,  by  whom  he  had  a  son, 
called  Ascanius.  When  Troy  was  in 
flames,  he  carried  away  upon  his  shoul- 
ders his  father  Anchises  and  the  statues 
of  his  household  gods,  leading  by  his 
hand  his  son  Ascanius,  and  leaving  his 
wife  to  follow  behind.  According  to  Ver- 
gil and  other  Latin  authors,  he  was  sail- 
ing from  Sicily  to  Italy  when  he  landed 
in  Epirus,  and  was  driven  on  the  coasts 
of  Africa  and  received  by  Dido,  Queen  of 
Carthage,  to  whom,  on  his  first  interview, 
he  gave  one  of  the  garments  of  the  beau- 
tiful Helen.  Dido  being  enamored  of 
him,  wished  to  marry  him;  but  he  left 
Carthage  by  order  of  the  gods.  In  his 
voyage  he  passed  to  Cumae,  where  the 
Sibyl  conducted  him  to  hell,  that  he 
might  hear  from  his  father  the  fate 
which  awaited  him  and  all  his  posterity. 
After  a  voyage  of  seven  years,  and  the 
loss  of  13  ships,  he  arrived  in  the  Tiber. 
Latinus,  the  king  of  the  country,  re- 
ceived him  with  hospitality,  and  prom- 
ised him  his  daughter  Lavinia,  who  had 
been  before  betrothed  to  King  Turnus 
by  her  mother  Amata.  To  prevent  this 
marriage,  Turnus  made  war  against 
^neas  and  was  killed,  ^neas  married 
Lavinia  and  succeeded  his  father-in-law. 
His  reign  was  but  of  short  duration,  va- 
rious accounts  being  given  of  the  cause 
of  his  death. 


^NEID  40 

^NEID,  one  of  the  great  epic  poems 
of  the  world.  It  was  written  in  Latin 
by  Vergil,  and  published  after  his  death, 
which  took  place  about  16  B.  C.  Its  hero 
is  ^neas,  one  of  the  Trojan  chiefs, 
whose  adventures  during  and  after  the 
siege  of  Troy  it  recounts,  till  the  time 
when  he  succeeded  in  fully  establishing 
himself  in  Italy. 

iEOLIAN  or  JEOUC,  one  of  the  three 
great  dialects  of  the  Greek  language, 
the  others  being  the  Doric  and  the 
Ionic.  The  expression,  Attic  dialect, 
often  occurs,  but  this  should  be  re- 
garded as  the  normal  type  of  Greek 
rather  than  as  a  divergent  dialect  of 
that  tongue. 

JEOLIAN  HARP,  a  harp  played  by 
^olus — in  other  words,  by  the  wind. 
It  is  made  by  stretching  strings  of  cat- 
gut over  a  wooden  sound-box.  If  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  wind,  a  suc- 
cession of  pleasing  sounds  proceeds 
from  it,  plaintive  when  the  breeze  is 
slight,  but  bolder  as  it  increases  in 
force. 

-ffiOLIANS,  the  name  of  one  of  those 
peoples  classed  under  the  general  ap- 
pellation of  Greeks.  We  trace  the  name 
of  ^olians  to  Thessaly,  their  primitive 
abode,  as  far  as  we  know,  where  they 
appear  to  have  been  closely  related  to 
the  Phthiotic  Achseans  of  the  same  coun- 
try. The  ^olian  colonies  on  the  Asiatic 
main  land  were  widely  spread,  extending 
at  least  from  Cyzicus,  along  the  shores 
of  the  Hellespont  and  the  JEgean,  to  the 
river  Caicus,  and  even  the  Hermus. 
There  were  12  cities  or  states  included 
in  the  older  settlements  in  that  tract  of 
Asia  Minor  on  the  ^gean,  which  was 
known  in  Greek  geography  by  the  name 
of  ^olis,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  sub- 
sequent larger  division  of  Mysia.  Smyr- 
na, one  of  them,  which  early  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  lonians,  the  neighbors  of 
the  ^olians,  still  exists  nearly  on  the 
old  spot,  with  exactly  the  same  name. 

^OLUS  (e'6-lus),  the  god  of  the  winds, 
■who  was  fabled  by  the  early  poets  to 
have  his  seat  in  the  floating  island  of 
^olia;  but  the  Latin  and  later  Greek 
poets  placed  him  in  the  Lipari  Isles. 
Here  the  winds  were  pent  up  in  vast 
caves,  it  being  the  duty  of  ^olus  to  let 
them  loose  and  to  restrain  their  violence 
at  the  pleasure  of  Jupiter. 

^ON,  a  period  of  time,  a  lifetime,  a 
generation;  a  long  space  of  time,  eter- 
nity; a  space  of  time  clearly  marked 
out;  a  period,  an  age,  a  \lispensation. 

In  modern  science  and  literature,  a 
period   of   immense    duration,    specially 


AERONAUTICS 

one  of  those  which  geology  makes  known^ 
as  the   Silurian  and  Devonian  aeons. 

AERIAL  LAW.    See  Aeronautics. 

AERODYNAMICS,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  force  exerted  by  air  when 
in  motion. 

AEROLITE  or  AEROLITH,  a  stone 
which  falls  from  the  air,  or  sky.  The 
name  is  somewhat  inappropriate,  now 
that  it  is  known  that  the  connection  of 
these  stones  with  the  air  is  but  slight, 
they  simply  traversing  it  as,  under  the 
operation  of  gravity,  they  fall  from  the 
regions  beyond  to  the  earth.  See  Me- 
teorite. 

AERONAUTICS,  the  science  of  arti- 
ficial flying. 

The  first  ventures  into  this  field  date 
back  to  1783.  They  were  based  chiefly 
upon  the  discovery  by  Cavendish  of 
hydrogen  gas,  and  his  demonstration  that 
it  was  lighter  than  air.  Scientists  were 
quick  to  grasp  the  idea  that  if  containers 
of  sufficient  size  and  light  weight  could 
be  secured  and  filled  with  hydrogen 
they  would  ascend.  The  first  experi- 
ments in  balloons,  however,  were  carried 
on  without  the  use  of  hydrogen  gas. 
Stephen  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  brothers, 
of  Annonay,  France,  in  1783  made  a 
paper  balloon  of  a  capacity  of  700  cubic 
feet,  which  they  filled  with  heated  air 
from  a  fire  beneath  the  bag.  On  June 
5,  1783,  this  pioneer  in  aerial  navigation 
rose  to  a  height  of  a  thousand  feet.  A 
little  later,  a  French  scientist,  Charles, 
with  Cavendish's  discovery  in  mind, 
planned  a  balloon  which  should  be  filled 
with  hydrogen  gas  instead  of  heated  air. 
The  first  obstacle  encountered  was  the 
difficulty  of  creating  a  perfectly  air- 
tight envelope.  This  was  overcome  by 
the  discovery  by  two  brothers  named 
Roberts,  that  a  coating  of  dissolved  rub- 
ber over  silk  fabric  would  prevent  the 
hydrogen  gas  from  escaping.  The  test 
of  this  new  balloon  was  made  on  Aug. 
20,  1783,  and  the  bag  as  soon  as  liberated 
rose  to  a  great  height,  but  because  of 
too  great  inflation  of  the  gas  split 
asunder  and  fell  to  the  ground. 

Hitherto  the  balloons  had  carried  no 
passengers,  but  on  Nov.  21,  1783,  Pilatre 
de  Rozier  and  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes 
sailed  over  the  Seine  and  a  large  part 
of  Paris  in  a  balloon  filled  with  heated 
rir,  remaining  above  the  earth  25  min- 
utes. A  few  days  later,  Dec.  1,  an  ascent 
was  made  by  Messrs.  Charles  and  Roberts 
in  a  balloon  filled  with  hydrogen  gas. 
In  the  two  years  ensuing,  many  flights 
were  made,  the  most  notable  of  which 
was  that  of  Blanchard,  the  Englishman, 
who,  accompanied  by  an  American,  Dr. 


AERONAUTICS 


41 


AERONAUTICS 


Jeffries,  crossed  the  English  Channel 
from  Dover  and  landed  at  Calais. 

Up  to  this  time  ballooning  had  been 
carried  on  as  an  adventure  or  a  sport. 
Scientists  intervened,  and  sought  through 
this  novel  medium  to  ascertain  scientific 
data  that  so  far  had  been  based  only 
on  conjecture.  The  first  ascent  with 
this  object  in  view  was  made  in  1804 
from  Paris.  It  was  learned  that  as  the 
balloon  rose  the  air  became  drier  and 
that  at  23i,000  feet  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  air  did  not  vary  from 
that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  two  most  notable  ascents  recorded 
were  those  made  by  Glaisher  and  Cox- 
well  in  September  of  1862  and  of  Berson 


SPHERICAL   BALLOON — UNITED   STATES 

and  Suring,  July  31,  1901.  In  the  former 
ascent  it  was  claimed  that  a  height  of 
seven  miles  was  reached,  but  this  was 
not  susceptible  of  proof,  because  at  29,- 
000  feet  Glaisher  lost  consciousness.  The 
ascent  continued  until  Coxwell,  who  was 


almost  paralyzed,  opened  the  valve  with 
his  teeth,  and  the  balloon  finally  landed 
with  both  passengers  safe.  More  reliable 
figures  as  to  altitude  were  those  recorded 
by  Berson  and  Suring,  when  they  as- 
cended from  Berlin  to  a  height  of  6.7 
miles.  This  is  the  greatest  height  that 
has  ever  been  attained  by  men  in  a  bal- 
loon, although  it  was  exceeded  by  Major 
Schroeder  of  America  who  reached  ai> 
altitude  of  33,113  feet  in  an  airplane. 

Within  the  last  twenty-five  years,  many 
notable  balloon  flights  have  been  re- 
corded, some  of  them  negotiated  with 
great  risk  to  the  aerial  adventurers.  Up 
to  the  present  century,  the  longest 
flight  was  that  made  by  M.  Goddard,  who 
traveled  the  distance  of  1,032  miles  from 
Leipsic  to  Wilna  in  a  little  over  twenty- 
four  hours.  In  1900  De  la  Vaulx  covered 
the  distance  from  Vincennes,  France,  to 
Korosticheff,  Russia,  1,193  miles,  in  35% 
hours.  In  1912,  Dubonnet  and  Dupont 
made  a  trip  of  1,211  miles  in  the  "Con- 
dor II."  But  a  still  longer  flight  was 
that  of  Rumpelmayer,  who  on  March  24, 
1913,  completed  a  journey  of  1,493  miles 
from  Paris  to  the  vicinity  of  Kharkoff, 
Russia.  In  America,  Hawley  and  Post 
in  the  balloon  "America"  drifted  1,172 
miles  from  St.  Louis,  landing  in  a  dense 
Canadian  forest. 

The  great  defect  of  the  globular  bal- 
loon that  was  recognized  almost  from 
the  date  of  its  invention  was  its  inability 
to  be  propelled  or  steered.  The  huge 
machine  was  wholly  at  the  mercy  of  the 
winds.  It  could  rise  by  lightening  its 
load;  it  could  descend  by  releasing  its 
gas;  but  it  could  not  choose  its  direction 
of  flight.  No  goal  except  that  of  altitude 
could  be  achieved.  The  devices  that  were 
originally  employed  to  supply  this  need 
were  such  as  to  almost  provoke  a 
smile.  Blanchard,  the  English  aeronaut, 
tried  to  use  oars  and  a  rudder,  but  failed. 
Another  device  was  the  making  of  a 
large  hole  in  the  side  of  the  balloon, 
through  which  the  gas  escaping  was  by 
reaction  to  force  the  balloon  forward. 
What  doomed  all  these  contrivances  to 
failure  in  advance  was  the  spherical 
shape  of  the  balloon.  The  surface  offered 
to  the  wind  was  too  great  to  be  over- 
come. It  was  only  when  the  shape  of 
the  balloon  was  changed  that  propulsion 
and  direction  became  possible. 

The  first  dirigible  balloon  that  could 
be  called  a  success  was  the  invention  of 
Giffard„  a  Frenchman.  He  constructed 
a  spindle-shaped  bag  that  was  143  feet 
long,  39  feet  in  diameter,  and  had  a 
capacity  of  75,000  cubic  feet.  From  be- 
neath the  bag  hung  a  car  that  carried 
a  3-horse-power  engine  that  drove  a 
three- blade  propeller  at  the  rate  of  110 


AEBONAUTICS 


42 


AERONAUTICS 


turns  a  minute.  A  triangular  sail  at  the  dent  of  Paris,  though  of  Brazilian  birth, 
end  seiT^ed  as  a  rudder.  The  first  trip  made  notable  advances  in  the  development 
bad  only  a  relative  success,  as  the  strong    of  the  dirigible  and  created  a  sensation 


A  SPHERICAL  BALLOON  AND   BALLOON   SHED  USED  IN   THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


wind  was  inimical  to  the  experiment,  but 
GifFard  demonstrated  that  he  could  steer 
his  craft  readily  and  attain  a  speed  of 
from  six  to  ten  feet  a  second.  He  had 
solved  the  problem  of  directed  and  pro- 
pelled aeronautical  voyaging.    His  work 


CLCVATING   PLANC& 
ONE  ON  CACH  3IDC 

or  - 


a  little  later  by  the  ease  and  accuracy 
with  which  he  circled  the  Eiffel  Tower 
in  Paris.  In  Germany,  the  famous  air- 
craft that  took  its  name  from  its  inde- 
fatigable inventor.  Count  Zeppelin, 
was    pushed    to    completion    in     1900, 


RUDDER 


FUSELAGE 


TWO  120  HP  UNION  MOTORS. 

SIX   CYLINDERS  EACH.  ONE! 

ON  EACH  side:  OF  rUSELAGE. 


UNITED    STATES   NAVY   DIRIGIBLE,   TYPE 


was  greatly  improved  on  by  a  compatriot, 
Renard.  In  1884  he  built  the  airship 
"La  France,,"  which  was  a  pronounced 
success.  His  motive  power  was  elec- 
tricity, furnished  by  a  motor  that 
weighed  220  pounds  and  had  9  horse 
power.     In  1898  Santos-Dumont,  a  resi- 


but  it  was  not  until  1910  that  the  first 
great  passenger  Zeppelin  made  its  initial 
trip  over  Lake  Constance  and  made 
aerial  traveling  a  matter  of  ease  and 
luxury  and  measurably  of  safety.  Scien- 
tific study  of  temperatures  at  high  alti- 
tudes has  been  facilitated. 


AERONAITTICS 

While  the  invention  and  perfecting  of 
the  balloon  was  a  triumph  of  human  in- 
genuity, it  offered  few  of  the  difficulties 
that  faced  those  who  dreamed  of  navi- 
gating the  air  in  a  heavier-than-air 
machine.  The  very  name  seemed  to  defy 
the  immutable  law  of  gravitation.  But 
the  audacity  of  the  idea  acted  as  a  stimu- 
lant rather  than  a  deterrent.  For 
centuries,  men  have  tried  to  achieve  the 
seemingly  impossible.  In  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,,  who 
did  so  many  things  and  did  them  ex- 


43 


AERONAUTICS 


resented  marked  advances  on  anything 
before  achieved,  they  fell  short  of  real 
success.  Both  Maxim's  and  Adier's  ma- 
chines were  wrecked  at  their  first  trial. 
Langley  did  somewhat  better.  Congress 
had  appropriated  $50,000  to  further  his 
invention.  He  had  constructed  a  tandem 
monoplane  with  48  feet  of  wing  spread 
and  52  feet  in  length.  A  50-horse-power 
engine  was  employed.  His  experiments 
were  carried  on  over  the  Potomac  river, 
but  at  each  of  its  two  trials  the  machine 
was  wrecked  and  thrown  into  the  river. 


THE   FIRST   WRIGHT   BIPLANE 


cellently,  sketched  out  several  devices, 
which  were  however  ineffective,  because 
of  the  lack  of  the  motor  power  that  suc- 
ceeding centuries  have  supplied.  In  the 
19th  century  a  great  deal  of  attention 
was  devoted  to  the  subject  in  England. 
Gayley,  Henson,  Wenham  and  String- 
fellow  supplied  illuminating  ideas  that 
were  afterward  utilized,  and  contribu- 
tions were  made  by  Penaud  and  Mouillard 
in  France.  Only,  however,  with  the  ap- 
proach of  the  20th  century  did  these 
theories  and  experiments  begin  to  give 
a  real  promise  of  success.  Otto  Lilien- 
thal,  a  German  inventor,  demonstrated 
the  principles  of  passive  flight,  the  value 
of  the  arched  wings  and  the  pressure  of 
air  upon  the  wings  at  various  angles. 
Had  he  not  met  with  a  fatal  accident  in 
1896,  he  might  have  anticipated  the 
Wrights.  Pilcher,  Chanute,  and  Mont- 
gomery elaborated  and  improved  on 
Lilienthal's  work.  In  the  period  between 
1890  and  1903^  aeroplanes  were  built  by 
Langley  in  America,  Ader  in  France,  and 
Maxim  in  England,  but  though  they  rep- 


While  the  defective  launching  apparatus 
was  chiefly  responsible  for  the  failure, 
there  was  a  reaction  in  public  interest, 
no  more  money  was  furnished  by  Con- 
gress, and  the  project  was  generally  ridi- 
culed. 

It  remained  for  the  Wright  brothers, 
two  remarkable  young  men  of  Ohio,  to 
achieve  the  actual  mastery  of  the  air  in 
a  heavier-than-air  machine.  During  their 
boyhood  days,  they  had  been  obsessed  by 
the  idea  of  flying,  but  their  thoughts  did 
not  take  a  practical  turn  in  that  direction 
until  1896.  Then  they  gave  themselves 
up  to  experiment  and  study,  and  in  1900 
began  to  try  to  fly  at  Kitty  Hawk,  N.  C, 
where  the  sand  dunes  and  wide  spaces 
gave  them  ample  room  for  tests.  Nearly 
three  years  passed,  however,  years  of 
tremendous  labor  and  concentrated 
thought  and  indomitable  resolution.  Then, 
on  Dec.  17,  1903,  they  actually  flew  in  a 
light  glider  fitted  with  a  small  motor. 
Their  first  flights  lasted  only  for  from 
12  to  59  seconds.  But  they  had  flown — 
.and  the  aeroplane  was  born. 


AEBONAUTICS 


44 


AERONATTTICS 


Even  then  they  did  not  spread  their 
success  broadcast,  and  it  was  only  in 
1908,  after  five  years  more  of  hard  work, 
that  they  made  a  flight  in  public.  But 
such  news  travels  fast,  and  the  world 
of  science  and  invention  was  immensely 
stirred  by  what  was  permitted  to  be 
known.  A  school  of  enthusiastic  ex- 
perimenters sprang  up  in  France,  and 
practical  results  were  soon  shown  by 
Bleriot,  Farnani,  Delagrange  and  others, 
who  by  applying  what  they  had  learned 
of  the  work  of  the  Wrights,  constructed 
machines  that  made  actual  flights.     The 


greater  load  that  it  is  able  to  carry.  The 
monoplane  has  extreme  speed  because  of 
its  lightness  and  can  climb  more  readily 
than  the  others,  but  its  management  de- 
mands proficiency  and  involves  more  haz- 
ardous risks.  It  is  unexcelled  for  sport  or 
racing,  but  its  inability  to  carry  heavy 
loads  detracts  from  its  practical  value. 
The  biplane  can  adapt  itself  to  almost 
any  conditions  of  air  and  weather,  and 
its  strength  and  carrying  capacity  have 
made  it  the  most  popular  type.  The 
triplane  is  as  yet  little  used,  but  it  can 
be  depended  upon  as  a  cargo  and  passen- 


A   CURTISS   FLYING-BOAT 


first  officially  recorded  European  aero- 
plane flight  was  made  by  Santos-Dumont 
in  1906.  He  flew  a  distance  of  700  feet, 
remaining  in  the  air  for  21  seconds.  In 
1907  Farnam  flew  2,500  feet  in  52.5 
seconds.  In  1909,  Bleriot  crossed  the 
English  Channel  from  Calais  to  Dover 
in  37  minutes.  In  1908,  the  Wright 
brothers  visited  France  and  made  flights 
of  several  hours'  duration.  They  were 
showered  with  honors  by  the  French 
Government  and  people.  From  that  time 
on  the  art  of  flying  took  its  place  as  an 
\.Tiportant  factor  in  the  world's  life  and 
progress.  For  the  military  history  and 
uses  of  aeroplanes,  see  Aviation  in  the 
World  War,  below. 

There  are  three  leading  types  of  planes 
in  general  use.  The  monoplane,  as  its 
name  implies,  has  one  plane  surface;  the 
biplane  has  two,  one  above  the  other,  and 
is  by  far  the  most  common;  the  triplane 
has    three,    and    its    value    lies    in    the 


ger  carrier  because  of  its  strength.  A 
combination  of  aeroplane  and  boat  is 
the  hydroaeroplane,  that  can  navigate 
either  element.  Some  of  them  carry 
single  floats  and  others  double  floats, 
for  the  purpose  of  alighting  on  the  water. 
Strength  is  a  prime  requisite  in  their 
construction,  in  order  to  enable  them  to 
withstand  the  buffeting  of  the  waves. 
The  buoyancy  of  the  floats,  in  order  to 
insure  safety  from  disaster,  should  be 
double  the  weight  of  the  machine  when 
it  is  loaded  to  capacity. 

During  the  World  War  the  attention 
of  the  world  was  engrossed  by  the  great 
conflict,  and  there  was  little  time  or  op- 
portunity for  spectacular  or  long-dis- 
tance flights.  But  with  the  cessation  of 
the  struggle  there  came  in  quick  suc- 
cession a  series  of  endurance  and  dis- 
tance contests  that  broke  all  previous 
records  in  the  history  of  aviation.  A 
class  of  airmen  had  been  developed  to 


AERONAUTICS 


45 


AERONAUTICS 


whom  danger  was  a  part  of  the  day's 
work,  and  feats  were  attempted  that 
previously  would  have  daunted  the  most 
daring.  Prominent  among  these  were 
the  transoceanic  flights.  The  honor  of 
first  having  crossed  the  ocean  in  a 
heavier  than  air  machine  fell  to  America. 
On  May  16,  1919,  the  United  States 
navy  seaplane  "NC-4"  "hopped  off"  from 
Trepassey  Bay,  Newfoundland,  on  the 
first  leg  of  a  trip  to  Lisbon,  Portugal. 
It  made  the  distance  to  Horta  in  the 
Azores,  1,200  miles,  in  15  hours  and  18 
minutes.  It  reached  Lisbon  on  May  27, 
and  then  flew  from  there  to  Plymouth, 
England,  making  one  stop  at  Ferro], 
on  May  31.    The  entire  distance  traveled 


They  passed  through  alternate  layers 
of  fog  and  cloud  and  snow.  At  times 
they  had  to  climb  out  and  chip  the  ice 
off  their  engine.  There  were  periods 
when  they  did  not  know  v/hether  they 
were  traveling  in  the  customary  way  or 
upside  down.  They  were  at  one  time 
so  near  the  surface  of  the  sea  that  they 
were  in  danger  of  being  engulfed.  But 
they  plunged  on,  and  the  following  morn- 
ing their  machine  landed  nose  down  in 
a  bog  at  Clifden,  Ireland.  The  aviators 
were  badly  shaken  up,  but  not  otherwise 
injured.  Alcock  was  knighted  for  his 
exploit  and  received  the  "Daily  Mail" 
prize  of  $50,000.  He  was  killed  in  an 
airplane     accident,     while     flying     over 


«'^'^T^«^_TAlLPtANE/ 


EN6INe 


PROPeUEH 


SNTROl. 

Rudder  ^'"es 


^     Bottom 

AILERON 


LAINDIN&  WHEELS 
DIAGRAM  OF  A  BRITISH  VICKERS-VIMY  BIPLANE.      AN  AIRPLANE  OF  THIS  TYPE  MADE 
THE  FIRST  NON-STOP  FLIGHT   ACROSS  THE  ATLANTIC 


tvas  3,925  nautical  miles,  and  the  total 
flying  time  was  57  hours  and  16  minutes. 
But  while  America  won  honors  for 
the  first  crossing  of  the  ocean,  a  flight 
that  was  still  more  sensational,  because 
it  involved  no  stop  on  the  way  and  be- 
cause the  hazards  attending  it  were 
greater,  was  that  made  by  Captr.in  John 
Alcock,  of  England,  who  with  one  com- 
panion flew  from  St.  John's,  Newfound- 
land, to  Clifden,  Ireland,  a  distance  of 
1,960  miles,  in  16  hours  and  12  minutes. 
The  trip  was  made  in  a  Vickers-Vimy 
biplane  with  a  Rolls-Royce  engine.  The 
trip  was  started  on  June  14,  1919,  and 
from  the  beginning  the  conditions  were 
the  worst  imaginable.  The  aviators  had 
no   light    from    sun    or    moon    or    stars. 


Normandy  in  the  December  following. 
See  Alcock,  Sir  John. 

A  notable  attempt,  that  if  it  did  not 
achieve  success  at  least  deserved  it,  was 
the  flight  of  Hawker  and  Grieve.  They 
started  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  a  Sop- 
with  biplane  May  18,  1919.  The  team 
flew  from  St.  John's  directly  toward 
Ireland,,  but  after  traveling  twelve  and 
a  half  hours  and  making  about  1,100 
miles,  the  circulation  system  became 
clogged  and  they  were  forced  to 
descend.  Luckily  they  were  picked  up 
by  a  Danish  steamer,  and  six  days  later 
were  landed  in  England,  where  they 
had  been  given  up  as  lost. 

The  first  dirigible  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
was   the    British    airship    "R-34."      This 


rJjj^±!J.rrHIEL 


R-34,  BRITISH  DIRIGIBLE  THAT  MADE  THE  FIRST  BALLOON  FUGHT  ACROSS  THE  ATLANTIC 


AERONAUTICS 


46 


AERONAUTICS 


gigantic  craft  was   643   feet   long,  was    tinental  race,  completing  the  round  trip 
driven  by  five  engines  of  275  horse  power    of    5,400    miles    in  67  hours,  3  minutes 


each  and  was  capable  of  a  speed  of  from 
40  to  60  miles  an  hour.  She  left  East 
Fortune,  Scotland,  on  July  2,,  1919,  and 
landed  atMineola,  N.Y.,  in  108  hours  and 
12  minutes  flying  time.  The  distance 
was    3,130   miles.     Her   return   to   Eng- 


and  40  seconds.  In  the  spring  of  1920,  a 
successful  flight  was  made  by  British  avi- 
ators from  Cairo  to  the  Cape  in  Africa. 
On  Dec.  10,  1919,  Captain  Ross  Smith, 
an  Australian  aviator,  landed  at  Port 
Darwin,     Australia,    thus    winning    the 


land,  July  9-12,  was  made  in  74  hours    aeroplane  race  from  London  to  Australia, 


/        \ 


FRAME  STRUCTURE 
CONTAINS  1^  OA^  FILLEO, 
BALLONETS 


\         5ILK  COVER 


FORE 
60ND0Lf\ 
CONTAIN/N6 
/VfiV/6ftTIO/<f 
CABIN,  ENOINE, 
kV/R£L£5S. 


MIDSHIP      . 
ENGINE  CARi 


CARRYING  CAPACITY  30T0NS 
Fl  V£  Z  7S  HOR5£-POW£R  ENGINES 
FOUR  GONDOLAS 


REAR  GONOOU 
TWO  MOTORS     j/f' 
GEARED  TO        "^ 
ONE  PROPELLER 


DIAGRAM   OF  THE  BRITISH  DIRIGIBLE  R-34 


ind  56  minutes.  The  total  distance 
traveled  in  the  round  trip  was  6,330 
miles,  and  the  time  was  183  hours  and 
8  minutes. 

Other  notable  events  in  aviation  in 
America  were  the  New  York-Toronto 
air  race  and  the  trans-continental  race 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  and 
return.  In  the  first-named  contest,  the 
winner  was  Lieut.  B.  W.  Maynard  as  re- 
gards actual  net  flying  time.  He  aver- 
aged more  than  two  miles  a  minute  for 
the  total  distance  of  1,042  miles. 
The    same    aviator   won    the    trans-con- 


via  India,  which  had  been  begun  on  Nov. 
12.  The  altitude  record  was  made  by 
Major  R.  Schroeder  of  America,  who 
rose  to  a  height  of  33,113  feet  on  Feb.  27, 
1920. 

Aerial  mail  service  has  been  established 
in  the  United  States  between  important 
cities,  and  regular  cargo  and  passenger 
service  is  maintained  by  air  from  London 
to  Paris,  Rome  to  Milan,  and  from  Berlin 
to  various  cities  of  Germany. 

Aviation  in  the  Wo7'ld  War. — The 
conflict  that  convulsed  the  world  for 
over  four  years  differed  from  any  that 


AERONAUTICS 


47 


AERONAUTICS 


preoeded  it,  in  the  use  of  aviation  as  an 
offensive  and  defensive  arm  of  military 
service.  The  airplane  had  been  demon- 
strated as  really  practicable  for  navi- 
gation of  the  air  only  since  1908,,  when 
the  Wright  brothers  had  given  their 
tests  in  Paris.  For  some  time  after 
that,  it  was  thought  of  chiefly  in  con- 
nection with  sports,  and  realization  of 
its  great  importance  in  war  was  slow 
in  coming.  Even  when  the  military 
authorities  of  the  various  nations 
took  the  matter  up,  they  thought  of  it 


taking  advantage  of  darkness  for  with- 
drawals and  renewals  of  troops.  Two 
notable  failures  of  aerial  observers 
occurred  when  the  Germans  were  able 
to  concentrate  vast  masses  of  men  on 
a  Verdun  sector  in  1916  with  the 
French  generals  all  at  sea  as  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  attack  was 
coming,  and  again  when  Hindenburg 
was  able  to  withdraw  his  men  from 
the  Arras  salient  in  March,  1917,  without 
the  Allied  aviators  having  learned  of 
the   movement.     The   reasons  for  these 


A  GERMAN    "TAUBE"    MONOPLANE 


chiefly  as  an  aid  in  reconnoissance.  It 
could  go  where  human  spies  or  scouts 
could  not.  No  trenches  or  entangle- 
ments could  hinder  it  from  seeking  out 
the  location  and  movements  of  the 
enemy.  But  its  enormous  value  for 
other  work  was  apprehended  dimly  if 
at  all.  This  was  shown  by  the  com- 
paratively small  number  of  planes 
possessed  by  the  belligerents  when  the 
war  started.  Germany,  the  best  equipped 
of  all  the  warring  nations  in  this  re- 
spect, had  not  quite  1,000;  England  had 
only  250,  and  France  had  barely  200.  _ 

As  a  scout,  the  airplane  may  be  said 
to  have  met  expectations.  The  move- 
ments and  concentrations  of  the  enemy 
were  detected  with  a  fair  amount  of 
success.  It  was  not  wholly  and  always 
reliable,  however,  especially  as  the  war 
progressed,  and  both  sides  grew  expert 
in   camouflaging    their   movements    and 


occasional  failures  can  be  readily  un- 
derstood. The  aviator  has  to  fly  so  high 
to  avoid  attack  from  anti-aircraft  guns, 
or  so  fast  to  escape  the  attack  of  enemy 
airmen,  that  his  opportunities  of  obser- 
vation are  lessened.  A  height  of  less 
than  10,000  feet  was  considered  unsafe, 
as  anti-aircraft  guns  developed  in  range 
and  accuracy  during  the  progress  of 
the  war.  Under  such  conditions,  to 
which  must  often  be  added  unfavorable 
weather,  accurate  observation  was  often 
impossible.  Still,  with  all  these  han- 
dicaps the  aerial  service  justified  itself 
as  a  valuable  observation  arm  of  the 
service. 

At  sea  also  its  value  was  demonstrated. 
The  seaplane  soaring  in  the  air  could 
detect  the  wake  of  a  submarine  more 
readily  than  it  could  be  seen  from  the 
deck  of  a  vessel.  The  "mother  ship," 
on   which    the    seaplane   could    descend, 


AERONAUTICS 


48 


AERONAUTICS 


from  which  it  could  rise,  and  where  it 
could  receive  repairs  and  supplies, 
enabled  them  to  operate  a  long  distance 
off  the  coast  and  made  them  the  "eyes 
of  the  fleet."  They  could  give  warning 
of  the  approach  of  a  hostile  squadron 


miles.  He  had  time  to  study  a  suspicious 
thicket  or  clump  of  trees,  and  see 
whether  it  really  marked  a  concealed 
gun  position.  He  could  keep  constantly 
in  touch  with  his  batteries  by  telephone. 
To   be  sure,  his   work  was   extremely 


A   THREE-INCH   ANTI-AIRCRAFT   GUN,    MOUNTED   ON    A   TRUCK 


long  before  it  hove  in  view.  They  could 
announce  to  France  and  England,  as 
they  frequently  did,  the  coming  of  raid- 
ing Zeppelins  and  airplanes. 

For  photographic  work,  the  airplane 
proved  invaluable.  The  camera  was 
truthful  and  never  in  a  hurry.  What 
the  airman's  eyes  frequently  could  not 
see  was  recorded  by  the  camera,  to  be 
carefully  deciphered  at  headquarters 
later  on.  In  this  way,  trenches  and 
fortifications  could  be  clearly  traced, 
and  operations  could  be  intelligently 
based   upon   these   records. 

At  first  the  airplane  was  chiefly 
relied  on  by  both  sides  for  an  aid  to  the 
artillery  in  directing  its  fire.  But 
gradually  it  fell  into  disuse  for  this 
purpose.  The  height  at  which  it  had 
to  fly  made  its  directions  often  in- 
accurate and  then  too  the  increasedly 
skillful  use  of  camouflage  in  concealing 
the  gun  locations  of  the  enemy  thwarted 
the   observer's   efforts. 

Gradually  this  use  of  the  airplane 
was  discarded,  and  the  kite  balloon  took 
its  place.  _  The  work  of  the  observer 
stationed  in  the  balloon  was  less  spec- 
tacular than  that  of  the  aviator,  but 
far  more  accurate,  and  in  many  respects 
more  important.  His  work  was  not 
marred  by  haste.  He  had  powerful 
glasses   that   gave   him  a   radius   of   10 


hazardous.  But  he  had  to  be  a  fatalist 
and  remain  quietly  in  his  position.  His 
balloon  offered  an  alluring  target  for 
the  enemy's  long-range  guns.  Hostile 
aviators  swooped  dovsm  at  the  great  bag 
and  sought  to  puncture  it  with  bullets. 
If  an  incendiary  bullet  penetrated  the 
fabric  and  ignited  the  hydrogen  gas,  the 
balloon  was  doomed.  Not  more  than 
15  or  20  seconds  would  elapse  before 
the  explosion  came.  The  observer's  only 
salvation  then  was  the  parachute  with 
which  each  was  equipped.  In  the  17 
days  before  the  armistice  was  signed, 
the  American  army  alone  lost  21  balloons 
in  this  way,  but  in  return  our  own 
aviators  and  artillery  brought  down  50 
German  balloons  in  the  same  period. 

When  the  war  began,  the  Germans  had 
about  100  kite  balloons  of  the  Drachen 
type.  The  Allies  had  practically  none. 
They  set  to  work,  however,  and  even- 
tually produced  the  Caquot  balloon, 
which  proved  to  have  so  many  advan- 
tages over  the  Drachen  that  Germany 
herself  finally   adopted   it. 

The  Caquot  balloon  has  a  length  of 
93  feet,  while  its  largest  diameter  is  28 
feet.  It  has  a  capacity  of  37,500  cubic 
feet  of  hydrogen  gas,  and  this  proves 
sufficient  to  lift  the  mooring  cable,  the 
basket^  two  observers  and  all  necessary 
equipment    to   a   height,   if    desired,    of 


AERONAUTICS 


49 


AERONAUTICS 


5,000  feet.  The  lines  are  so  curved  as 
to  offer  the  least  possible  resistance  to 
the  air.  It  is  made  of  rubberized  cotton 
cloth.  It  has  lobes  of  rubberized  fabric 
to  act  as  rudders.  When  the  wind  blows, 
the  lobes,  which  are  attached  to  the 
rear  third  of  the  balloon,  fill  with  wind. 
When  the  air  is  calm,  the  lobes  hang 
loosely. 

The  construction  of  the  balloon  makes 
it  ride  ^  horizontally  and  almost  directly 
above  its  moorings.  It  is  released  and 
drawn  down  again  by  a  windlass  mounted 
on  a  motor  truck,,  so  that  it  can  be  trans- 
ported to  any  desired  location.     A  spe- 


The  scouting  plane  and  the  kite  balloon 
represent  the  defensive  feature  of 
aviation.  But  it  was  soon  discovered 
that  the  air  service  could  also  be  made 
a  formidable  weapon  of  offense.  Machine 
guns  were  furnished  that  were  so 
synchronized  that  they  shot  through 
the  blades  of  the  propeller.  Aerial 
squadrons  were  organized  that  wheeled 
and  dove  and  rose  in  accordance  with  a 
system  of  tactics  as  precise  as  those  on 
land  and  sea.  There  were  Homeric 
battles  in  the  sky,  in  which  as  many  as 
forty  or  fifty  planes  might  be  engaged 
at  once.    Rewards  were  offered  for  those 


DIAGRAM   OP  A   KITE   OBSERVATION  BALLOON,  USED   IN   THE   UNITED  STATES 


cial  feature  of  the  Caquot  is  the  location 
of  the  balloonette  or  air  chamber  within 
the  main  body  of  the  gas  bag.  To 
separate  it  from  the  gas  chamber,  a 
diaphragm  of  rubberized  cotton  cloth 
is  used.  There  is  no  air  in  the  balloon- 
ette when  it  is  first  fully  inflated  at 
what  is  practically  the  ground  level,  but 
as  the  balloon  ascends  the  wind  blows 
into  the  balloonette  through  a  scoop 
placed  under  the  nose  of  the  balloon. 
This  forces  up  the  balloonette  and  com- 
pensates for  the  inevitable  leakage  of 
gas  from  the  envelope. 

The  average  life  of  a  kite  balloon  on 
an  active  war  front  was  only  fifteen 
days,  but  it  did  valuable  work  while  it 
lasted.  So  anxious  were  the  Germans 
to  destroy  them  that  they  gave  an 
aviator  who  brought  one  down  a  credit 
equivalent  to  the  one  bestowed  for  1*/^ 
planes  destroyed. 


who  brought  down  the  greatest  number 
of  enemy  machines  and  the  coveted  title 
of  "ace"  was  bestowed  upon  the  airman 
who  had  the  attested  destruction  of  five 
or  more  planes  to  his  credit.  Supremacy 
in  the  air  was  eagerly  sought  for  by  both 
sides,  for  it  meant  that  one's  own  planes 
could  hang  over  the  enemy's  front  and 
watch  his  movements,  while  he  was 
debarred  from  doing  the  same  thing 
in  return.  Planes  were  constructed  with 
armored  protection  to  ward  off  the  enemy 
bullets.  Sometimes,  instead  of  fighting 
with  aerial  competitors,  a  daring  aviator 
would  swoop  down  near  the  ground  and 
rain  machine-gun  bullets  on  a  marching 
detachment  of  the  foe.  The  keen  rivalry 
between  the  aerial  enemies  stimulated 
the  invention  of  devices  that  would 
increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  service. 
Chief  among  these  was  the  wireless 
telephone,   that   enabled   the   aviator   to 


AERONAUTICS 


50 


AERONAUTICS 


keep  within  speaking  radius  of  his  com- 
mander in  the  air  and  his  ground  station. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  aerial 
supremacy  resided  with  the  Germans, 
but  as  the  conflict  progressed  it  gradually 
swung  to  the  side  of  the  Allies,  so  that 


largely  at  the  mercy  of  wind  and  weather, 
and  offered  too  great  a  target  for  anti- 
aircraft guns  and  the  hosts  of  planes 
that  rose  in  the  air  like  a  swarm  of 
wasps  to  attack  the  huge  craft  with 
bombs    and    'ncendiary    bullets.      Grad- 


AN  AIRPLANE  MACHINE  GUN,   SYNCHRONIZED  WITH  THE  PROPELLER 


when  the  armistice  was  signed  they 
had  an  overwhelming  superiority  in  men 
and  machines. 

Far  overshadowing  this  phase  of  aerial 
warfare,  however,  was  the  bombing 
machine.  These  were  first  developed  and 
used  on  a  large  scale  by  the  Germans. 
The  dropping  of  bombs  on  fortified 
places  came  well  within  the  spirit  of  the 
articles  of  war.  But  Germany  went 
further  and  dropped  them  upon  the 
helpless  civilian  population  of  Paris, 
London,,  and  other  cities.  The  claim  that 
these  were  fortified  towns  in  the 
accepted  meaning  of  the  word  was 
merely  a  pretext.  Not  even  hospitals 
were  spared  in  the  savage  warfare  she 
adopted.  The  design  was  not  merely 
to  inflict  a  certain  number  of  casualties, 
which  after  all  could  not  be  considerable, 
compared  with  the  whole  population,  but 
shake  the  nerves  and  weaken  the  morale 
of  the  people  back  of  the  firing  line.  How 
greatly  they  failed  of  this  effect  is  now 
a  matter  of  history.  At  first,  Germany 
relied  for  this  work  chiefly  on  her  Zep- 
pelins, of  which  more  than  a  hundred 
were  constructed  during  the  war.  But 
these  giant  dirigibles  proved  unsat- 
isfactory.   They  were  too  unwieldy,  were 


ually  their  use  was  abandoned  as  their 
vulnerability  was  demonstrated.  Thirty 
at  least  are  known  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed, and  the  great  majority  became 
unserviceable  before  the  end  of  the  war. 
The  same  fate  overtook  the  majority  of 
the  Gross,  the  Parseval,and  the  Schuette- 
Lanz  types  of  dirigibles. 

The  bombing  planes  which  replaced 
them  had  manifest  advantages  over  their 
predecessors.  They  were  speedy,  less 
liable  to  be  sighted  by  the  enemy,  and 
large  enough  to  carry  a  heavy  com- 
plement of  bombs.  Their  military  value 
was  enormous  in  breaking  up  enemy 
bases  and  depots  and  preventing  the 
concentration  of  troops.  During  eight 
days  of  the  German  drive  in  1918,  French 
airmen  dropped  317  tons  of  bombs  in 
the  German  lines,  and  produced  a 
demoralization  that  greatly  increased 
the  effectiveness  of  Foch's  counter- 
offensive. 

Airplane  bombs  are  constructed  with 
great  care,  and  so  shaped  that  they  offer 
the  least  possible  resistance  to  the  air. 
They  have  fins  on  their  tails  to  assure 
a  perpendicular  fall.  They  are  carried 
on  the  planes  either  suspended  under  the 
wings  or  fuselage  of  the  planes  or  car- 


AERONATJTICS 


51 


AERONAUTICS 


ried  in  the  fuselage  itself.  A  special 
mechanism  is  employed  to  release  them 
at  the  will  of  the  aviator.  He  can  release 
one  or  many  at  a  time,  according  to 
whether    he    wants    a    salvo    or    just    a 


SANDBAG  PROTECTION  AGAINST  AIR  RAIDS 

"trail  fire."  A  small  lever  in  the  fuselage 
effects  the  release.  Care  must  be  exer- 
cised to  release  them  alternately  when 
they  are  carried  beneath  the  wings  so 
as  not  to  disturb  too  much  the  equilibrium 
of  the  machine.  He  can  drop  them  so 
as  to  explode  or  not,  for  sometimes  an 
occasion  arises  when  he  must  unload 
over  his  own  lines. 

There  are  three  distinct  types  of 
bombs ' —  demolition,  incendiary,  and 
fragmentation.  The  demolition  bombs 
have  a  light  steel  shell,  and  are  filled 
with  T.  N.  T.  or  some  other  explosive 
of  great  destructive  power.  They  are 
used  against  heavy  structures  like 
depots,  railways,  and  ammunition  dumps. 
The  charge  is  set  off  by  a  detonator, 
separated  from  the  contents  of  the  bomb 
by  a  pin.  When  the  bomb  is  released, 
the  pin  is  pulled  out  automatically,  and 
the  detonator  slides  into  position  to 
explode  the  bomb  the  instant  it  strikes. 
Some  of  the  dem.olition  bombs  weigh  a 
thousand  pounds  and  carry  five  hundred 
and    seventy    pounds    of    explosive. 

Fragmentation  bombs  are  designed  on 
explosion  to  scatter  showers  of  frag- 
ments. They  carry  smaller  charges, 
because  their  walls  are  thicker.  They 
are  designed  to  be  used  against  troops 
and  are  timed  to  explode  when  but  a 
few    inches    above    the    ground.      '''he 

5 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


timing  mechanism  has  to  have  an  ac- 
curacy of  less  than  a  thousandth  of 
a  second. 

Incendiary  bombs  are  intended  to  set 
fire  to  inflammable  structures.  They 
weigh  about  40  pounds  and  contain  a 
combination  of  chemicals  that  develops 
an  intense  heat.  A  sodium  element 
makes  it  difficult  to  extinguish  the  fire, 
because  sodium  explodes  when  water  is 
poured  on  it. 

The  task  of  dropping  a  bomb  so  that 
it  will  hit  the  object  aimed  at  is  a 
difficult  one,  especially  when  the  aviator 
relies  exclusively  on  his  own  judgment 
and  eyesight.  Many  things  influence 
the  fall  of  the  bomb — the  height  above 
the  ground,  the  rate  of  speed  at  which 
the  plane  is  traveling,  the  air  currents, 
and  the  shape  of  the  bomb.  It  moves 
in  a  parabolic  curve.  When  it  is  first 
released  it  moves  almost  horizontally, 
as  it  shares  the  motion  of  the  plane. 
Then  gravity  asserts  itself,  the  bomb 
gradually  curves,  and  as  the  velocity  in- 
creases assumes  a  perpendicular  position. 
All  this  requires  expert  calculation,  as 
the  bomb  has  to  be  dropped  some  time 
before  the  aviator  is  directly  above  the 
object  he  desires  to  hit.  To  remedy 
miscalculations,  sights  were  adjusted  to 
the  height,  speed,  and  other  conditions. 
When  the  two  sighting  points  came  in 
line  with  the  target,  the  aviator  could 
release  his  bomb  with  the  probability 
that  an  accurate  hit  would  be  registered. 

When  by  these  improvements  the 
bombing  plane  had  been  practically 
perfected,  it  proved  a  most  formidable 
weapon  of  offense.  More  and  more  the 
armies  came  to  rely  upon  them  as  an 
effective  and  almost  indispensable  ad- 
junct in  large  operations.  Especially 
when  the  enemy  was  in  retreat,  were  the 
bombing  planes  useful  in  harassing  his 
flight  and  increasing  his  demoralization. 
The  work  of  the  Allied  aviators  during 
the  retreat  of  the  Crown  Prince's  army 
to  the  Vesle  and  Aisne  in  July  and 
August  of  1918,,  and  later  in  the  driving 
of  the  Germans  from  France  and  Bel- 
gium just  prior  to  the  armistice,  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated. 

Air  raids  over  cities  during  the  war 
were  initiated  by  the  Germans.  Paris 
and  London  were  the  principal  objectives. 
In  the  raids  on  England  by  planes  and 
Zeppelins,  5, .511  persons  were  killed  and 
injured,  of  whom  4,750  were  civilians. 
The  raids  by  Zeppelins  numbered  51 
and  those  by  bombing  planes  59.  Paris 
suffered  to  a  lesser  degree,  but  still 
heavily.  An  incidental  feature  of  one 
of  the  Paris  raids  was  the  suffocation 
of  about  three-score  people  who  had 
taken  refuge  in  a  subway  tube. 


AEBONAUTICS 


52 


AERONAUTICS 


The  destructive  power  of  the  air  raids 
was  steadily  lessened,  however,  as 
defensive  measures  were  adopted  and 
perfected.  Airplane  squadrons  were 
kfept  in  reserve  at  London  and  Paris, 
ready  to  ascend   aloft   at   an   instant's 


passages  were  constructed  at  various 
points,  to  which  the  people  flocked  when 
the  alarm  was  given.  By  these  measures 
of  precaution  the  casualties  were  sensi- 
bly lessened. 

The  Allies  for  a  long  time  were  un- 


A  ZEPPELIN  DIRIGIBLE  AIRSHIP 


notice  to  repel  the  invaders.  Anti- 
aircraft guns  of  great  range  and  ac- 
curacy brought  down  both  Zeppelins  and 
planes.  Searchlights  of  enormous  candle 
power  swept  the  skies  at  night  in  every 
direction.  Sirens  were  stationed  on  the 
tops    of    buildings    so    that    their    shrill 


A  SIREN,  USED  TO  WARN   OF  ENEMY 
AIR  RAIDS 

warnings  might  prompt  the  population  to 
seek  shelter.  Bells  and  whistles  were 
used  for  the  same  purpose.  Underground 


willing  to  retaliate  in  kind.  But  later, 
as  in  the  case  of  asphyxiating  gases, 
they  were  forced  in  self-defense  to  adopt 
the  same  methods  as  the  enemy,  although 
they  never  attacked  hospitals,  as  the 
Germans  did  repeatedly  through  the 
war.  It  was  some  time  however  before 
the  bombing  operations  of  the  Allies 
rivaled  those  of  Germany  in  effectiveness. 
The  latter  had  organized  their  service 
to  a  high  point  of  efficiency.  They 
employed  two  types  of  planes,  triplanes 
equipped  with  machine  guns  and  au- 
tomatic bomb  throwers;  the  Gothas 
with  two  Mercedes  engines  of  260  horse 
power  each  and  carrying  1,200  pounds 
of  explosives,  with  gasoline  sufficient 
for  a  five  hours'  flight,  and  the  Fried- 
richshafens,  with  two  Benz  motors  of 
225  horse  power  each  and  carrying  half 
a  ton  of  bombs  and  gasoline  supplies 
for  four  hours. 

By  the  summer  of  1918,  the  Allies 
had  perfected  bombing  planes  that 
rivaled  those  of  the  Germans  in  size 
and  power  and  greatly  exceeded  them 
in  number.  They  then  began  a  system 
of  reprisals  over  the  cities  of  the  Rhine 
valleys,  selecting  as  their  targets  muni- 
tion factories,  railway  sidings,  bar- 
racks, and  steel  works.  Despite  their 
efforts  to  limit  their  targets,  much 
damage  was  done  inevitably  to  civilian 
property  and  considerable  loss  of  life 
resulted  in  Coblenz,  Diisseldorf,  Cologne, 


AERONAUTICS 


53 


AERONAUTICS 


and  other  cities.  In  a  three  months'  airplanes.  Propaganda  was  also  scat- 
period,  249  raids  were  made  and  247  tered  over  the  enemy's  lines.  Millions 
tons  of  bombs  dropped.     So  heavy  was    of  pamphlets  and  leaflets  fluttered  down 


A  FRENCH  ELECTRIC  SIREN   USED  TO  GIVE  THE  ALARM  FOR  AN  AIR  RAID  OF  THE  ENEMY 

the   damage   inflicted   that   the    German  into   enemy   trenches,   and   told   to   the 

Government  on  Nov.  4  appealed  to  the  soldiers   there   the   views   of   the   other 

American     Government,    and     proposed  side  and  the  course  that  operations  were 

the  abandonment  by  both  sides  of  attacks  taking.     This  was  done  by  both  sides, 

SOUND      „ 
MAGNIFIER 

RECEIVER 
TRfitNSMITTBf^ 


A   MICROPHONE,  EMPLOYED   FOR  DETECTING   THE   SOUND   OF  APPROACHING   AIRCRAFT 
AT  NIGHT,  OR  BEFORE  THEY  COME   INTO  VISION 

on    cities    outside   of  the   fighting   zone,  and  in  the  later  days  of  the  war  proved 

What  it  had  itself  originated  was  prov-  especially  useful  to  the   Allies,   as  was 

ing  its  undoing.  proved    by    the    bitterness    of    Hinden- 

Not   only   bombs   were    dropped    from  burg's  complaint  of  the   demoralization 


AEROTHEBAPEUTICS 


54 


^SIB 


thus  produced  among  his  troops.  Earlier 
than  this,  the  Italian  poet-aviator 
d'Annunzlo  had  flown  over  the  Alps  to 
yienna    and    circled     over    that    city, 


tragic  poet.  Of  90  plays  produced  by 
him,  40  were  rewarded  with  the  public 
prize,  but  only  seven  have  come  down  to 
us,  though  the  titles   of   72   others   are 


A  TWENTY-PASSENGER  CAPRONI  TRIPLANE 


dropping  pamphlets  which  told  the 
"Viennese  that  he  could  just  as  easily 
have  dropped  bombs  and  urged  them  to 
withdraw  from  a  hopeless  conflict. 

AEROTHEBAPEUTICS,  the  method 
of  treating  diseases  by  employing  vari- 
ous degrees  of  atmospheric  pressure 
upon  diseased  persons.  The  effect  is 
sometimes  produced  by  changing  the 
composition  of  the  air.  Tuberculosis  of 
the  lungs  is  most  frequently  treated  in 
this  method,  although  it  is  employed 
likewise  in  pneumonia  and  other  pulmo- 
nary diseases. 

'  AEBSCHOT,  a  town  of  Belgium  on  the 
river  Demer,  20  miles  N.  E.  of  Brussels 
and  important  as  a  railway  center  and 
for  its  cloth  manufactures.  Its  popu- 
lation at  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
was  about  8,000.  In  the  first  month  of 
the  World  War  the  Germans  entered  the 
place  and  took  possession.  It  was 
claimed  by  the  Germans  that  one  of  their 
ofiicers  was  shot  by  a  boy,  the  son  of  the 
burgomaster.  A  reign  of  terror  set  in 
that  lasted  three  days.  150  inhabitants 
are  alleged  to  have  been  shot.  Cardinal 
Mercier  stated  that  he  knew  of  his  own 
knowledge  that  91  at  least  were  killed. 
Others  of  the  inhabitants  were  taken  as 
prisoners,  first  to  Louvain,  and  then  into 
Germany. 

.ffiSCHINES  (es'ke-nez),  a  great  Athe- 
nian orator  (389-314  B.  c),  rival  of 
Demosthenes.  Only  three  of  his  "Ora- 
tions" have  come  down  to  our  time.  He 
was  especially  brilliant  in  his  extem- 
poraneous efforts.  In  his  more  studied 
orations,  his  great  merit  was  the  clear- 
ness and  fullness  of  the  narrative  part. 

^SCHYLUS  (es'kil-us),  the  father  of 
the  Athenian  drama.  He  was  in  the  sea 
fight  at  Salamis,  and  received  a  wound  in 
the  battle  of  Marathon.  His  most  solid 
fame,  however,  rests  on  his  power  as  a 


known  to  us.  The  seven  tragedies  still 
extant  are:  "The  Suppliants";  "The 
Persians";  "The  Seven  against  Thebes"; 
"Prometheus  Bound";  and  a  trilogy, 
"Oresteia"  ("Agamemnon";  "Choe- 
phori";  "Eumenides").  He  was  the 
first  to  introduce  two  actors  on  the 
stage,  and  to  clothe  them  with  dresses 
suitable  to  their  character.  He  likewise 
removed  murder  from  the  sight  of  the 
audience.  He  decorated  the  theater  with 
the  best  paintings  of  his  time,  and  the 
ancient,  like  the  modem  stage,  exhibited 
temples,  sepulchres,  armies,  fleets,  flying 
cars,  and  apparitions.  He  mounted  the 
actors  on  stilts,  and  gave  them  masks 
to  augment  the  natural  sounds  of  their 
voices.  He  was  born  in  Eleusis  about 
525  B.  c.  and  died  in  Sicily  about  455  B.  c. 
His  imagination  was  strong,  but  wild, 
vast  in  its  conception,  but  greatly  deal- 
ing in  improbabilities.  The  obscurity  of 
his  style  is  admitted. 

^SCULAPIUS  (es-ku-la'pe-us),  the 
god  of  medicine,  son  of  Apollo  and  the 
nymph  Coronis.  Apollo  brought  his  son 
to  Chiron,  who  instructed  him  in  med- 
icine and  hunting.  In  the  former,  he  ac- 
quired a  high  degree  of  skill,  so  as  to 
surpass  even  the  fame  of  his  teacher.  He 
not  only  prevented  the  death  of  the  living, 
but  even  recalled  the  dead  to  life.  Jupi- 
ter, however,  induced  by  the  complaints 
of  his  brother,  Pluto,  slew  .(Esculapius 
with  a  thunderbolt.  After  his  death,  he 
received  divine  honors.  .(Esculapius  is 
represented  with  a  large  beard,  holding 
a  knotty  staff,  round  which  was  entwined 
a  serpent,  the  symbol  of  convalescence. 
Near  him  stands  the  cock,  the  symbol  of 
watchfulness.  He  is  sometimes  crowned 
with  the  laurel  of  Apollo.  Sometimes 
also  ^sculapius  is  represented  under  the 
image  of  a  serpent  only. 

.ffiSIB,  the  gods  of  the  Northmen  of 
Scandinavia  and  Iceland. 


.aJSOP  55 

iBSOP  (e'sop),  a  Greek  fabulist,  who 
lived  in  the  7th  century  B.  c.  According 
to  tradition,  he  was  a  captive  of  war,  and 
for  a  part  of  his  life  a  slave.  Many  of 
his  fables  have  been  traced  to  Egyptian 
and  Indian  sources.    Socrates,  during  his 


AFFINITY 


^SOP 

imprisonment,  put  into  verse  a  portion  of 
the  .^sopian  fables. 

AESTHETICS     or     ESTHETICS,     the 

science  which  treats  of  the  beautiful  and 
the  pleasing.  The  term  was  first  used 
in  its  present  sense  by  Wolf,  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  According 
to  Herbert  Spencer,  one  characteristic  of 
sesthetic  feelings  is  that  they  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  functions  requisite  to 
sustain  life,  and  it  is  not  till  the  latter 
have  had  proper  scope  accorded  them 
that  the  former  gain  power  enough  to 
act.  The  delight  in  painting,  music, 
sculpture,  poetry,  and  the  drama  is 
aesthetic;  and  the  science  investigates 
the  origin  of  such  sensations,  the  laws 
which  characterize  them,  and  the  excel- 
lent effects  which,  when  they  are  not 
abused,  result  from  their  operation  to 
humanity. 

ESTIVATION,  in  botany,  a  term  used 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  parts  of  a 
blossom  are  arranged  within  a  flower 
bud  before  the  opening  of  the  latter.  It 
is  more  rarely  called  prefloration.  _  The 
word  aestivation  is  separately  applied  to 
the  calyx,  the  corolla,  the  stamens,  and 
the  pistil,  but  not  to  the  flower  in  general. 

iETNA.    See  Etna. 
iBTOIilA  (e-tole-a),  a  district  of  an- 
cient Greece,  lying  on  the  N.  coast  of  the 


Gulf  of  Corinth.  The  country  had  few 
cities;  was,  except  on  the  coast,  general- 
ly wild  and  barren.  Here,  according  to 
the  legend,  Meleager  slew  the  Calydo- 
nian  boar.  The  .^tolians  make  a  great 
figure  in  the  heroic  age  of  Greece;  but, 
at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
they  were  rude  and  barbarous.  The  ^to- 
lian  confederacy,  first  called  into  exist- 
ence about  323  B.  c,  became  an  impor- 
tant rival  to  the  Achaean  League.  Their 
assembly  was  styled  the  Panaetolicon. 
They  were  subjugated  by  the  Romans  in 
189  B.  c.  Along  with  Acarnania,  .^tolia 
now  forms  a  department  of  the  modern 
kingdom  of  Greece,  with  a  united  area  of 
over  3,000  square  miles.  The  chief  towns 
are  Missolonghi  and  Lepanto. 

AFFIDAVIT,  a  voluntary  affirmation 
or  solemn  declaration,  sworn  to  before 
a  person  at  liberty  to  administer  an 
oath.  The  affidavit  must  give  the  name 
and  address  of  the  person  stating  the 
facts  within  his  own  cognizance,  and  the 
exact  sources  from  which  other  facts  are 
drawn. 

AFFINITY.  (1)  Neighborhood;  (2) 
relationship  by  marriage;  (3)  union, 
connection. 

In  ordinary  language  and  law,  literal- 
ly, the  relationship  contracted  by  mar- 
riage between  a  husband  and  his  wife's 
kindred,  or  between  a  wife  and  her  hus- 
band's kindred.  It  is  opposed  to  con- 
sanguinity, or  natural  relationship  by 
blood.  It  is  of  three  kinds:  (1)  Direct, 
viz.,  that  subsisting  between  a  husband 
and  his  wife's  blood  relations,  and  vice 
versa;  (2)  secondary,  or  that  which  sub- 
sists between  a  husband  and  his  wife's 
relations  by  marriage;  and  (3)  collateral, 
or  that  which  subsists  between  a  hus- 
band and  the  relations  of  his  wife's 
relations. 

In  biology,  a  resemblance,  or  resem- 
blances, on  essential  points  of  structure, 
between  species,  genera,  orders,  classes, 
etc.,  really  akin  to  each  other,  and  which 
should  be  placed  side  by  side  in  any 
natural  system  of  classification.  Affinity 
differs  from  analogy,  the  latter  term  be- 
ing applied  to  resemblances  between  ani- 
mals or  plants  not  really  akin,  but  which 
ought  to  be  more  or  less  widely  separated 
in  classifications.  Thus  the  falcons,  the 
hawks,  the  eagles,  etc.,  are  related  to 
each  other  by  genuine  affinity;  but  the 
similarity  on  certain  points,  such  as  the 
possession  of  retractile  claws,  between 
the  raptorial  birds  and  the  feline  race 
of  mammals,  is  one  only  of  analogy. 

In  chemistry,  chemical  affinity,  or 
chemical  attraction,  is  the  force  by  which 
union  takes  place  between  two  or  more 
elements  to  form  a  chemical  compound. 


AFFIRMATION 


According  to  another  definition,  it  is  a 
force  exerted  between  two  or  more  bodies 
at  an  infinitely  minute  distance  apart, 
by  which  they  give  rise  to  a  new  sub- 
stance, having  different  properties  to 
those  of  its  component  parts.  Elements 
have  the  greatest  affinity  for  other  ele- 
nients  which  differ  most  in  their  chemi- 
cal properties.  Thus,  H  has  great  affinity 
for  CI  and  O,  but  the  affinity  between 
0  and  CI  is  much  weaker.  Acids  unite 
readily  with  alkalies;  most  metals,  with 
sulphur.  A  strong  acid  generally  expels 
a  weaker  one.  But  when  two  salts  are 
fused,  if  a  more  volatile  compound  is 
formed,  it  is  driven  off.  The  relative 
affinities  between  different  substances 
varies  with  their  temperature,  insolu- 
bility, and  power  of  vaporization.  Alter- 
nation of  temperature  alters  the  affinity; 
thus,  mercury  heated  to  its  boiling-point 
absorbs  oxygen,  which  it  liberates  at  a 
higher  temperature. 

Affinity  of  solution  is  such  an  affinity 
as  exists  between  a  soluble  salt  and  the 
fluid  in  which  it  is  dissolved.  Till  the 
liquid  is  saturated  with  the  salt,  the  two 
can  combine  in  an  indefinite  ratio,  in- 
stead of  being  limited  to  the  fixed  pro- 
portions in  which  alone  chemical  affinity 
operates. 

AFFIRMATION,  the  act  of  affirming, 
in  the  sense  of  solemnly  declaring  in  a 
court  of  law  that  certain  testimony 
about  to  be  given  is  true.  Also,  the 
statement  made.  First,  the  Quakers 
and  Moravians,  who  objected  on  consci- 
entious grounds,  to  take  oaths,  were  al- 
lowed to  make  solemn  affirmations  in- 
stead; now,  everyone  objecting  to  take 
an  oath  has  the  same  privilege;  but,  as 
is  just,  false  affirmations,  no  less  than 
false  oaths,  are  liable  to  the  penalties 
of  perjury. 

AFGHANISTAN,  an  inland  country  of 
Asia,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Persia,  on 
the  S.  by  British  Baluchistan,  on  the  E. 
by  territory  under  British  influence  (de- 
termined 1893-1895),  and  on  the  N.  by 
Russian  Central  Asia.  Its  area  is  about 
250,000  square  miles,  or  about  twice  the 
size  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
country,  called  UrJayat  by  its  inhabi- 
tants, consists  of  elevated  table-lands, 
diversified  by  mountains,  and  there  is 
a  great  variety  of  climate.  At  Ghazni 
the  winter  is  extremely  rigorous;  the 
climate  of  Seistan,  in  the  S.  W.,  is  hot 
and  trying;  while,  in  other  parts,  it  is 
temperate.  The  country  may  be  divided 
into  the  five  provinces  of  Kabul  (Cabul), 
Herat,  Ghazni,  Seistan,  and  Kandahar. 
To  the  N.  lie  the  still  disputed  regions 
of  Turkestan  and  Badachshan,  with  their 
dependencies.    Each  province  is  ruled  by 


66  AFGHANISTAN 

a  governor,  under  whom  the  nobles  and 
kazis  (magistrates),  assisted  by  muftis, 
administer  justice  after  a  feudal  fashion. 
The  monarch  of  the  whole  country  is 
styled  the  Ameer. 

The  population  of  Afghanistan  is  com- 
posed of  a  variety  of  nationalities,  and 
is  estimated  at  about  6,380,000.  The 
Afghans  proper,  or  Pathans,  number 
about  3,000,000,  and  are  divided  into 
tribes,  or  clans — Duranis,  Ghilzanis,  Yu- 
sufzais,  and  others.  In  religion,  they 
are  Sunni-Mohammedans.  In  character, 
they  are  proud,  vain,  cruel,  perfidious, 
extremely  avaricious,  revengeful,  selfish, 
merciless,  and  idle.  "Nothing  is  finer 
than  their  physique  or  worse  than  their 
morale."  The  Afghans  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
inhabit  towns,  except  in  the  case  of  those 
attached  to  the  court  and  heads  of  tribes. 
The  townsmen  are  mostly  Hindkis  and 
other  non-Afghan  races,  who  practice 
various  trades  and  handicrafts  considered 
derogatory  by  men  of  rank.  The  princi- 
pal towns  are  Kabul  (pop.  about  150,- 
000),  the  seat  of  government,  and  center 
of  a  fertile  district;  Ghazni,  a  strong 
fortress;  Kandahar,  the  chief  city  of 
southern  Afghanistan,  with  about  30,000 
inhabitants;  and  Herat,  formerly  con- 
sidered the  key  of  India.  Among  the 
natural  productions  of  Afghanistan  is 
the  plant  yielding  the  asafcetida.  The 
castor  oil  plant  is  everywhere  common, 
and  good  tobacco  is  grown  in  the  district 
of  Kandahar.  The  cultivated  area  round 
Herat  produces  magnificent  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  cotton,  grapes,  melons,  and 
the  mulberry  tree.  In  special  localities 
are  forests  of  pistachio.  The  industrial 
products  are  silk,  chiefly  for  domestic 
use,  and  carpets,  those  of  Herat  being 
of  admirable  quality.  The  manufacture 
of  postins,  or  sheepskins,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  occupations. 

History. — The  history  of  Afghanistan, 
as  an  independent  state,  only  dates  from 
the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  For  two 
centuries  before,  Herat  and  Kandahar 
had  been  in  the  possession  of  Persia; 
while  Kabul  was  included  in  the  mogul 
empire  of  Delhi.  Upon  the  death  of 
Nadir  Shah,  in  1747,  Ahmed  Shah  Du- 
rani  subjugated  the  different  provinces, 
and,  when  he  died  in  1773,  left  an  empire 
to  his  son,  Timur  Shah.  The  chief  events 
in  the  history  of  Afghanistan  are  the 
expedition,  in  1839,  which  established 
Shah  Soojah  on  the  throne;  the  rebellion 
of  1841,  in  which  the  Residents,  Burnes 
and  Macnaghten,  were  killed  and  the 
Anglo-Indian  troops  perished  in  the  re- 
treat; the  punitive  expedition,  in  1842; 
the  defeat  of  Dost  Mohammed,  in  1849; 
the  war  with  Shere  Ali,  in  1878-1879,  and 
installment  of  Yakub  Khan;  the  rising 


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Lake 
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AFRICA 


57 


AFBICA 


at  Kabul  and  murder  of  Cavagnari,  the 
English  Resident;  the  punitive  expedi- 
tion under  Roberts ;  the  establishment,  by 
British  assistance,  of  Abd-ur-Rahman  as 
Ameer,  and  the  constantly  recurring 
alarms  as  to  encroachments  on  the  part 
of  Russia.  The  yearly  pension  granted 
the  Ameer  by  the  Indian  Government  was 
raised  to  18  lacs  of  rupees.  Moreover, 
the  Indian  Government  yielded  all  its 
claims  on  Kafaristan,  The  result  of  this 
was  that,  in  1895,  the  Ameer's  troops 
thoroughly  devastated  the  land  of  these 
brave  mountaineers.  Abd-ur-Rahman,  by 
means  of  his  shrewd  policy  and  decisive 
measures,  succeeded  in  suppressing  all  in- 
surrections and  strengthening  his  power. 
In  regard  to  the  insurrection  that  broke 
out  between  the  tribes  of  the  Afridi  and 
the  Orakzai,  on  the  Indian-Afghanistan 
frontier,  he  remained   neutral. 

Abd-ur-Rahman  died  Oct.  1,  1901, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Habib-UUah  Khan. 
The  treaty  with  Great  Britain  was  re- 
newed, and  by  a  compact  drawn  up  in 
1907  the  latter  country  acknowledged 
Afghanistan's  independence.  In  1910  it 
was  agreed  that  all  disputes  between 
Afghanistan  and  the  Indian  Government 
should  be  left  to  a  joint  commission. 
Relations  were  not  cordial,  however,  and 
in  1919,  after  Habib-Ullah  had  been  as- 
sassinated while  sleeping  in  his  tent,  war 
broke  out  between  the  Afghans  and  the 
British.  It  was,  however,  of  short  dura- 
tion, although  some  of  the  fighting  was 
severe,  and  resulted  in  a  triumph  for  the 
British  arms.  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  Aug.  8,  1919,  one  of  the  provi- 
sions of  which  was  that  Afghanistan 
should  have  entire  freedom  in  its  foreign 
relations.  This  was  taken  advantage  of 
shortly  afterward  by  the  Afghans,  who 
sent  an  embassy  to  the  Soviet  Russian 
Government  at  Moscow,  where  it  was 
received  with  great  consideration  and 
met  with  an  offer  of  alliance.  Despite 
the' peace  treaty  with  the  British,  two 
Afghan  tribes,  the  Waziris  and  Mahsuds, 
continued  outpost  actions  on  the  frontier 
and  at  the  beginning  of  1920  had  not 
been  entirely  subdued.  The  present 
Ameer  is  Amanullah  Khan,  the  third 
son  of  Habib-Ullah  Khan,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1919. 

AFRICA,  the  name  given  to  the  con- 
tinent lying  S.  of  the  Mediterranean; 
probably  derived  from  the  Punic  Afry- 
gah,  a  colony,  with  reference  to  Car- 
thage, a  Phoenician  colony.  Excepting 
Asia,  Africa  is  the  largest  grand  division 
of  the  world,  being  three  times  as  large 
as  Europe,  and  containing  one-fifth  of 
all  the  dry  land  on  the  globe.  On  the 
N.  it  is  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean, 


which  separates  it  from  Europe;  on  the 
S.,  by  the  Southern  Ocean;  on  the  E., 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  Indian  Ocean;  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
Atlantic. 

Physical  Features.  —  Its  greatest 
length  is  nearly  5,000  miles;  its  breath, 
about  4,700  miles,  and  its  area  about 
11,500,000  square  miles.  Since  1869,  by 
the  construction  of  the  Suez  canal,  Africa 
has  been  an  island. 

Its  coast  line  is  reckoned  at  more 
than  20,000  miles,  and  is  marked  by 
few  indentations,  and  is  generally 
characterized  by  narrow  strips  of  low- 
lands. The  surface  is  fairly  well  defined, 
as  consisting  of  two  divisions,  the 
northern  table  lands  of  the  Sahara,  part 
of  which  is  below  sea-level,  and  the 
central  and  southern  plateaus,  broken 
only  by  the  valley  of  the  Zambezi,  be- 
ginning in  north  Abyssinia  and  ex- 
tending S.  as  far  as  Cape  Colony,  with 
an  average  height  of  4,000  feet.  In 
Abyssinia  is  the  main  mass  of  mountains, 
reaching  a  maximum  height  of  15,000 
feet.  South  of  the  equator  are  the 
extinct  volcanoes  Kilimanjaro  (nearly 
20,000  feet),  and  Kenia  (18,500  feet), 
and  the  Drakenberg  mountains  of  sub- 
tropical Africa  (11,000).  Other  ranges 
of  moutains  are  the  Atlas,  in  Barbary, 
and  the  Kameruns,  both  reaching  a 
maximum  of  12,000  feet  in  height.  On 
the  borders  of  the  Kongo  Free  State 
and  the  British  and  German  spheres  of 
influence,  there  is  a  line  of  active  vol- 
canoes, one  of  which,  Mfumbiro,  reaches 
10,000  feet.  In  the  southern  plateaus 
arc  a  number  of  fresh  water  lakes, 
Victoria  Nyanza,  Tanganyika,  Bang- 
weolo,  and  Nyassa.  The  first  of  these, 
which  has  an  area  of  30,000  square  miles, 
is  the  source  of  the  Nile.  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, with  an  area  of  16,000  square 
miles,  is  the  source  of  the  Kongo.  Lake 
Tchad  receives  the  waters  of  a  basin  in 
the  central  Sudan.  Near  Tajara,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  is  Assal,  a  salt  lake,  750 
feet  below  sea-level.  The  Nile  is  the 
largest  river  of  Africa  (3,766  miles 
long),  but  the  Kongo,  3,000  miles  in 
length  drains  the  larger  area  of  1,200,000 
square  miles.  Other  important  rivers 
are  the  Niger;  the  Zambezi,  with  its 
great  falls;  the  Shari,  emptsring  into 
Lake  Tchad,  and  the  Limpopo.  The 
Nile,  the  Kongo,  and  the  Niger  are  gi'eat 
navigable  rivers  in  most  of  their  lower 
courses.  The  Zambezi  and  Limpopo, 
together  with  the  Rovuma,  Juba,  and  a 
few  other  coast  streams,  flow  to  the 
Indian  Ocean;  all  the  others,  together 
with  the  Cunene,  Koanza,  Ogoway,  Volta, 
Gambia,  Tensift,  Muluya,  and  Mejcrdah, 
to  the  Atlantic,  either  directly  or  through 


APBICA 


58 


AFBICA 


the  Mediterranean.  The  Makua-Welle 
is  a  tributary  of  the  Kongo. 

Climate. — The  rainfall  over  most  of 
Africa  is  very  scant,  with  the  exception 
of  the  W.  equatorial  area  and  parts  of 
the  S.  and  S.  E.  coasts.  It  reaches  130 
inches  annually  in  Monrovia,  and  varies 
from  5  inches  to  nothing  in  the  Sahara 
and  Somaliland. 

Fauna. — The  continent  is  rich  _  in 
animal  life,  the  most  common  kinds  being 
antelopes,  giraffes,  zebras,  and  quaggas. 
Elephants,  once  numerous,  have  been 
killed  for  their  tusks,  and  the  species 
has  been  well-nigh  exterminated.  Africa 
is  the  home  of  the  lion,  and  the  rhi- 
noceros, hippopotamus,  crocodile,  and 
hyena  are  abundant,  as  are  also  monkeys 
and  apes,  including  the  gorilla  and  the 
chimpanzee.  The  birds  are  remarkable 
for  their  brilliant  plumage,  among 
which  the  secretary  bird,  the  sun-birds, 
parrots  and  bee-eaters  are  worthy  of 
notice.  The  ostrich  of  south  Africa  is 
the  largest  of  living  birds.  Of  the  insect 
world,  the  most  remarkable  is  the  south 
African  tsetse,  whose  bite  is  fatal  to 
horses  and  cattle.  White  ants  are 
known  as  a  destructive  plague. 

Flora. — In  vegetation,  the  date  palm, 
so  useful  as  food  in  different  ways,  is 
the  feature  of  the  N.,  where  a  large 
part  of  the  surface  consists  of  treeless, 
grassy  steppes.  In  the  inland  plateaus 
of  the  S.  are  numerous  forests  of  heaths 
and  the  plants  called  Cycadacese.  Eu- 
phorbias, aloes,  and  similar  plants  are 
abundant. 

Productions,  Indtistry,  and  Trade. — 
Ivory  was  the  principal  product  of  the 
continent  in  the  past,  and  it  is  still 
brought  to  the  coast  in  great  quantities. 
The  central  regions  produce  palm  oil, 
palm  kernels,  caoutchouc,  rubber,  gums, 
cloves,  sesame  seeds,  skins,  and  ebony 
and  other  woods.  In  the  S.,  cattle,  hides, 
wool,  and  grain  are  produced.  In 
Liberia,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  bananas  are 
grown.  The  Mediterranean  coast  supplies 
wines  and  olive  oil,  and  Egypt  is  a  large 
producer  of  cotton  and  cottonseed.  In 
most  parts  of  Africa,  salt  is  an  active 
object  of  internal  trade.  In  the  Niger 
territories  and  the  Guinea  coast,  several 
of  the  tribes  manufacture  cotton  and 
leather  goods.  The  mineral  products  of 
Africa  are  relatively  small,  with  the 
exception  of  diamonds  at  Kimberley,  in 
Cape  Colony,  and  gold  in  the  Transvaal. 
Copper  is  mined  in  Cape  Colony  and 
coal  in  the  late  Boer  republics. 

History. — The  history  of  Africa 
reaches  far  back  into  antiquity.  In 
Egypt,  civilization  is  known  to  have 
existed  as  early  as  .5000  B.  c. ;  600  B.  C, 
King  Necho  sent  Phoenician  ships  on  a 


voyage  around  Africa.  Between  llOO- 
950  B.  c.  the  Phoenicians  founded  as  many 
as  300  colonies  along  the  W.  coast  of 
Morocco.  About  470  b.  C.  the  elder 
Hanno  of  Carthage  went  with  a  fleet  to 
what  is  now  known  as  Sierra  Leone. 
Herodotus  described  "^gypt"  and  other 
parts  of  Africa;  Claudius  Ptolemseus 
wrote  the  most  detailed  account  of  the 
country  that  has  come  down  to  us.  The 
Roman  generals  penetrated  far  into  the 
interior  through  the  Sahara,  and,  in  the 
time  of  Nero,  Roman  officers  ascended 
the  Nile.  The  Romans  took  possession 
of  the  whole  of  north  Africa,  includi"^ 
Egypt  and  Nubia.  The  conquest  oy 
the  Arabs  of  the  Roman  possessions,  as 
well  as  of  Abyssinia,  in  the  1st  century 
of  the  Hegira  (7th  century,  A.  D.), 
stimulated  the  Arab  geographers  to 
write  about  this  great  continent.  Mas- 
sudi,  Ibn  Hankal,  Obeid  el  Bekri,  who 
wrote  the  first  geography  of  the  negro 
country  (1067),  Ibn  Chaldan,  Ibn  al 
Wardi,  Abulfeda  (1273-1332),  Leo  Afri- 
canus  (1492-1526),  who  went  to  Tim- 
buktu, Ibn  Bakuta,  who  went  to  Zanzibar, 
and  many  others,  visited  and  described 
Africa.  The  Church  fathers  conceived 
of  the  central  country  as  a  wilderness 
uninhabitable  on  account  of  the  heat, 
and  filled  with  all  manner  of  mystery; 
but  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  enter- 
prising Italian  merchants  did  much  to 
make  known  the  Nile  Valley  and  Abys- 
sinia; Marino  Sanuto,  Giovanni  Leardo, 
Fra  Mauro  and  others  drew  maps  of 
much  of  north  Africa  hitherto  unknown. 
In  the  15th  century  the  Portuguese 
explored  the  W.  coast.  By  1434  Cape 
Bojados  had  been  doubled;  in  1456  Ca- 
damosto  sailed  round  Cape  Verde  and 
reached  Gambia;  in  1472  Sao  Thome, 
Annobon  and  Principe  were  discovered. 
In  1848  Diego  Sao  reached  the  Kongo 
and  sailed  nearly  1,500  miles  S.  of  the 
equator,  and,  in  1486,  reached  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  Early  in  the  18th 
century  excursions  were  made  to  the  E. 
coast.  After  the  discovery  of  America 
a  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  slave 
trade,  which  had  hitherto  been  carried 
on  chiefly  by  the  Arabs,  and  this  led  to 
an  acquaintance  with  Senegambia  and 
the  Guinea  coast. 

Exploration. — Not,  however,  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century  was 
systematic  exploration  begun,  and  since 
then  more  than  200  explorers  have 
penetrated  the  unknown  continent.  In 
1763-1768  James  Bruce  traveled  from 
Massowah  through  Sennar  to  Egypt.  In 
1788  the  African  Association  was 
founded  in  London  to  undertake  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Niger.  In  1795-1797 
Mungo  Park  reached  the  upper  Niger. 


AFRICA 


59 


AFRICA 


but  not  until  1830  was  knowledge  of  the 
river  completed  by  the  brothers  Lander. 
Its  sources  were  discovered  in  1897  by 
Moustier  and  Zweifel.  In  1830  the 
French  began  the  conquest  of  Algeria, 
and  began  to  colonize  it,  especially  since 
the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and  they  have 
gradually  pushed  its  boundary  S.  into 
the  Sahara.  In  1850-1855,  Barth,  who 
was  followed  by  many  other  travelers, 
explored  the  Sudan,  especially  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Lake  Tchad,  and  reached 
Timbuktu.  Napoleon's  expedition  had 
given  a  great  impulse  to  scientific  ex- 
plcfe-ation,  which  was  encouraged  later 
by  the  khedives  and  led  to  the  conquest 
of  Nubia  and  Sennar  by  Mehemet  Ali 
(1805-1848),  and,  with  the  additional 
object  of  suppressing  the  slave  trade,  to 
the  annexation  of  the  east  Sudan  by 
Ismail  Pasha  (1863-1879).  The  Nile 
has  been  an  object  of  active  interest 
since  1810,  when  Salt  reached  its  Abys- 
sinian branches.  In  1840-1841,  Mehemet 
Ali  sent  two  expeditions  to  discover  the 
sources  of  the  main  river,  and,  in  1860, 
Miani  reached  as  far  as  3°  34'  N.  lati- 
tude. Further  exploration  was  from  the 
S.  The  existence  of  great  lakes  in  cen- 
tral Africa  had  been  known  at  Mozam- 
bique from  an  early  date,  and,  attention 
being  called  to  this  fact,  led  to  the 
discovery,  in  1849,  of  the  extinct  vol- 
canoes, Kilimanjaro  and  Kenia,  by  Reb- 
mann   and   Krapf   respectively. 

In  1856  Du  Chaillu  explored  the 
southern  Ogowe,  and,  in  1864,  penetrated 
into  Ashango  and  discovered  the  dwarfs 
of  Obongo.  In  1858  Burton  discovered 
Lake  Tanganyika.  In  1858  Lake  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  then  called  Ukerewe,  was 
discovered  by  Speke,  who,  in  1862,  was 
able  to  prove  that  its  overflow  constituted 
the  origin  of  the  Nile.  In  1864  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  discovered  Lake  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  later  Stanley  discovered 
Lake  Albert  Edward  Nyanza.  In  1849- 
1856  Livingstone  discovered  Lake  Ngami, 
crossed  the  Kalahari  desert,  and  re- 
turned across  Africa  from  St.  Paul  de 
Loanda  to  the  mouth  of  the  Zambezi, 
being  the  first  to  accomplish  this  feat. 
In  1859  he  discovered  the  Nyassa  and 
Chilwa  lakes.  In  1858-1864  he  explored 
the  Zambezi  and  its  tributaries;  in  1867- 
1868  he  discovered  Lakes  Mweru  and 
Bangweolo;  and,  from  1868  to  his  death 
in  1873,  he  investigated  Lake  Tanganyika 
and  the  headwaters  of  the  Kongo.  In 
1871  he  was  found  by  Stanley  "at  Ujiji. 
The  desire  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
Kongo  basin  led  to  many  expeditions, 
but  the  final  solution  was  obtained  by 
Stanley  in  his  journey  across  the  con- 
tinent in  1874-1877;  he  showed  that  the 
origin  of  the  Kongo  was  to  be  found  in 


the  Lualaba  and  the  Luapula  or  Cham- 
beze.  The  lattei-,  he  proved,  passes 
through  Lake  Bangweolo  and  joins  it 
with  Lake  Mweru.  He  also  succeeded 
in  strictly  defining  the  sources  of  the 
Nile.  In  1884-1885  Grenfell  proved  the 
identity  of  the  Ubanggi,  the  principal 
tributary  of  the  Kongo,  with  the  Makua 
or  Welle,  names  previously  given  to  its 
upper  course. 

Later  Discoveries. — In  1893  and  1894 
Marchand  explored  the  regions  of  Great 
Bassam  on  the  Ivory  Coast,  directly 
N.  to  the  junction  of  the  Bagoe  and  the 
Ni^er.  In  1890  Marinel,  and,  in  1891, 
Bia,  reached  the  S.  E.  sources  of  the 
Kongo  in  Kantaga.  In  1893  Mohun 
proved  the  non-existence  of  Lake  Landji. 
In  1891  and  1894  De  la  Khetulle  explored 
from  Ubangi  to  Dar  Nefertit.  In  1891 
Crampel  and  Dybowski  were  the  first 
Europeans  to  cross  the  Kongo  Shari 
watershed.  In  1892  and  1893  Maistre 
succeeded  in  penetrating  from  Ubangi 
to  Logoni  and  Binue.  In  1891  Fourneau, 
in  1891-1894  Brazza,  and  in  1895  Clozel, 
explored  the  Sanga  Mambere,  an  affluent 
of  the  lower  Kongo.  A  number  of  ex- 
plorers also  have  penetrated  the  equa- 
torial W.  coast:  Bottego  and  Grixioni, 
1892  and  1893;  Prince  Ruspoli,  1893 
and  1894;  Count  Hoyos,  1893  and  1894. 
Donaldson  Smith  in  1894  and  1895  ex- 
plored the  interior  of  Somaliland.  The 
highlands  between  Tana,  Sabaki,  and 
Kenia  were  explored  by  Pigott,  Hohnel, 
and  Chanler.  Baumann,  Stuhlmann,  and 
Verther  crossed  the  Massai  steppe.  The 
expedition  of  Shele  in  1894,  of  Marenski 
in  1892,  and  Bumiller,  also  gave  im- 
portant information  regarding  the 
southern  half  of  the  German  boundary. 

In  the  first  years  of  the  20th  century 
great  progress  was  made  in  scientific 
exploration  in  Afi*ica.  Previous  to  that 
time  indeed,  Marchand  traversed  the 
continent  from  Loanga  in  French  Kongo 
to  Fashoda  on  the  Nile.  The  Lake  Tchad 
region  and  the  Sahara  desert  were  trav- 
ersed at  the  same  time  by  other  French 
explorers.  Between  1900  and  1904 
Pierre  crossed  the  continent  following  in 
General  Marchand's  route.  In  1909 
Gautier  crossed  the  Sahara  desert  from 
Tuat  to  the  Niger  river.  German  ex- 
plorers also  were  active  at  this  period. 
Dr.  Stuhlmann  made  a  study  of  the 
region  of  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Dr.  Hans 
Meyer  made  the  first  ascent  of  Mount 
Kilimanjaro. 

By  this  time  the  era  of  exploration 
began  to  be  superseded  by  one  of  detailed 
study  of  the  geography  of  Africa,  the 
ethnology  of  its  people  and  the  variety 
and  quantity  of  its  resources.  This  work 
advanced   so  rapidly  that   by   1913   the 


AFRICA 


60 


AFEICA 


continent  had  practically  been  charted 
and  mapped  and  the  colonization  of 
various  portions  had  been  well  begun, 
especially  in  British  and  German  East 
Africa.  In  Rhodesia  and  other  British 
colonies  agriculture  and  mining  were  de- 
veloped on  a  considerable  scale.  Rail- 
way construction  also  developed.  In 
1913  the  copper  field  of  Katanga  in 
Belgian  Kongo  was  connected  by  rail 
with  Capetown,  over  2,100  miles  to  the 
south.  A  line  from  Cairo  was  extended 
to  Senaar  on  the  Blue  Nile,  and  a  branch 
of  the  White  Nile  had  been  built  at  El 
Obeid,  the  capital  of  Kordofan.  In  the 
Belgian  Kongo  railroads  had  been  con- 
structed around  all  the  rapids  of  the 
upper  Kongo.  The  great  lakes,  Victoria 
Nyanza  and  Tanganyika,  were  connected 
by  rail  with  the  Indian  Ocean,  while 
another  railway  connected  the  upper  and 
middle  Niger  with  the  sea. 

The  progress  of  the  World  War  natu- 
rally suspended  development  and  explo- 
ration in  Africa.  In  spite  of  this,  how- 
ever, several  important  expeditions 
carried  on  work  during  the  years  1916 
to  1920.  Among  these  was  the  Collins- 
Garnier  French  Kongo  Expedition  which 
were  working  in  the  interests  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  While  the  ob- 
jects of  the  expedition  were  largely 
scientific,  many  important  geographical 
results  were  obtained.  Another  party, 
also  in  the  interests  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  under  the  direction  of  Ed- 
mund Heller,  carried  on  explorations  in 
the   Cape  region  and  western   Rhodesia. 

Pojrulation. — Recent  authorities  rough- 
ly estimate  the  population  of  Africa  at 
about  140,000,000.  About  34,000,000,  all 
of  Semitic  stock,  are  intruders  from  Asia, 
some  in  remote  or  prehistoric  times  (3,- 
000,000  Himyarites  in  Abyssinia  and 
Harar,  from  south  Arabia),  some  since 
the  spread  of  Islam  (over  30,000,000 
nomad  and  other  Arabs,  chiefly  along 
the  Mediterranean  seaboard,  in  west 
Sahara,  and  central  and  east  Sudan). 
All  the  rest,  altogether,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  true  aboriginal  element,  and  as 
falling  into  two  main  groups — the  negro 
and   negroid    peoples,   and   the    Hamitic. 

Communications. — Railroad  communi- 
cation has  been  greatly  developed  in  re- 
cent years.  The  total  length  of  African 
railways  in  1920  was  about  23,000  miles. 
A  railway  connects  Matadi,  on  the  lower 
Kongo,  to  Stanley  Pool  or  Leopoldville. 
There  are  steamers  plying  regularly  on 
the  lower  Nile,  the  lower  Niger,  the 
Kongo,  the  Zambezi,  the  Shire,  and  on 
Lake   Nyassa. 

Political  Divisio^ns.— The  exploration 
of  the  Kongo  gave  rise  to  the  Inter- 
nationcl  African  Association-  founded  by 


King  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium  in  1876, 
and  the  International  Association  of  the 
Kongo,  founded  in  1878.  These  associ- 
ations organized  stations  on  the  Kongo, 
and,  in  1885,  an  international  confer- 
ence recognized  and  defined  the  Inde- 
pendent State  of  the  Kongo  (Kongo  Free 
State),  of  about  1,000,000  square  miles 
in  extent.  In  south  Africa  the  Portu- 
guese settlements,  originally  founded 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Diaz  and  Vasco 
de  Gama,  comprise  on  the  E.  coast  a 
territory  of  260,000  square  miles,  opposite 
Madagascar,  and  on  the  W.  coast  an 
area  of  457,500  square  miles,  from  the 
Kongo  to  the  Cunene  river.  In  1652  the 
Dutch  sent  colonists  to  the  Cape,  who 
were  later  reinforced  by  Protestant  ref- 
ugees from  France.  Cape  Colony  was 
finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1815 
and  was  afterward  colonized  from  that 
country.  A  large  part  of  the  Dutch  in- 
habitants, called  Boers,  migrated,  how- 
ever, inland  and  founded  the  two  inde- 
pendent republics  of  the  Orange  Free 
State  and  the  South  African  Republic, 
or  Transvaal.  These  two  states  were 
annexed  to  the  British  crown  in  1900 
as  a  result  of  the  war. 

In  1884  the  French  annexed  a  terri- 
tory N.  of  the  Kongo  Free  State,  250,- 
000  square  miles  in  extent;  and  in  1885 
an  international  conference  proceeded 
to  delimit  the  interior  portions  of  the 
continent.  After  1885  the  French  re- 
garded Madagascar  as  a  French  pro- 
tectorate, but  they  had  much  friction 
with  the  native  Hovas  till  a  French  ex- 
pedition captured  the  capital,  Antanana- 
rivo, Sept.  30,  1895,  and  the  protectorate 
was  completely  established.  In  1885 
Great  Britain  obtained  Bechuanaland, 
with  an  area  of  446,000  square  miles, 
N.  of  Cape  Colony.  A  large  area  N. 
was  also  annexed,  which  consists  of  two 
portions:  (1)  The  territory  of  the  Brit- 
ish South  Africa  Company,  including 
Mashonaland  and  Matebeleland,  the 
latter  conquered  from  King  Lobengula 
in  1893,  and  an  area  N.  of  the  Zambezi. 
(2)  Nyassaland,  in  central  Africa.  The 
first  of  these,  which  has  been  settled 
and  colonized  to  a  considerable  extent, 
covers  500,000  square  miles,  and  the 
latter  has  an  area  of  210,000  square 
miles.  In  1884  Germany  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  Kameruns  N.  of  the  French 
Kongo,  with  an  area  of  200,000  square 
miles,  and  in  1884-1890  the  colonies  of 
German  Southwest  Africa  (320,000 
square  miles),  and  German  East  Africa 
(350,000  square  miles),  were  added.  In 
East  Africa  Great  Britain  obtained 
(1886-1890)  the  territory  of  British  East 
Africa,  called  Ibea,  extending  from 
German   East  Africa  to  the   Webi-Jub 


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©Photo,  Keystone  View  Company 


AFRICAN    PIGMIES    DISCOVERED    BY    EXPLORERS 


©Ewing  Galloway 


ACETYLENE    WEEDING    ON    PRESSED    STEEL 


ASBESTOS-COVERED    PIPES    IN    AN    OIL-REFINING    PLANT 


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©Pictorial  Press 

AIRDROME,    CONSISTING    OF    ELEVEN    HANGARS,    CAMOUFLAGED 
TO   APPEAR   LIKE   TWO 


©Ewiitg    Calloway 


PLOWING   AN    ALFALFA   FIELD    BY    TRACTOR 


Keystone  I'iew  Coinj^aiiy 


PRIMITIVE  AGRICULTURE  ON   THE  NILE 


AFEICA 


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AFRICA 


river,  but  including  Zanzibar,  and  pene- 
trating a  considerable  distance  into  the 
interior.  It  covers  an  area  of  1,000,000 
square  miles.  Somaliland  was  divided 
between  Italy  and  Great  Britain  (1877- 
1891),  Italy  taking  over  300,000  square 
miles  and  Great  Britain  75,000  square 
miles  opposite  Aden.  Italy  also  annexed 
and  colonized  Eritrea,  on  the  Red  Sea 
(100,000  square  miles),  and  asserted  a 
protectorate  over  Abyssinia.  But  the 
latter  arrangement  was  repudiated  by 
Abyssinia.  Nov.  15,  1896,  the  latter*s  in- 
dependence was  recognized  by  the  Italian 
Government. 

The  first  two  decades  of  the  20th 
century  witnessed  great  changes  in  the 
political  distribution  of  African  terri- 
tory. 

In  1905  and  again  in  1911  France 
and  Germany  came  into  conflict  over 
Morocco  (q.v.).  The  Orange  Free  State 
and  the  Transvaal,  as  a  result  of  the 
Boer  War,  lost  their  independence,  Kongo 
Free  State  was  annexed  by  Belgium, 
Tripoli  became  a  part  of  Italy,  so  that 
Abyssinia  and  Liberia  remained  the  only 
independent  nations  in  Africa. 

Prior  to  the  changes  brought  about 
as  a  result  of  the  defeat  of  Germany 
in  the  World  War,  African  territory  was 
divided  practically  as  follows:  Egypt, 
while  nominally  under  Turkish  control, 
was  in  reality  a  protectorate  of  Great 
Britain,  which  also  exercised  sovereignty 
over  the  eastern  Sudan.  Tripoli  be- 
longed to  Italy,  and  Tunis  and  Algeria 
to  France.  The  greater  portion  of  Mo- 
rocco also  was  a  French  protectorate, 
while  a  small  portion  was  governed  by 
Spain.  France  exercised  control  of  the 
Sahara  region  to  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Kongo  river.  Spain  possessed  a 
small  area  on  the  west  coast  below  Mo- 
rocco known  as  Rio  de  Oro.  This  was 
followed  by  French  Mauretania  and 
Senegal,  British  Gambia,  Portuguese 
Guinea,  French  Guinea,  the  British 
Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  an  additional  area 
©f  French  territory,  the  British  Gold 
Coast,  and  Ashanti,  German  Togoland, 
French  Dahomey,  the  British  Niger  terri- 
tories, and  German  Kamerun.  French 
Kongo,  Portuguese  Angola,  and  German 
Southwest  Africa  reached  the  borders  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Between 
this  and  the  former  German  province 
of  Southwest  Africa  on  the  west  is  the 
British  protectorate  of  Bechuanaland 
and  the  British  colony  of  Rhodesia.  Ad- 
joining East  Africa  on  the  north  is  the 
former  colony  of  German  East  Africa. 
Bordering  this  on  the  north  is  British 
East  Africa,  which  joins  on  the  north 
the  British  sphere  of  influence  in  the 
Sudan  and  on  the  coast.  Italian  Somali- 


land.  West  of  the  latter  is  the  British 
Somali  Coast  Protectorate.  This  ad- 
joins French  Somaliland  and  Eritrea, 
belonging  to  Italy.  The  disposition  oi 
such  territories  as  formerly  belonged  to 
Germany  is  described  in  the  section  fol- 
lowing, Africa  in  the  World  War.  The 
details  relating  to  the  various  divisions 
mentioned  will  be  found  under  the  head- 
ings to  these  divisions  in  their  proper 
alphabetical  order. 

Africa  in  the  World  War. — At  the  out- 
break of  the  war  Germany  had  large 
colonial  possessions  in  Africa.  In  less  than 
thirty  years  of  effort,  the  territory  under 
her  control  embraced  3,000,000  kilo- 
meters with  more  than  12,000,000  in- 
habitants. In  extent,  her  African  empire 
was  the  third  largest  in  the  world,  and 
in  population  was  only  exceeded  by  the 
colonies  of  France,  Great  Britain  and 
the  Netherlands.  Her  colonial  adventure 
began  in  1884,  when  at  a  single  stroke 
she  acquired  Southwest  Africa,  Kamerun, 
and  Togoland.  New  Guinea  was  colon- 
ized by  her  to  one-third  of  its  extent, 
together  with  some  of  the  smaller  is- 
lands in  its  vicinity,  and  in  1895  she 
reached  out  for  German  East  Africa. 
By  1900,  she  had  added  to  these  pos- 
sessions the  Caroline  and  Marshall  Is- 
lands, and  had  become  one  of  the  great 
colonizing  powers  of  the  Dark  Continent. 
From  these  colonies  she  obtained  coffee, 
cocoa,  rice,  bananas,  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
jute,  tropical  textiles,  palm-oil,  rubber, 
and  a  vast  variety  of  other  materials  for 
the  development  of  her  manufacturing 
and  commercial  interests. 

When  the  war  broke  out,  it  was  a 
foregone  conclusion  that  communication 
between  the  colonies  and  Germany  would 
be  promptly  severed,  owing  to  the  pre- 
dominating power  of  the  British  navy, 
to  which  was  to  be  added  the  naval 
strength  of  Japan.  The  outcome  of  the 
struggle  on  land  was  more  problematical, 
for  the  Germans,  though  outnumbered 
by  the  forces  that  could  be  brought 
against  them  by  the  Entente,  had  the 
immense  advantages  of  a  defensive 
carried  on  over  vast  spaces,  through  path- 
less jungles  and  under  especially  trying 
climatic  conditions. 

The  German  islands  in  the  Pacific 
were  the  first  to  be  captured.  Samoa 
was  taken  by  the  New  Zealanders  on 
Aug.  29,  1914,  without  a  fight.  The 
Caroline,  Marshall,  and  Solomon  Islands 
were  captured  by  Japan,  Oct.  7,  1914, 
and  the  Marshall  and  Solomon  Islands 
were  turned  over  by  them  to  the  Aus- 
tralians Dec.  9,  1914.  German  New 
Guinea  was  taken  by  the  Australian  Ex- 
peditionary Forces  on  Sept.  13.  Thus  in 
about  four  months  the  German  flag  had 


AFBICA 


62 


APEICA 


been  lowered  on  all  her  former  island 

possessions  in  the  Pacific. 

Togoland,  a  wedge-shaped  territory  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  great  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  comprising  an  area  of  33,000 
square  miles,  was  attacked  by  joint 
French  and  British  forces,  and  after  in- 
considerable fighting,  that  scarcely  rose 
to  the  dignity  of  outpost  skirmishes,  was 
occupied  on  Aug.  26,  1914. 

The  conquest  of  Cameroon — or  Kam- 
erun,  as  the  Germans  call  it — was  at- 
tended with  more  difficulty.  The  terri- 
tory was  twice  as  large  as  Great  Britain, 
much  of  it  mountainous  and  thickly 
covered  with  jungle.  Vigorous  prepara- 
•jions  for  defense  had  been  made  for 
months,  and  there  were  comparatively 
large  forces  of  German  soldiers,  sup- 
ported by  much  larger  numbers  of  native 
troops,  thoroughly  equipped,  under  the 
command  of  German  officers.  Trenches 
and  barbed-wire  entanglements  had  been 
prepared  on  an  extensive  scale. 

The  colony  was  in  a  vulnerable  po- 
sition, having  British  colonies  to  the 
northwest  and  French  on  the  east  and 
south,  while  the  seacoast  was  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Allied  fleets.  The  Entente 
plan  of  campaign  was  based  on  these 
geographical  conditions,  and  sought  to 
drive  the  German  forces  toward  the  cen- 
ter by  attacking  from  the  circumference. 

In  the  early  part  of  January,  1915,  a 
junction  was  effected  between  a  French 
North  Cameroon  column  under  Colonel 
Brisset  and  a  British  force  sent  from 
Yola  in  British  Nigeria,  under  Major 
Webb-Bowen.  In  April,  the  command  of 
the  Allied  forces,  which  then  numbered 
900  men,  was  taken  over  by  Colonel  Cun- 
liffe,  and  an  investment  began  of  the 
German  fortress  of  Garua.  The  siege 
was  pressed  until  June  10,  when  the 
garrison  under  Captain  von  Krailsheim 
surrendered  unconditionally.  The  Allied 
forces,  at  the  end  of  June,  advanced  to 
N'Gaundere,  but  found  that  it  had  been 
evacuated.  On  Aug.  11,  Kounde  was 
reached  by  a  French  force  under  Captain 
Jean  Ferrandi.  An  operation  was  di- 
rected against  Yoko  from  Tibati  in  con- 
nection with  a  column  that  was  being 
led  by  Cunliffe  from  Kontcha.  On  Nov. 
16  a  movement  was  undertaken  against 
strong  German  positions  on  Mount  Banyo, 
while  on  the  east  two  columns,  setting 
out  from  Bertua  and  Dume,  marched 
against  Tina.  The  plan  was  for  these 
forces  to  converge  on  Yaunde,  the  last 
remaining  German  stronghold  in  the 
territory.  The  objective  was  obtained, 
all  resistance  proving  ineffectual.  The 
remnant  of  the  German  forces  took 
refuge  in  the  Spanish  Kongo,  where  they 
were  interned  by  the  Spanish  ajJthori- 


ties  and  the  conquest  of  the  Cameroon 
colony  was  complete. 

The  campaign  in  German  Southwest 
Africa  began  on  Sept.  27,  when  troops  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa  invaded  the 
colony.  Walfisch  Bay  was  occupied  on 
Christmas  Day  of  the  same  year,  and 
on  Jan.  14  following,  Swakopmund  was 
taken.  Determined  stands  were  made  by 
the  German  forces  at  Tretskopje  and 
Otjimbingwe,  but  the  Germans  were 
scattered  and  the  advance  continued. 
Karibib  was  occupied  on  May  5  and 
Windhoek  on  May  12.  The  capture  of 
the  latter  place  was  important,  as  3,000 
Europeans  and  12,000  natives  were  taken 
prisoners.  A  valuable  wireless  station, 
which  had  been  able  to  keep  in  touch 
with  Berlin,  was  also  captured,  as  well 
as  a  large  amount  of  rolling  stock.  Aus 
had  been  taken  on  April  1  by  the  force 
of  General  Smuts,  and  this  force  joined 
hands  with  another  at  Keetmanshoop. 
The  combined  columns  pushed  on  in  the 
direction  of  Gibeon,  where  a  pitched 
battle  was  fought,  and  to  Kabus,  where 
they  again  encountered  stubborn  but  un- 
availing opposition.  After  the  fall  of 
Windhoek,  the  campaign  degenerated 
into  guerrilla  warfare  carried  on  by  the 
Germans  from  the  hills  to  which  they 
had  retreated.  By  rapid  marches  and 
remarkable  persistence  this  last  vestige 
of  opposition  was  subdued,  and  on  July 
9  the  German  Governor  Seitz  surrendered 
to  the  British  all  the  German  forces  in 
Southwest  Africa,  thus  bringing  the 
campaign  to  an  end.  The  Allied  strategy 
had  been  dictated  by  General  Botha, 
whose  military  fame  was  greatly  aug- 
mented by  his  success.  The  conquered 
colony  was  half  again  as  large  as  the 
German  Empire. 

Much  more  difficult  and  prolonged  was 
the  Allied  campaign  for  the  subjection 
of  German  East  Africa.  No  other 
German  dependency  was  so  thoroughly 
prepared  for  the  struggle.  There  were 
only  three  white  German  regiments,  but 
they  had  as  auxiliaries  a  well-trained 
and  armed  force  of  50,000  Arab  and 
negro  soldiers,  They  were  possessed  of 
several  hundred  machine  guns  and  over 
100  Krupp  77-millimeter  field  pieces. 
The  earlier  phases  of  the  war  were 
marked  by  minor  German  successes,  an 
Anglo-Indian  attack  on  Tanga  from 
the  sea  being  repulsed  and  considerable 
British  territory  in  the  Kilimanjaro 
region  being  occupied.  It  was  not  until 
18  months  after  the  beginning  of  the 
war  that  the  Entente  forces  were  really 
prepared  to  begin  a  vigorous  offensive. 
By  that  time  the  local  forces  in  British 
East  Africa,  consisting  chiefly  of 
native  troops,   had   been   augmented   by 


AFRICA 

volunteers  and  by  British  and  Indian 
regiments  from  India.  The  conquest 
of  Southwest  Africa,  which  by  that  time 
had  been  completed,  released  the  forces 
that  had  been  there  employed,  and  many 
of  these  were  transferred  to  the  East 
African  Army,  which  ultimately  reached 
a  strength  of  20,000.  It  had  been 
planned  that  General  Smith-Dorrien 
should  be  in  command,  but  ill  health 
prevented,  and  Gen.  Jan  C.  Smuts 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Expedi- 
tionary Force.  The  first  object  sought 
was  the  conquest  of  Kilimanjaro,  and  in 
pursuance  of  this  plan  Smuts  reached 
Mombasa  Feb.  9,  1916.  On  March  9, 
Taveta  was  occupied  by  one  of  his 
columns,  and  on  the  11th  there  was  a 
fiercely  contested  fight  in  the  moun- 
tainous forests  of  Latema  Nek  that  re- 
.  £mlted  in  a  German  retreat.  In  the  Kahe 
hills  on  March  21,  determined  resistance 
was  offered,  but  again  the  Germans  were 
forced  to  retire  to  Usambara,  leaving 
the  road  to  the  heart  of  the  country 
without  defense.  Smuts  decided  to  strike 
inland  with  the  Central  railway  as  his 
objective.  General  Van  De venter  with 
the  2d  Division  was  sent  in  a  southwest 
direction  to  cut  the  line  of  communication 
between  the  main  forces  of  the  Germans 
and  their  troops  in  the  lake  regions.  He 
reached  Kondoa-Irangi  on  April  9,  but 
here  was  held  up  for  nearly  two  months 
by  torrential  rains.  This  was  taken  ad- 
vantage of  by  Von  Lettow-Vorbeck,  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  German  forces 
to  concentrate  a  force  of  4,000  men,  with 
whom  he  attacked  Van  Deventer,  but 
met  with  defeat.  On  Jan  24,  the  rains 
having  ceased.  Van  Deventer  attained 
the  object  of  his  mission  and  seized  the 
middle  section  of  the  railway. 

While  he  was  thus  operating,  the  main 
army  was  completing  the  occupation  of 
UsUmbara,  capturing  Wilhelmstal,  its 
capital,  June  13,  and  Tanga,  July  7.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  combine  with  Van 
Deventer,,  in  the  design  of  surrounding 
and  capturing  the  army  of  Von  Lettow- 
Vorbeck,  but  this  was  frustrated  by  the 
escape  of  the  latter  into  the  Uluguru 
hills  by  a  road  that  had  been  previously 
unknown  to  the  British.  The  junction  of 
the  two  British  forces  was,  however, 
effected,  after  the  capture  of  Mrogoro  on 
Sept.  26.  The  situation  was  rendered 
much  more  favorable  for  the  British, 
when  Dar-es-Salaam,  the  chief  port  and 
capital  of  the  colony,  was  taken  by  a 
naval  force  Sept.  4.  This  shortened  the 
British  lines  of  communications  by  more 
than  1,000  miles.  This  success  practi- 
cally ended  the  campaign  for  that  year, 
as  the  troops  were  exhausted  by  the 
frightful    conditions    under   which    they 


63 


AFRICA 


had  been  marching  and  fighting,  and 
were  suffering  from  dysentery  and  other 
diseases.  The  army  was  thoroughly  rested 
and  reconstituted,  12,000  white  troops  be- 
ing sent  back  to  recuperate  while  their 
places  were  taken  by  newly  raised  de- 
tachments. 

While  these  operations  had  been  pro- 
gressing, other  important  and  successful 
campaigns  were  being  carried  on  in  other 
sections  of  the  vast  territory.  A  Belgian 
force  under  General  Tombeur  had  struck 
at  the  northwest  district  and  by  the  end 
of  June  had  overrun  the  region  between 
Lake  Tanganyika  and  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza.  The  town  of  Tabora  on  the 
Central  railway,  after  ten  days  of  hard 
fighting,  fell  into  Belgian  hands  on  Sept. 
19. 

On  May  25,  1915,  a  force  "of  Union 
troops,  King's  African  Rifles  and  Rho- 
desians,  under  the  command  of  Brigadier- 
General  Northey,  attacked  the  colony 
from  the  southwest.  The  main  body 
followed  the  road  from  Lake  Nyassa  to 
Iringa  which  was  occupied  on  July  29. 
The  Rhodesian  column  was  successful  in 
taking  Bismarckburg  on  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika, from  which  place  it  worked 
northward  until  it  effected  a  junction 
with  the  Belgian  troops.  The  campaign 
had  now  lasted  for  about  seven  months, 
and  in  that  time  the  combined  opera- 
tions of  the  Entente  forces  had  conquered 
two-thirds  of  the  colony. 

For  a  year  following  little  was  ac- 
complished besides  confining  the  Germans 
to  the  southeast  part  of  the  territory 
and  the  south  central  Mahenge  plateau. 
Von  Lettow-Vorbeck.  whose  skill  and 
courage  were  freely  recognized  by  his 
enemies,  succeeded  in  avoiding  capture 
and  in  many  actions  turned  at  bay  and 
inflicted  severe  casualties  upon  his  pur- 
suers. But  the  odds  were  too  heavy,  the 
toils  kept  tightening,  and  in  June,  1917, 
a  final  offensive  was  begun  by  the  Allies 
that  was  pushed  steadily  to  a  conclusion. 
Mahenge  was  captured  in  October  by 
a  combined  force  of  British  and  Belgians, 
and  one  of  the  main  German  divisions 
was  forced  to  surrender  on  Nov.  27. 
From  that  time  on,  the  campaign  re- 
solved itself  into  a  chase,  which,  how- 
ever, the  resourceful  German  commander 
was  able  to  prolong  for  nearly  a  year. 
With  a  small  force  he  got  over  the  border 
into  Portuguese  East  Africa,  made  his 
way  south  nearly  to  the  Zambezi,  doubled 
on  his  tracks  in  the  following  September 
and  again  made  his  way  into  German 
East  Africa.  He  ultimately  reached 
northern  Rhodesia  where  he  finally  sur- 
rendered Nov.  14,  1918,  three  days  after 
the  armistice  had  been  signed  on  the 
western  front. 


AFBICAN   M.   E.   CHURCH 


64 


AGASSIZ 


The  disposition  to  be  made  of  the 
former  German  colonies  in  Africa  was 
announced  at  the  Peace  Conference,  May 
6,  1919.  The  official  statement  was  as 
follows : 

Togoland  and  Kamerun — France  and 
Great  Britain  shall  make  a  joint  recom- 
mendation to  the  League  of  Nations  as 
to  their  future. 

German  East  Africa — The  mandate 
shall  be  held  by  Great  Britain. 

German  Southwest  Africa — The  Man- 
date shall  be  held  by  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.    See  World  Wak. 

AFRICAN  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH.    See  Methodism. 

AFRICANUS.     See  SciPIO. 

AGADIR,  an  Atlantic  seaport  of  Mo- 
rocco, 64  miles  from  Mogador,  and  375 
miles  from  Tangier.  It  has  a  population 
of  about  1,000,  and  its  sole  importance 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  the  scene  of 
a  famous  diplomatic  episode  in  1911.  At 
that  time  France  was  establishing  a  pro- 
tectorate over  part  of  Morocco,  when, 
without  previous  announcement  the  Ger- 
man warship,  "Panther,"  entered  the 
harbor.  Intrigues  were  entered  into  with 
the  Moroccan  chiefs  who  were  invited 
on  board  the  "Panther,"  sumptuously 
entertained,  and  promised  German  sup- 
port in  resisting  French  plans.  What 
promised  to  be  a  serious  crisis  arose,  and 
both  nations  mobilized  troops.  Great 
Britain,  however,  supported  the  French 
position,  and  Germany  was  forced  to 
recede.  An  accord  was  established  Nov. 
3,  1911,  by  which  Germany  recognized 
the  right  of  a  protectorate  over  Moroccan 
territory  and  France  ceded  to  Germany 
230,000  square  kilometers  in  the  French 
Kongo,  with  other  economic  advantages. 
Both  parties  agreed  to  secure  the  con- 
sent of  other  nations  to  this  arrange- 
ment. 

AGAMEMNOlsr  (ag-a-mem'non),  king 
of  Mycenae  and  Argos,  son  of  Atreus  and 
Eriphyle,  brother  of  Menelaus  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Grecian  army  at 
the  siege  of  Troy.  He  married  Clytem- 
nestra,  sister  of  Helen,  who  was  the  wife 
of  Menelaus.  The  Trojan  war  arose  out 
of  the  abduction  of  Helen  by  Paris,  son 
of  Priam,  King  of  Troy.  During  the 
siege  of  Troy,  protracted  for  10  years, 
Agamemnon  appears  superior  to  the 
other  chiefs  in  battle  and  in  council,  and 
maintains,  under  all  circumstances,  the 
dignity  of  a  commander.  The  most 
memorable  event  of  the  siege  of  Troy 
is  the  quarrel  of  Agamemnon  and  Achil- 
les, the  subject  of  the  "Iliad,"  in  which 
the  former  placed  himself  very  complete- 
ly in  the  wrong.     Returning  from  Troy, 


Agamemnon  was  treacherously  murdered 
by  his  wife.  His  son  Orestes  (q.  v.), 
and  his  daughter  Electra  eventually 
avenged  their  father's  murder.  These 
tragic  events  formed  a  favorite  subject 
of  Greek  dramatists,  the  most  famous 
tragedy  on  the  subject  being  "Agamem- 
non" by  ^schylus. 

AGANA  (ag-an'ya) ,  the  principal  town 
of  Guam,  the  largest  of  the  Ladrone 
Islands,  1,500  miles  E.  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, and  1,300  miles  S.  of  Yokohama. 
As  a  result  of  the  war  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain  in  1898,  the  former 
took  possession  of  the  Island  of  Guam. 
Pop.  about  7,500. 

AGAPETUS,  the  name  of  two  Popes: 
(1)  from  June,  535,  to  April,  536,  festival 
day,  Sept.  20;  (2)  from  946  to  955,  a 
native  of  Rome. 

AGARICUS  (ag-ar'e-cus),  a  genus  of 
plants,  the  typical  one  of  the  fungus 
or  mushroom  family,  consisting  of 
species  which  possesses  a  fleshy  pileus 
or  cap,  with  a  number  of  nearly  parallel 
or  radiating  plates  or  gills  on  its  lower 
side,  bearing  spores,  the  whole  being  sup- 
ported upon  a  more  or  less  lengthened 
stalk.  More  than  1,000  species  are  known. 
They  may  be  separated  into  five  natural 
divisions  according  as  the  color  of  the 
spores  is  white,  pink,  ferruginous,  pur- 
ple-brown, or  black.  There  are  many 
sub-genera.  Some  species  are  poisonous. 
See  Mushroom. 

AGASIAS  (ag-as'e-as),  of  Ephesus,  a 
Greek  sculptor  who  flourished  about  400 
B.  C.  The  celebrated  statue  in  the  Louvre 
Museum,  called  "The  Gladiator,"  is  his 
work. 

AGASSIZ,  ALEXANDER  (a-ga-se'), 
an  American  zoologist  and  geologist,  son 
of  J.  L.  R.  Agassiz,  born  in  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland,  Dec.  17,  1835.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  with  his  father  in 
1849;  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1855; 
and  received  the  degree  of  B.  S.  from  the 
Lawrence   Scientific   School  in  1857.     In 

1859  he  went  to  California  as  assistant 
on  the  United  States  Coast  Survey.  From 

1860  to  1865  he  was  assistant  curator 
of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Harvard  University;  and,  from  1866 
to  1869,  superintendent  of  the  Calumet 
and  Hecla  mines.  Lake  Superior.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1873,  he  was  ap- 
pointed curator  of  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  holding  that  position 
until  he  resigned  in  1885.  In  1900  he 
completed  a  series  of  deep  sea  explora- 
tions for  the  United  States  Government. 
His  chief  works  are  "List  of  Echino- 
derms"    (1863);    "Exploration    of   Lake 


AGASSIZ 


65 


AGE 


Titicaca"  (1875-1876);  "Three  Cruises 
of  the  Blake,  a  Contribution  to  American 
Thalassography"  (1880);  etc.  He  died 
in  March,  1910. 


JEAN  LOUIS  RODOLPHE  AGASSIZ 

AGASSIZ,  JEAN  LOUIS  RODOLPHE, 

a  Swiss  naturalist,  born  at  Motier,  Swit- 
zerland, May  28,  1807.  He  studied  med- 
icine and  comparative  anatomy  in  the 
universities  of  Zurich,  Heidelberg,  and 
Munich.  He  gave  many  years  to  study 
of  fossil  fishes,  and  his  first  great  work 
bore  that  title  (1834).  His  next  special 
researches  were  directed  toward  the 
explanation  of  glaciers,  and  he  published 
"Studies  of  Glaciers"  (1844).  In  1846 
he  made  a  lecturing  tour  of  the  United 
States,  and,  in  1848,  became  Profes- 
sor of  Geology  at  Harvard,  and,  in  1859, 
curator  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology.  His  contributions  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  facts  and  principles 
of  natural  science  in  his  special  depart- 
ments are  very  numerous  and  of  highest 
authority.  Chief  among  his  works  writ- 
ten in  English  are  "Principles  of  Zool- 
ogy;" "The  Structure  of  Animal  Life"; 
"Scientific  Results  of  a  Journey  in  Bra- 
zil"; "Natural.  History  of  the  Fresh- 
Water  Fishes  of  Europe";  and  "Con- 
tributions to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
United  States."  Other  important  works 
are  "Studies  on  the  Glaciers,"  "The 
Glacial  System,"  and  "Researches  on  Fos- 
sil Fishes."  He  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
Dec.  14,  1873. 

AGATE,  a  mineral  classed  by  Dana 
as  one  of  the  cryptocrystalline  varieties 
of  quartz,  some  of  the  other  minerals 
falling  under  the  same  category  being 
chalcedony,  carnelian,  onyx,  hornstone, 
and  jasper. 


AGAVE,  an  extensive  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  amaryl- 
lidacex.  The  species  have  large,  fleshy 
leaves,  with  teeth  ending  in  spinous 
points.  From  the  center  of  a  circle  of 
these  leaves  there  rises,  as  the  plant  ap- 
proaches maturity,  a  tall  scape  of 
flowers.  The  idea  that  the  agave  blos- 
soms but  once  in  a  hundred  years  is  a 
fable.  But  as  a  result  of  this  popular 
misconception  the  plant  is  known  under 
the  name  of  Century  Plant.  What  really 
happens  is,  that  some  species,  taking 
many  years  (10  to  70,  it  is  thought)  to 
come  to  maturity,  flower  but  once,  and 
then  die.  The  plant  originally  belonged 
to  North  America  and  is  chiefly  found  tn 
Mexico.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  the  south 
of  Europe. 

AGE,  any  period  of  time  attributed  to 
something  as  the  whole,  or  part,  of  its 
duration:  as  the  age  of  man,  the  several 
ages  of  the  world,  the  golden  age. 

In  Physiology. — If  the  word  age  be 
used  to  denote  one  of  the  stages  of  human 
life,  then  physiology  clearly  distinguishes 
six  of  these:  viz.,  the  periods  of  infancy, 
of  childhood,  of  boyhood  or  girlhood,  of 
adolescence,  of  manhood  or  womanhood, 
and  of  old  age.  The  period  of  infancy 
terminates  at  2,  when  the  first  dentition 
is  completed;  that  of  childhood  at  7  or 
8,  when  the  second  dentition  is  finished; 
that  of  boyhood  or  girlhood  at  the  com- 
mencement of  puberty,  in  temperate  cli- 
mates from  the  14th  to  the  16th  year  in 
the  male  and  from  the  12th  to  the  14th 
in  the  female;  that  of  adolescence  extends 
to  the  24th  year  in  the  male  and  the  20th 
in  the  female;  that  of  manhood  or  woman- 
hood stretches  on  till  the  advent  of  old 
age,  which  comes  sooner  or  later,  accord- 
ing to  the  original  strength  of  the  con- 
stitution in  each  individual  case,  and  the 
habits  which  have  been  acquired  during 
life.  The  precise  time  of  human  ex- 
istence similarly  varies. 

In  Archaeology. — The  Danish  and 
Swedish  antiquaries  and  naturalists,  MM. 
Nilson,  Steenstrup,  Forchamber,  Thom- 
sen,  Worsaae,  and  others,  have  divided 
the  period  during  which  man  has  existed 
on  the  earth  into  three — the  age  of  stone, 
the  age  of  bronze,  and  the  age  of  iron. 
During  the  first-mentioned  of  these  he 
is  supposed  to  have  had  only  stone  for 
weapons,  etc.  Sir  John  Lubbock  divides 
this  into  two — the  palaeolithic,  or  older, 
and  the  neolithic,  or  newer,  stone  period. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  age  of 
bronze  that  composite  metal  became 
known,  and  began  to  be  manufactured  into 
weapons  and  other  instruments;  while, 
when  the  age  of  iron  came  in,  bronze  be- 
gan gradually  to  be  superseded  by  the 


AGE 


66 


AGINCOTTIIT 


last-mentioned  metal.  (Lyell's  "The  An- 
tiquity of  Man";  Lubbock's  "Prehistoric 
Times.") 

In  Law,  the  time  of  competence  to  do 
certain  acts.  In  the  United  States,  both 
males  and  females  are  of  full  age  at 
21.  The  age  at  which  minors  may  be 
punished  or  may  marry  varies  in  the 
siiveral  States. 

Age  of  Anhnals. — The  duration  of  life 
in  animals  is  generally  between  seven  and 
eight  times  the  period  which  elapses  from 
birth  till  they  become  adult;  but  this  rule, 
besides  being  vague  and  indefinite,  is 
quite  useless  in  practice,  because  it  af- 
fords no  scale  of  graduation  which  would 
enable  us  to  ascertain  the  precise  age  of 
individuals. 

Age  of  Plants. — Plants,  like  animals, 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  mortality,  and, 
in  many  cases,  have  the  period  of  tkeir 
existence  determined  by  nature  with  as 
much  exactness  as  that  of  an  insect.  It 
is  principally  to  annual  and  biennial 
plants  that  a  precise  period  of  duration 
is  fixed.  The  remainder  of  the  more  per- 
fect part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
whether  herbaceous,  or  shrubby,  or  ar- 
borescent, consist  of  plants  which  may 
be  classed  under  two  principal  modes  of 
growth.  One  of  these  modes  is  to  in- 
crease, when  young,  in  diameter,  rather 
than  in  length  until  a  certain  magnitude 
is  obtained,  and  then  to  shoot  up  a  stem, 
the  diameter  of  which  is  never  materially 
altered.  The  addition  of  new  matter  to 
a  trunk  of  this  kind  takes  place  by  the  in- 
sinuation of  longitudinal  fibers  into  the 
inside  of  the  wood  near  the  center;  on 
which  account  such  trees  are  called  en- 
dogenous, or  monocotyledons.  The  other 
mode  is,  from  the  beginning,  to  increase 
simultaneously  in  length  and  diameter, 
but  principally  in  length.  The  addition 
of  new  matter  to  a  trunk  of  this  kind 
takes  place  by  the  insinuation  of  longi- 
tudinal fibers  into  a  space  beneath  the 
bark,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  wood,  near 
the  circumference;  on  which  account  such 
trees  are  called  exogenous,  or  dicotyle- 
dons. The  way  by  which  the  age  of  ex- 
ogenous trees  may  be  computed  is  by  cut- 
ting out  a  portion  of  their  circumference, 
md  counting  the  number  of  concentric 
cings  that  are  visible;  the  woody  cylinder 
of  one  year  being  divided  from  the  suc- 
ceeding one  by  a  denser  substance,  which 
marks  distinctly  the  line  of  separation  of 
the  two  years.  In  consequence  of  the  ex- 
treme inequality  in  thickness  of  the  an- 
nual layers  of  wood  on  opposite  sides  of 
a  stem,  a  person  judging  of  the  whole  age 
of  a  tree  by  the  examination  of  the  layers 
of  the  stunted  side  only  would  commit 
errors  to  the  amount  of  60  per  cent.,  and 
more. 


AGEN  (a-zhon'  a  town  of  Prance 
capital  of  the  department  of  Lot-et-Ga- 
ronne,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
on  the  railway  from  Bordeaux  to  Tou- 
louse. Its  situation  though  rather  un- 
healthy, makes  it  the  entrepot  of  the  com- 
merce between  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse. 
The  town  is  very  ancient,  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  possesses  a  cathedral  dating  back  to 
the  6th  century.    Pop.  about  25,000. 

AGENT,  in  law,  0i7e  person  who 
acts  for  another,  called  the  principal. 
If  a  person  acts  as  agent  without  author- 
ity, the  subsequent  ratification  of  the  act 
will  make  it  binding  on  the  principal  just 
as  if  he  had  originally  directed  it.  When 
an  agent  acts  within  the  scope  of  his  em- 
ployment, he  may  bind  his  principal,  and 
the  principal  is  liable  for  any  fraudulent 
acts  or  wrong-doings  of  the  agent  so  act- 
ing. If  the  agent,  having  power  to  bind 
his  principal,  does  so  expressly,  he  is  not 
liable;  but  if  he  exceeds  his  authority, 
he  becomes  personally  responsible.  Upon 
the  law  of  agency  is  based,  to  a  large  de- 
gree, the  law  of  partnership. 

AGESANDER  (aj-es-an'der),  a  famous 
sculptor  of  Rhodes,  who,  in  the  time  of 
Vespasian,  made  a  representation  of  the 
Laocoon's  history,  which  now  passes  for 
the  finest  relic  of  all  ancient  sculpture. 
The  Laocoon  was  discovered  at  Rome  in 
1506,  and  afterward  deposited  in  the 
Farnese  palace,  where  it  still  remains. 

AGESILATJS  (aj-es-e-la'us) ,  King  of 
Sparta,  was  elevated  to  the  throne  chiefly 
by  the  exertions  of  Lysander.  He  was 
born  about  444  B.  C,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  soldiers  of  antiquity.  Be- 
ing called  upon  by  the  lonians  to  assist 
them  against  Artaxerxes,  he  commenced 
a  splendid  campaign  in  Asia;  but  was 
compelled  by  the  Corinthian  War,  in 
which  several  of  the  Grecian  states  were 
allied  against  Sparta,  to  leave  his  con- 
quest over  the  Persians  incomplete,  and 
return  to  Greece,  At  Coronea  (394  b.  c), 
he  gained  a  victory  over  the  allied  forces. 
He  died  about  360  B.  C. 

AGINCOURT,  now  AZINCOTJRT,  a 
small  village  in  the  center  of  the  French 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  celebrated 
for  a  bloody  battle  between  the  English 
and  French,  Oct.  25,  1415.  Henry  V., 
of  England,  had  landed  at  Harfleur,  had 
taken  that  fortress  and  was  marching  to 
Calais,  in  order  to  go  into  winter  quarters. 
But  a  French  army,  vastly  superior  in 
number,  intercepted  the  English  march 
to  Calais,  near  the  village  of  Agincourt. 
The  invading  army,  weakened  in  numbers, 
and  suffering  from  want  of  provisions, 
was  still  14,000  strong;  the  French,  under 
the  Constable  d'Albret,  numbered  50,000, 


AGNES,  ST. 


67        AGRAM  NATIONAL  COUNCIL 


or  more.  The  battle  lasted  three  hours, 
and  was  a  signal  victory  for  the  English, 
due  mainly  to  the  archers.  As  many  as 
10,000  Frenchmen  are  said  to  have 
fallen.     The  English  lost  1,600  killed. 

AGNES,  ST.,  a  holy  woman,  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Diocletian.  Her  emblem  is  a  lamb, 
and  her  calendar  day  Jan.  21. 

AGNO  (ag'no),  an  important  river  in 
the  N.  W.  part  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Is- 
lands. It  is  about  125  miles  in  length, 
describing  a  circuitous  course,  _  parallel 
with  a  range  of  coast  mountains,  and 
emptying  into  Lingayen  Gulf. 

AGNOSTICISM,  r  school  of  thought 
which  believes  that,  beyond  what  man 
can  know  by  his  senses  or  feel  by  his 
higher  affections,  nothing  can  be  known. 
Facts,  or,  supposed  facts,  both  of  the 
lower  and  the  higher  life,  are  accepted, 
but  all  inferences  deduced  from  these 
facts  as  to  the  existence  of  an  unseen 
world,  or  of  beings  higher  than  man, 
are  considered  unsatisfactory,  and  are 
ignored. 

AGOITLT  (a-go'),  MARIE  CATHE- 
RINE SOPHIE  DE  FLAVIGNY,  COM- 
TESSE  D',  a  French  .-^uthor  and  socialist, 
born  at  Frankfort-on-Main,  Dec.  31, 1805; 
in  sympathy  with  the  revolutionists  of 
1848.  After  separation  from  her  hus- 
band, she  became  the  mistress  of  the 
famous  pianist,  Franz  Liszt,  by  whom 
she  had  a  son  and  two  daughters.  One 
of  the  latter,  Cosima,  married  first  Hans 
von  Biilow  and  later  Richard  Wagner. 
She  died  at  Paris,  March  5,  1876. 

AGOUTI,  a  South  American  animal, 
of  the  family  hystricidx,  order  rodentia. 
The  agoutis  live  for  the  most  part  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  not  climbing 
nor  digging  to  any  depth.  By  eating  the 
roots  of  the  sugar-cane,  they  are  often 


AGOUTI 

the  cause  of  great  injury  to  the  planters. 
The  ears  are  short,  and  the  tail  rudi- 
mentary. The  animal  is  nearly  2  feet 
long.  It  is  found  m  Guiana,  Brazil,  Para- 
guay, and  some  of  the  Antilles. 

6 — Vol.  r— Cyc 


AGRA.  (1)  A  division  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  British 
India;  area,  10,151  square  miles;  pop., 
about  5,000,000.  (2)  A  district  of  the 
same  name,  consisting  of  a  level  plain 
diversified  by  sandstone  hills.  The  soil 
is  barren  and  sandy,  and,  through  the 
failure  of  rains,  famines  frequently 
occur;  area,  1,850  square  miles;  pop. 
about  1,000,000.  (3)  The  capital  of  Agra 
district,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
110  miles  S.  E.  of  Delhi,  and  841  miles 
N.  W.  of  Calcutta.  Agra  is  the 
handsomest  city  in  upper  India.  Some 
of  the  public  buildings,  monuments  of  the 
house  of  Timur,  are  on  a  scale  of  striking 
magnificence.  Among  these  are  the  fort- 
ress, built  by  Akbar,  within  the  walls 
of  which  are  the  palace  and  audience- 
hall  of  Shah  Jehan,  the  Moti  Masjid,  or 
pearl  mosque,  and  the  Jama  Masjid,  or 
great  mosque.  Still  more  celebrated  is 
the  white  marble  Taj  Mahal,  situated 
without  the  city,  about  a  mile  to  the 
east  of  the  fort.  The  city  is  considered 
especially  sacred  through  Vishnu's  in- 
carnation there  as  Parasu  Rama.  The 
climate,  during  the  hot  and  rainy  seasons 
(April  to  September),  is  very  injurious 
to  Europeans.  The  principal  articles  of 
trade  are  cotton,  tobacco,  salt,  grain,  and 
sugar.  There  are  manufactures  of  shoes, 
pipe  siems,  and  gold  lace,  and  of  inlaid 
mosaic  work,  for  which  Agra  is  famous. 
During  the  Indian  mutiny,  in  1857,  it 
was  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  Europeans. 
It  is  a  very  important  railway  center, 
and  has  many  claims  to  be  regarded  as 
the  commercial  capital  of  the  northwest. 
Pop.  about  200,000. 

AGRAM  (Croatian,  Zagreb),  capital 
of  the  former  Hungarian  crownland  of 
Croatia-Slavonia,  lies  at  the  foot  of  a 
richly  wooded  range  of  mountains,  about 
2  miles  from  the  Save,  and  142  miles 
N.  E.  of  Fiume  by  rail.  It  is  divided 
into  three  parts— the  upper  town,  built 
upon  two  eminences;  the  lower  town; 
and  the  episcopal  town.  The  cathedral, 
dating  partly  from  the  11th  century,  is 
one  of  the  finest  Gothic  buildings  m 
Austria.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  Croats,  who  carry  on  a  trade 
in  wine,  wood,  and  com,  and  manufac- 
ture tobacco,  leather,  and  linen.  Re- 
peated shocks  of  earthquake,  in  Novem- 
ber, 1880,  and  again  in  December,  1901, 
did  serious  damage  to  the  city's  build- 
ings. Agram  possesses  a  university, 
founded  in  1874,  numerous  secondary 
schools  and  libraries.    Pop.  about  85,000. 

AGRAM  NATIONAL  COUNCIL,  In 
November,  1918,  after  the  armistice  had 
been  signed  and  the  Hapsburg  Empire 
was  rapidly   disintegrating,   representa- 


AGRABIAN  LAWS 


68      AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


tives  of  the  Jugoslav  provinces  formerly 
under  Austro-Hungarian  control  met  in  a 
National  Council  at  Agram.  They  unani- 
mously voted  for  the  union  of  all  these 
provinces  with  Serbia  and  Montenegro 
and  chose  Crown  Prince  Alexander  of 
Serbia  as  Regent  of  the  new  State  whose 
official  name  was  fixed  as  the  "Kingdom 
of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes." 

AGRARIAN  LAWS,  in  the  ancient 
Roman  republic,  were  laws  of  which  the 
most  important  were  those  carried  by  C. 
Licinius  Stolo,  when  tribune  of  the  peo- 
ple, in  B.  c.  367.  The  second  rogation, 
among  other  enactments,  provided  (1) 
that  no  one  should  occupy  more  than 
500  jugera  (by  one  calculation,  about 
280,  and  by  another,  333,  English  acres) 
of  the  public  lands,  or  have  more  than 
100  large,  and  500  small,  cattle  grazing 
upon  them;  (2)  that  such  portion  of  the 
public  lands  above  500  jugera  as  was  in 
possession  of  individ\mls  should  be  di- 
vided among  all  the  plebeians,  in  lots  of 
seven  jugera,  as  property;  (3)  that  the 
occupiers  of  public  land  were  bound  to 
employ  free  laborers,  in  a  certain  fixed 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  occupa- 
tion. When,  at  a  later  period,  efforts 
were  made  to  revive  the  Licinian  roga- 
tions, such  opposition  was  excited  that 
the  two  Gracchi  lost  their  lives  in  conse- 
quence, and  this,  with  their  other  proj- 
ects, proved  abortive. 

AGRARIAN  PARTY,  a  political  or- 
ganization in  Germany,  representing 
the  interests  of  the  landlords  (in  political 
life).  The  first  steps  toward  the  forma- 
tion of  the  party  were  taken  by  an  as- 
sembly, called  together  at  Breslau,  in 
May,  1869.  Their  programme  was  espe- 
cially devoted  to  the  abolition  of  taxes 
on  land,  buildings  and  trades.  The 
Agrarian  party  took  an  important  share 
in  opposing  commercial  relations  with 
the  United  States,  especially  in  food- 
stuffs. 

AGREEMENT,  a  mutual  bargain,  con- 
tract, or  covenant.  Every  state  has  par- 
ticular laws  on  this  important  matter.  It 
may,  however,  be  noticed  as  general  rule: 

(1)  That  the  assent  is  the  essence  of 
an  agreement,  and  that  the  parties  must 
be  in  situations  to  testify  their  free  as- 
sent to  it.  Thus  lunatics,  infants,  and, 
in  certain  cases,  married  women,  are,  for 
obvious  reasons,  deemed  incapable  of 
binding  themselves  by  any  engagement. 

(2)  That  the  subject  of  agreement  must 
not  be  tainted  with  illegality.  (3)  In 
order  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  law  in 
carrying  it  into  effect,  an  agreement  must 
have  certain  qualities  mutually  benefi- 
cial to  the  parties,  or  must  be  entered 


into  with  certain  prescribed  solemnities. 
Courts  of  justice  cannot  be  called  upon 
to  take  cognizance  of  idle  or  inconsider- 
ate promises.  An  agreement  must  either 
be  contracted  by  a  formal  instrument 
in  writing,  sealed  and  openly  acknowl- 
edged by  the  party  who  has  bound  itself 
to  it;  or,  if  contracted  in  a  less  formal 
manner,  by  word  or  otherwise,  it  must 
appear  that  the  parties  derive  from  it 
reciprocal  benefit. 

AGRICOLA,  CN.fflUS  JULIUS  (ag- 
rik'o-la),  Roman  statesman  and  general, 
born  in  37  A.  D.  He  went  to  Britain  in 
77  A.  D.,  strengthened  the  Roman  power, 
and  extended  it  to  the  Scotch  Highlands. 
His  success  made  Domitian  jealous  of 
hin^  and  he  retired  from  public  life  in 
84.    He  died  in  92. 

AGRICOLA,  RUDOLPHUS,  an  emi- 
nent Dutch  scholar  was  born  near  Gro- 
ningen,  in  Friesland,  Aug.  23,  1443.  His 
real  name,  Roelof  Huysmann  (husband- 
man), he  Latinized  into  Agricola;  and 
from  his  native  place  he  was  also  called 
Frisius,  or  Rudolf  of  Groningen.  From 
Groningen  he  passed  to  Louvain,  then  to 
Paris,  and  then  to  Italy,  where,  during 
the  years  1473-1480,  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  the  most  celebrated  men  of 
his  age,  and  where  he  entered  into  a 
close  friendship  with  Dalberg,  afterward 
Bishop  of  Worms.  Several  cities  of  Hol- 
land vainly  strove  with  each  other  to 
obtain  his  presence,  but  not  even  the  bril- 
liant overtures  made  to  him  by  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  to  whose  court  he  had 
repaired  in  connection  with  affairs  of  the 
town  of  Groningen,  could  induce  him  tc 
renounce  his  independence.  At  length 
yielding  (1483)  to  the  solicitations  of 
Dalberg.  he  established  himself  in  the 
Palatinate.  He  died  at  Heidelberg,  Oct. 
28,  1485. 

AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY,  that 
department  of  chemistry  which  treats  of 
the  composition  of  soils,  manures,  plants, 
etc.,  with  the  view  of  improving  practical 
agriculture.  The  science  is  comparatively 
young.  The  first  steps  were  taken  by 
the  experimental  investigations  in  the 
life  processes  of  plants,  by  Hales,  in 
1727,  and  also  by  Ingenhousz,  whose  work 
on  "Experiments  upon  Vegetables"  was 
published  in  London,  in  1779,  and  by 
Saussure,  whose  work  appeared  in  Paris, 
in  1804.  In  1813.  Sir  Humphry  Davy 
published  his  "Elements  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry,"  and  he  is  considered  among 
the  English  as  the  founder  of  the  science. 
Comparatively  little,  however,  was  done 
in  the  matter  until  Liebig,  in  1840,  pub- 
lished his  "Organic  Chemistry,  in  Its 
Relation    to    Agriculture    and    Physiol- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION   69 


AGRICULTURE 


ogy,"  which  was  regarded  as  an  epoch- 
making  work.  Since  then  great  strides 
have  been  taken  in  this  science.  The 
most  important  bases  of  agricultural 
chemistry  to-day  are  the  experimental 
stations  which  are  found  in  agricultural 
colleges,  and  in  many  of  the  universities 
in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere. 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION,  edu- 
cation in  the  theory  and  practice  of  agri- 
culture has  received  much  attention  in 
the  present  generation,  especially  in  the 
last  decade.  In  addition  to  the  regular 
schools  of  agriculture  maintained  by  most 
of  the  States,  all  the  State  colleges  and 
universities  and  many  of  the  private  col- 
leges and  universities  maintain  depart- 
ments for  agricultural  training.  The 
courses  given  in  these  departments  in- 
clude all  phases  of  the  agricultural  in- 
dustry and  many  branches  outside  this 
immediate  field.  The  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Ex- 
periment Stations  exercises  general  su- 
pervision over  the  methods  and  material 
of  instruction  in  the  United  States. 
Experiment  stations  are  maintained  in 
many  parts  of  the  continental  United 
States  and  in  the  dependencies.  Most  of 
the  State  universities  and  agricultural 
colleges  also  maintain  separate  experi- 
ment stations  and  great  benefit  has  re- 
sulted from  the  researches  and  experi- 
ments carried  on.  Much  of  the  work  is 
done  in  model  farms  which  are  main- 
tained in  connection  with  the  course  of 
instruction.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment contributes  sums  averaging  about 
$1,500,000  a  year  divided  among  the 
States  for  the  maintenance  of  experi- 
ment stations.  The  total  number  of 
stations  is  about  70.  Other  countries, 
especially  Great  Britain  and  France,  are 
also  active  in  promoting  agricultural 
education.  This  work,  delayed  naturally 
by  the  war,  was  taken  up  with  renewed 
vigor  at  its  close. 

AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY.  See 

Tools  and  Machinery. 

AGRICULTURE,  the  art  of  cultivat- 
ing the  ground,  whether  by  pasturage, 
by  tillage,  or  by  gardening.  In  many 
countries  the  process  of  human  economi- 
cal and  social  development  has  been 
from  the  savage  state  to  hunting  and  fish- 
ing, from  these  to  the  pastoral  state, 
from  it  again  to  agriculture,  properly 
so  called,  and  thence,  finally,  to  commerce 
and  manufactures,  though  even  in  the 
most  advanced  countries  every  one  of 
the  stages  now  mentioned,  excepting  only 
the  first,  and,  in  part,  the  second,  still 
exist  and  flourish.  The  tillage  of  the  soil 
has  existed  from  a  remote  period  of  an- 


tiquity, and  experience  has  from  time  to 
time  improved  the  processes  adopted  and 
the  instruments  in  use;  but  it  was  not 
till  a  very  recent  period  that  the  necessity 
of  basing  the  occupation  of  the  farmer 
on  physical  and  other  science  has  been 
even  partially  recognized.  Now  a  division 
IS  made  into  theoretical  and  practical 
agriculture,  the  former  investigating  the 
scientific  principles  on  which  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  should  be  conducted, 
and  the  best  methods  of  carrying  them 
out;  and  the  latter  actually  doing  so  in 
practice. 

The  soil  used  for  agricultural  purposes 
IS  mainly  derived  from  subjacent  rocks, 
which  cannot  be  properly  understood 
without  some  knowledge  of  geology,  while 
a  study  of  the  dip  and  strike  of  the  rocks 
will  also  be  of  use  in  determining  the 
most  suitable  directions  for  drains  and 
places  for  wells.  The  composition  of  the 
soil,  manures,  etc.,  requires  for  its  deter- 
mination agricultural  chemistry.  The 
weather  cannot  be  properly  understood 
without  meteorology.  The  plants  culti- 
vated, the  weeds  requiring  extirpation, 
the  fungus  growths  which  often  do  ex- 
tensive and  mysterious  damage,  fall  un- 
der the  province  of  botany;  the  domestic 
animals,  and  the  wild  mammals,  birds 
and  insects  which  prey  on  the  produce  of 
the  field,  under  that  of  zoology.  The  com- 
plex machines  and  even  the  simplest  im- 
plements are  constructed  upon  principles 
revealed  by  natural  philosophy;  farm 
buildings  cannot  be  properly  planned  or 
constructed  without  a  knowledge  of  ar- 
chitecture. Rents  can  be  understood  only 
by  the  student  of  political  economy.  Fi- 
nally, farm  laborers  cannot  be  governed 
or  rendered  loyal  and  trustworthy  unless 
their  superior  knows  the  human  heart, 
and  acts  on  the  Christian  principle  of  do- 
ing to  those  under  him  as  he  would  wish 
them,  if  his  or  their  relative  positions 
were  reversed,  to  do  to  him.  Notwith- 
standing the  enormous  expansion  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury, agriculture  is  still  the  greatest  of 
the  occupations  of  man. 

Historical  and  Generul  Aspects. — In  all 
countries  and  ages,  history  records  no 
instance  of  any  civilization  attained  with- 
out noteworthy  progress  in  agriculture. 
The  relationship  of  agriculture  to  popu- 
lation expansion  is  one  of  the  vital  ques- 
tions for  economists.  It  appears  that,  in 
times  so  remote  that  their  antiquity  is 
only  conjecturable,  an  excellent  system 
of  agriculture  supported,  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Nile  and  Euphrates,  populations  at 
least  as  dense  as  any  existing  to-day. 
The  same  agricultural  perfection,  at- 
tended by  much  the  same  exceptional  con- 
ditions  of  the  population   which   distin- 


AGEICTTLTUEE 


70 


AGBICULTTmE 


guished  the  oldest  civilizations  of  ^  the 
world,  is  still  conspicuously  characteristic 
of  such  Oriental  countries  as  retain  any 
national  vitality,  especially  India,  China, 
and  Japan.  For  instance,  Japan  contains 
more  inhabitants  than  the  United  King- 
dom, and  supports  them  without  taking 
any  food  products  from  abroad  (actually, 
indeed,  exporting  considerable  quantities 
of  rice),  whereas  England  imports  food- 
stuffs to  the  value  of  hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  agriculture  was 
almost  wholly  disregarded  throughout 
Europe,  and,  consequently,  civilization 
was  generally  at  a  lo\/  ebb.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  era  of  the  Saracens  in  Spain 
is  memorable  for  civilization,  and  par- 
ticularly for  its  admirable  agriculture. 
Without  exception,  all  the  European 
nations  that  enjoy  eminence  to-day  pos- 
sess carefully  developed  agricultural  sys- 
tems, while  in  Spain,  the  one  noticeably 
backward  country,  agriculture  languishes. 
It  is  proverbial  that  the  wealth  of  France 
is  not  in  her  luxurious  capital,  but  in 
her  provincial  acres.  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land, the  richest  regions  of  Europe  in 
proportion  to  area,  with  populations  cor- 
respondingly dense,  owe  their  pre-emi- 
nence to  the  elaborate  cultivation.  The 
collapse  of  the  Mohammedan  power  finds 
one  of  its  chief  explanations  in  the  in- 
dolence of  the  Turk  and  his  neglect  of 
the  soil. 

The  first  mention  of  agriculture  is 
found  in  the  writings  of  Moses.  From 
them  we  learn  that  Cain  was  a  "tiller 
of  the  ground;"  that  Abel  sacrificed  the 
"firstlings  of  his  flock;"  and  that  Noah 
"began  to  be  a  husbandman  and  planted 
a  vineyard."  The  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  and  Phoenicians 
appear  to  have  held  husbandry  in  high 
estimation.  The  Egyptians  were  so  sensi- 
ble of  its  blessings  that  they  ascribed  its 
invention  to  superhuman  agency,  and 
even  carried  their  gratitude  to  such  an  ex- 
cess as  to  worship  the  ox,  for  his  services 
as  a  laborer.  The  Carthaginians  carried 
the  art  of  agriculture  to  a  higher  degree 
than  other  nations,  their  contemporaries. 
Mago,  one  of  their  most  famous  generals, 
wrote  no  less  than  28  books  on  agricul- 
tural topics,  which,  according  to  Colum- 
ella, were  translated  into  Latin  by  an 
express  decree  of  the  Roman  Senate. 
Hesiod,  the  Greek  writer,  supposed  to  be 
contemporary  with  Homer,  wrote  a  poem 
on  agriculture,  entitled  "Weeks  and 
Days,"  which  was  so  denominated  because 
husbandry  requires  an  exact  observance 
of  times  and  seasons.  Other  Greek  writ- 
ers wrote  on  rural  economy,  and  Xeno- 
phon,  among  the  number,  but  their  woKks 
have  been  lost  in  the  lapse  of  ages.  Co- 


lumella, who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius,  wrote  12  books  on 
husbandry,  which  constituted  a  complete 
treatise  on  rural  affairs.  Pliny  ascribes 
the  invention  of  manures  to  the  Greek 
King  Augeas,  and  Theophrastus  not 
only  mentions  six  kinds  of  manures,  but 
declares  that  a  mixture  of  soils  produces 
the  same  effects  as  manures.  Cato,  the 
Roman  censor,  equally  celebrated  as  a 
statesman,  orator,  and  general,  derived 
his  highest  and  most  durable  honors  from 
having  written  a  voluminous  work  on 
agriculture.  In  the  "  Georgics  "  of  Ver- 
gil, the  majesty  of  verse  and  the  har- 
mony of  numbers  add  dignity  and  grace 
to  the  most  useful  of  all  topics.  Varro, 
Pliny,  and  Falladius  were  likewise  among 
the  distinguished  Romans  who  wrote  on 
agricultural  subjects. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  irri- 
gation had  an  influential  advocate  as 
long  ago  as  the  time  of  Vergil,  who  in 
his  "Georgics"  advises  husbandmen  to 
"bring  down  the  waters  of  a  river  upon 
the  sown  corn,  and,  when  the  field  is 
parched  and  the  plants  drying,  convey 
it  from  the  brow  of  a  hill  in  channels." 
To  the  credit  of  the  Romans  let  it  be 
remembered  that,  unlike  many  conquerors, 
instead  of  desolating  they  Improved  the 
countries  which  they  subdued,  and  first 
of  all  in  agriculture. 

Recent  Progress. — From  the  details  of 
primitive  agricultural  methods  given  in 
ancient  writings  and  represented  in  mon- 
umental inscriptions,  it  is  evident  that 
not  till  the  19th  century  had  anything 
very  material  been  done  toward  the  cre- 
ation of  a  distinctive  agricultural  science. 
The  original  arts  of  husbandry,  prac- 
ticed ages  ago,  have  simply  been  adapted, 
with  little  improvement  till  very  lately, 
to  modify  conditions.  Most  of  the  mechan- 
ical appliances  to  which  our  ancestors 
were  restricted — the  plow,  roller,  hoCj 
sickle — are  found  pictured  in  the  Egyp- 
tian inscriptions  and  paintings.  It  is  also 
known  that  the  Egyptians  were  familiar 
with  the  advantages  of  rotation  in  crops, 
and  that  they  were  exceedingly  intelligent 
and  systematic  in  the  administration  of 
estates  and  the  regulation  of  all  rural 
concerns. 

Within  the  last  hundred  years,  how- 
ever, the  foundations  of  an  entirely  new 
agriculture  have  been  securely  laid.  The 
two  active  agencies  in  this  change  have 
been  chemical  science  and  invention. 
Chemical  science,  as  applied  to  agricul- 
ture, is  based  on  very  simple  elements. 
The  arable  surface  soil  becomes  exhausted 
if  grain  is  sown  upon  it  in  successive 
years,  this  exhaustion  being  occasioned 
by  the  removal  of  the  mineral  substances 
necessary  to  the  life  of  the  grain.     By 


AGRICULTURE 


71 


AGRICULTURE 


the  system  of  rotation,  a  cereal  crop  is 
followed  by  a  so-called  green  crop,  the 
roots  of  which  penetrate  deep  into  the 
subsoil  and  extract  from  it  a  fresh  supply 
of  the  needful  minerals;  thus  the  vigor 
of  the  surface  soil  is  renewed  and  it  again 
produces  an  abundant  grain  crop. 

The  fundamentals  of  the  new  rural 
economy  are  to  secure  maximum  pro- 
ductiveness on  the  agricultural  lands,  as 
a  whole,  by  a  comprehensive  utilization 
of  a  great  variety  of  fertilizers,  and,  by 
studying  the  needs  of  the  soil,  to  apply 
to  them  the  particular  fertilizers  best 
adapted  to  their  nature.  The  demonstra- 
tions of  experimental  chemistry  in  these 
directions  have  been  so  effective  that 
agricultural  science  has  become  one 
of  the  leading  subjects  of  practical  in- 
vestigation, receiving  the  actual  encour- 
agement of  all  civilized  governments. 
The  energetic  spirit  stimulated  by  the 
latest  teachings  of  chemical  science  has 
reflected  constant  advance  in  all  other 
departments  of  scientific  agriculture,  such 
as  drainage,  irrigation,  the  improvement 
of   breeds   and   plants,   meteorology,   etc. 

Agricultural  Interests  and  the  Govern- 
vient. — The  growth  of  agriculture  and 
the  evolution  of  enlightened  governmental 
administration  have  uniformly  gone  hand 
in  hand.  The  great  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  the  Dark  Ages  in  Europe 
was  the  crushing  oppression  of  the  rural 
population.  The  lifting  of  the  arbitrary 
burdens  resting  on  the  agricultural  class 
has  in  all  countries  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  era  of  enlarged  civil  liberty  and 
of  diffused  intelligence.  The  marvelous 
progress  of  the  United  States  is  above 
all  the  result  of  the  rapid  absorption  of 
lands  by  its  own  native  citizens  and  by 
industrious  immigrants  from  Europe. 
From  the  earliest  period  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, having  enormous  tracts  of  un- 
occupied lands  at  its  disposal,  pursued 
an  extremely  liberal  policy  to  encourage 
settlement.  Thus,  in  a  brief  time,  every 
section  of  the  country  was  peopled  and 
the  foundations  of  a  great  commonwealth 
were  laid.  With  the  vigorous  revival  of 
enterprise  and  thrift  after  the  Civil  War, 
and  the  steady  advance  of  immigration, 
the  epoch  of  abundant,  fertile  lands  ob- 
tainable for  a  nominal  price  was  brought 
to  its  close;  and  the  intense  rivalry 
witnessed  at  the  opening  of  Oklahoma 
Territory  was  a  demonstration  of  the 
practical  termination  of  the  era  of  set- 
tlement. In  a  new  country,  the  soil  of 
which  has  been  accessible  to  all,  the  farm- 
ers have  not  been  prompt  to  turn  their 
Attention  to  the  strictly  scientific  aspects 
of  agriculture,  yet  the  government  has 
inenifested  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of 
the  age  and  the  needs  of  the  future  by 


its  generous  provisions  for  the  founding 
of  agricultural  colleges,  and  by  its  ad- 
mirable system  of  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations.  The  latter,  like  the  agri- 
cultural colleges,  are  modeled  upon  the 
technical  institutions  originated  in  Europe 
for  scientific  investigation  concerning  all 
the  branches  of  agriculture.  The  Federal 
Government  makes  an  annual  grant  for 
experiment  station  purposes  to  each  State 
and  Territory  in  which  an  agricultural 
college  is  in  operation,  and  some  of  the 
States  also  contribute  to  the  support  of 
the  stations.  The  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture of  the  National  Government  is  excel- 
lently equipped  for  the  promotion  of  agri- 
cultural interests  in  both  practical  and 
experimental  aspects.  Its  Weather  Bu- 
reau, Bureau  of  Animal  Industries,  and 
various  divisions,  are  constantly  perform- 
ing work  of  much  value,  and  a  great  vari- 
ety of  useful  information  is  systemati- 
cally disseminated. 

The  following  tables  give  the  acre- 
age, value,  and  production  (000  omitted) 
of  the  principal  agricultural  crops  in 
1919: 

BARLEY 


State 


Maine 

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont 

New  York 

Pennsylvania. . . 


Maryland. 
Virginia.  . 

Ohio 

Indiana. . 
Illinois.  .  . 


Michigan. 

Wisconsin. 

Minnesota. 

Iowa 

Missouri.  . 


North  Dakota . 
South  Dakota . 
Nebraska .... 

Kansas 

Kentucky.  .  .  . 


Tennessee . 
Texas.  . . . 
Oklahoma. 
Montana.  . 
Wyoming. 


Colorado .  .  . 
New  Mexico. 
Arizona.  .  . . 

Utah 

Nevada. . . . 


Idaho 

Washington. 

Oregon 

California.  . 


United  States. 


Acreage 


Production 


Total 
farm  value 


Acres 

6 

1 

14 

113 

16 

6 
15 

125 
55 

212 

280 
512 
910 
315 
11 

1,300 

875 

217 

600 

4 

8 
25 
50 
90 
35 

200 
20 
29 
24 
12 

120 

138 

82 

1,000 


7,420 


Bushels 

168 

25 

420 

2,486 

392 

198 

375 

3,150 

1,430 

5,724 

5,320 
13,568 
18,200 

8,032 
330 

14,950 

19,250 

5,577 

16,200 

100 

176 
875 
1,500 
540 
525 

3.900 
680 

1,102 
720 
420 

3,360 

4,140 

1,886 

30.000 


165,719 


Dollars 

286 

47 

630 

3,381 

502 

244 

488 

3,938 

1,687 

6,926 

6,278 
16.417 
21,112 

8,996 
429 

16,146 

22,138 

5,577 

16,200 

157 

317 
980 
1,830 
756 
919 

4,680 

748 

1.543 

1,015 

630 

4,704 

5.589 

2,829 

42,300 


200.419 


AGRICULTURE: 

CORN 


72 


state 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  . 

Connecticut.  .  .  . 

New  Yorlv 

New  Jersey .  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania . . 
Delaware 

Maryland 

Vir^nia 

West  Virginia.  . 
North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 


Georgia. 
Florida. 
Ohio.  .  . 
Indiana. 
Illinois. 


Michigan.  . 
Wisconsin . 
Minnesota . 

Iowa 

Missouri .  . 


North  Dakota . 
South  Dakota. 
Nebraska .... 

Kansas 

Kentucky .... 


Tennessee. 
Alabama.  . 
Mississippi . 
Louisiana.  . 
Texas 


Oklahoma. 
Arkansas . 
Montana.  . 
Wyoming . 
Colorado.  . 


New  Mexico. 
Arizona.  .  . . 

Utah 

Nevada. . . . 


Idaho 

Washington. 

Oregon 

California.  . 


United  States . 


Acreage 


Acres 
20 
21 
40 
44 
11 

55 

820 

270 

1,536 

230 

693 
1,600 

735 
2,900 
2,340 

4,820 
840 
3,700 
4,750 
8,600 

1,650 
1,820 
2,950 
10,000 
5,756 

508 
3,200 
7,030 
4,475 
3,300 

3,250 
4,334 
3,980 
1,850 
6,760 

3,100 
2,707 

128 
48 

671 

240 

39 

24 

3 

24 
45 
71 
87 


102,075 


Production 


Bushels 
1,100 
1,050 
2,120 
2,640 
495 

3,300 
35,260 
10,800 
72,192 

6,900 

28,413 
44,800 
24,990 
55,100 
37,440 

69,890 

12,600 

162,800 

175,750 

301,000 

64,350 

85,540 

118,000, 

416,000 

155,412 

16,764 
91,200 
184,186 
69,362 
82,500 

74,750 
62,843 
59,700 
32,375 
202,800 

74,400 

48,726 

1,728 

768 

11,206 

7,200 

1,287 

432 

90 

840 
1,620 
1,860 
2,871 


2,917,450 


Total 
farm  value 


Dollars 
2,145 
1,785 
3,710 
4,541 
921 

5,940 

58,532 

16,524 

106,122 

10,005 

39,778 
75,712 
40,984 
101,935 
73,757 

111,824 
17,640 
196,988 
219,688 
391,300 

88,803 
106,925 
141,600 
499,200 
214,469 

23,470 
108,528 
224,707 

97,107 
127,875 

117,358 
99,920 
95,520 
48,562 

239,004 

94,488 

79,911 

2,851 

1,267 

15,913 

10,872 

2,574 

648 

126 

1,386 
2,997 
2,883 
5,139 


3,934,234 


FLAXSEED 


Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Acres 

6 

320 

16 

5 

760 

145 

3 

14 

410 

4 

Bushels 

63 

2,880 

152 

48 

3,800 

1,160 

15 

88 

697 

16 

Dollars 

271 

12,816 

638 

Missouri 

North  Dakota.  .  .  . 
South  Dakota.  .  .  . 

Nebraska 

215 

16,758 

4,930 

60 
334 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

3,067 
56 

United  States .  . 

1,683 

8,919 

39.145 

AGRICULTURE 

WHEAT 


State 


Maine 

Vermont 

New  York 

New  Jersey .  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania.  . 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia.  , 
North  Carolina, 

South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 


Michigan.  , 
Wisconsin. 
Minnesota. 

Iowa 

Missouri.  . 


North  Dakota. 
South  Dakota. 
Nebraska. . .  . 

Kansas 

Kentucky. . .  . 


Tennessee. , 
Alabama.  . 
Mississippi. 

Texas 

Oklahoma. 


Arkansas. 
Montana. 
Wyoming. 
Colorado. 


New  Mexico. 
Arizona.  .  .  . 

Utah 

Nevada. . . . 


Idaho 

Washington. 

Oregon 

California.  . 


United  States. 


Acreage 


Acres 

12 

12 

524 

109 

1,664 

145 

790 

1,060 

400 

850 

204 

240 

2,860 

2,886 

4,150 

1,035 
549 
4,015 
1,700 
4,296 

7,770 
3,725 
4,384 
11,624 
1,046 

810 

138 

36 

1,900 

3,760 

340 
2,221 

284 
1,459 

283 
43 

304 
29 

1,030 

2,440 

1,126 

900 


73,243 


Production 


Bushels 

228 

252 

11,178 

1,962 

29,055 

1,740 

10,665 

12,508 

5,400 

7,225 

1,836 

2,520 

54,440 

46,020 

65,675 

20,237 
7,355 
37,710 
23,675 
57,886 

53,613 
30,175 
60,675 
151,001 
12,029 

7,290 

1,242 

504 

31,350 

52,640 

3,230 
10,729 

4,008 
17,645 

6,100 

1.204 

3,682 

668 

18,705 
40,100 
20,495 
16,335 


940,987 


Total 
farm  value 


Dollars 

502 

572 

24,032 

4,316 

62,758 

3,706 
22,930 
28,018 
11,880 
16,834 

4,737 
6.628 

115,413 
96,642 

137,918 

42,497 
15,814 
94,276 
47,350 
120,982 

129,207 

72,420 

122,564 

324,652 

25,381 

16,184 

3,043 

1,260 

62,700 

107,912 

6,525 
25,214 

8,497 
35,643 

12,200 
2,709 
7,732 
1,429 

38,345 
85,814 
43,449 
33,323 


2,024,008 


COTTON 


Virginia 

North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Missouri 

Oklahoma 

California 

Arizona 

Other 

United  States . 


Acres 

42 

1,568 

2,881 

5,288 

117 

2,621 
2,950 
1,532 
10,346 
2,563 

775 

111 

2,341 

167 

116 

11 


33,344 


Bales 

22 

875 

1,475 

1,730 

17 

715 
946 
300 
2,700 
S30 

298 

60 

030 

102 
75 

7 


11,030 


Dollars 
3,850 
154,000 
263,288 
309,670 
3,570 

124.410 
177,375 
52^500 
472,500 
151,060 

49,915 

10,200 

163,680 

21,930 

19,125 

1,250 


1,967,143 


AGBICXTLTUBE 

OATS 


73 


state 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  . 

Connecticut .  .  .  . 

New  York 

New  Jersey .... 
Pennsylvania.  .  . 
Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia.  . 
North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 


Georgia. 
Florida. 
Ohio.  .  . 
Indiana. 
Illinois. 


Michigan.  . 
Wisconsin . 
Minnesota. 

Iowa 

iMlssouri.  . 


North  Dakota . 
South  Dakota . 
Nebraska .... 

Kansas 

Kentucky. .  .  . 


Tennessee . 
Alabama. . 
Mississippi. 
Louisiana.  . 
Texas 


Oklahoma . 
Arkansas . 
Montana. . 
Wyoming . 
Colorado. . 


New  Mexico . 
Arizona .... 

Utah 

Nevada .... 


Idaho 

Washlngfton. 

Oregon 

California.  . 


United  States. 


Acreage 


Acres 

169 

33 

110 

15 

2 

20 
1,160 

82 

1,189 

5 

65 
240 
190 
322 
510 

540 

60 

1,548 

1,825 

4,102 

1,475 
2,339 
3,220 
5,670 
1,417 

2,400 
1.850 
2,133 
1,574 
440 

400 
372 

278 

75 

2,250 

1,500 
420 
612 
315 

249 

65 
13 

72 
12 

220 
320 
347 

175 


42,400 


Production 


Bushels 

5,746 

1,221 

3,960 

570 

68 

620 

29,580 

2,460 

36,859 

115 

1,820 
5,280 
4,750 
3,767 
11,730 

10,800 

1,140 

51,858 

60,225 

123,060 

36,875 
78,123 
90,160 
196,182 
38,259 

38,400 
53,650 
69,962 
44.229 
9,900 

9,200 
6,696 
5,282 
1,650 
94,500 

49,500 
9,240 
6,120 
5,670 
6,524 

2,340 
533 

2,448 
384 

7,700 
12,800 
11,104 

5,250 


1,248,310 


Total 
farm  value 


POTATOES 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  . 

Connecticut.  .  .  . 

New  York 

New  Jersey .... 
Pennsylvania. . . 
Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia.  . 


Bushels 

24,480 

2,400 

3,125 

2,970 

425 

1,680 

39,567 

10,560 

25,400 

913 

5,i70 

11,495 

5,130 


Dollars 

5,286 

1,038 

3,564 

513 

65 

546 

24,551 

1,968 

29,487 

104 

1,492 
5,280 
4,322 
3,993 
12,903 

12,420 
1,368 
37,338 
41,555 
86,142 

26,181 
54,686 
57,702 
125,556 
27,164 

25,728 
33,800 
45,475 
32,287 
9,009 

8,556 
7,031 
5,446 
1,650 
60,480 

34,650 
8,131 
6,569 
6,350 
5,872 

2,223 
533 

2,399 
384 

7,546 
11,904 
10,216 

5,040 


895,603 


Dollars 

34,272 

4,200 

4,906 

5,643 

765 

3,276 
57,372 
17,846 
39,116 

1,141 

6,721 

18,047 

8,978 


AGBICTJLTUllE 
POTATOES— Continued 


State 


North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 


Georgia. 
Florida. 
Ohio.  .  . 
Indiana. 
Illinois. 


Michigan.  , 
Wisconsin. 
Minnesota. 

Iowa 

.Missouri.  . 


North  Dakota. 
South  Dakota. 
Nebraska .... 

Kansas 

Kentucky. . . . 


Tennessee. , 
Alabama .  . 
Mississippi . 
Louisiana.  . 
Texas 


Oklahoma . 
Arkansas. 
Montana. . 
Wyoming. 
Colorado. . 


New  Mexico. 
Arizona.  . .  . 

Utah 

Nevada. ... 


Idaho 

Washington. 

Oregon 

California.  . 


United  States . 


Acreage 


Acres 
58 
27 

23 

24 

150 

100 

155 

326 
300 
300 
115 
110 

90 

90 

115 

68 

72 

48 
44 
18 
25 
52 

44 
41 
47 
33 
92 

11 

5 

17 


4,013 


Production 


Bushels 
4,930 
2,295 

1,610 
1,824 
9.300 
4,400 
8,060 

28,688 

28,200 

26,100 

4,945 

8,250 

5,670 
4,500 
6,825 
5,168 
5,040 

3,120 
3,520 
1,530 
1,600 
3,796 

3,520 
3,321 

2,820 

2,640 

11,040 

495 

350 

2,397 

900 

5,400 

7,250 

4,230 

11,352 


357,901 


Total 
farm  value 


BUCKWHEAT 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Connecticut.  .  .  . 

New  York 

New  Jersey.  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania.  . 

Delaware 

Marjland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. . 
North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Tennessee 

United  States. 


Acres 
17 
2 
9 
2 
5 

233 
11 

256 

6 

14 

25 
42 
11 
26 
14 

4 
48 
31 
15 

7 
6 
1 
5 


790 


Bushels 
408 

52 
225 

44 
100 

5,126 
198 

5,530 
108 
322 

475 
882 
209 
621 
231 

72 
662 
502 
240 

98 
90 
16 
90 


16,301 


Dollars 
8,036 
4,590 

3,494 
3,830 

17,856 
8,580 

15,798 

38,729 
39,480 
39,933 
9,494 
15,180 

9,072 
8,550 

12,018 
9,819 

10,584 

5,366 
7,568 
2,830 
3,520 
7,972 

7,216 
6,808 
4,512 
5,016 
18,768 

940 

682 
3,284 
1,350 

8,154 
10,512 

6,345 
19,412 


577,581 


Dollars 

714 

81 

382 

70 

200 

7,433 
297 

7,742 
173 
499 

736 
1,499 
293 
963 
346 

130 
907 
753 
312 

166 

166 

29 

135 


24,026 


AGBICULTURE 

RYB 


74 


AGRICULTURE 
HAY  (TAME)— Ckmtinued 


State 


Vermont 

Massachusetts. 
Connecticut.  .  .  . 

New  York 

New  Jersey.  .  .  . 

Pennsylvania.  . 

Delaware , 

Maryland 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. . 

North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota.  . 
South  Dakota.  . 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Texas 

Oklahoma 

Arkansas 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

Utah 

Idaho 

Washington.  . . 
Oregon 

United  States 


Acreage 


Acres 

1 

5 

11 

120 

81 

228 

2 

30 

72 

20 

90 

17 

33 

115 

380 

250 
900 
525 
522 
70 

60 

1,945 

500 

408 

200 

62 

31 

4 

7 

25 

3 

68 

28 

143 

18 

9 

20 

60 


7,063 


Production 


Bushels 

17 

115 

220 

1,932 

1,296 

3,648 

26 

420 

828 

260 

810 

170 

294 

1,886 

5,320 

4,125 
13,500 
8,295 
7,830 
1,113 

720 

15,560 

6,500 

6,650 

2,520 

744 
279 
38 
119 
350 

28 

272 

252 

1,258 

120 
135 
240 
582 


88,478 


Total 
farm  value 


HAY   (TAME) 


Maine 

NeW  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  . 

Connecticut .  .  .  . 

New  York 

New  Jersey .... 
Pennsylvania.  . 
Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia , 

West  Virginia.  . 
North  Carolina. 
South  Carolina. 

Georgia 

Florida 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 


Michigan.  , 
Wisconsin. 
Minnesota. 


Dollars 

26 

201 

440 

2,898 

2,074 

5,727 
42 

685 
1,408 

429 

1,701 

502 

800 

2,735 

7,448 

5,362 
17,280 
11,002 
10,179 

1,469 

1,080 
18,828 
8,125 
7,648 
3,553 

1,302 

558 

99 

199 

525 

56 

503 

454 

1,635 

252 

236 

444 

1,106 


119,041 


Dollars 

27,227 
16,200 
29,266 
17,712 
2,752 

16,429 
134,870 

14,201 

103,632 

2,730 

15,120 
39,105 
31,104 
25,168 
11,098 

15,509 

3,243 

86,611 

66,528 

102,934 

74,412 
96,181 
55,100 


State 

Acreage 

Production 

Total 
farm  value 

Iowa 

Acres 
3,140 
2,810 

605 

890 

1,769 

1.832 

1,115 

1,280 

1,367 

405 

250 

662 

700 
550 
752 
605 
1,065 

235 
169 
453 
225 

650 

794 

854 

2,352 

Tons 
5,181 
3,794 

908 
1,558 
4,299 
4,507 
1,561 

1,792 

1,367 

648 

450 

1,258 

1,540 
770 
827 
853 

2,396 

646 
676 
938 
526 

1,625 
1,906 
1,452 
4,257 

Dollars 
90,149 
73,983 

12,803 
21,033 
60,186 
71  211 

Missouri 

North  Dakota.  .  .  . 
South  Dakota.  .  .  . 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

39.649 

48,384 
30,484 
13,284 
10,350 
22,644 

Oklahoma 

Arkansas 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

23,254 
15,785 
19,021 
19,619 
44,326 

11,757 
13,520 
20  542 

10,310 

35,750 
43,838 
27,733 

Idaho 

Washington 

California 

73,220 

United  States.  . 

56,348 

91,326 

1,839,967 

TOBACCO    BY    TYPES    AND    DISTRICTS 
I. — CiOAB   Types 


District 

Acreage 

Production 

Total 
farm  value 

New  England. .  .  . 

New  York 

Pennsylvania. . . . 
Ohio-Miami    Val- 

Acres 
35.0 
3.7 
41.0 

40.0 
48.0 

6.2 

Pounds 
54,400 
3,483 
54,120 

40,000 
60,960 

5,890 

Dollars 

25,187 

784 

9,200 

6,000 

Wisconsin 

Georgia  and  Flor- 
ida  

13,533 
3,210 

Total  cigar  types 

172.9 

218,853 

57,914 

II. — CHEwriNG,  Smoking,  Snuff,  and  Export 
Types 


Burley 

Paducah 

Henderson 

One-sucker 

Clarksvillo     and 

Hopklnsvllle.  . 

Virginia      s  u  n  - 

313.0 

137.8 

106.5 

47,5 

126.0 

13.0 

70.0 

395.0 

463.0 

33.5 

.4 

262,920 

110,240 

87,330 

37,050 

100,800 

8,320 

47,600 

201,450 

277,800 

24,120 
174 

146,609 

26,458 

17,466 

6,132 

26,006 

2,271 

Virginia  dark.  .  .  . 

Old  Bright 

New  Bright 

Maryland    and 
eastern  Ohio  ex- 

14,280 
114,020 
118,065 

6.874 

Louisiana  Periquo 

113 

Total  chewing, 

smoking,    snuff, 

and  export  types 

All  other 

1,705.7 
22.6 

1,157,804 
12,801 

478,294 
6,339 

Total 

1,901.2 

1,389,458 

542,547 

AGEICULTURE 


75 


AGUINALDO 


RICE 


State 

Acreage 

Production 

Total 
farm  value 

North  Carolina.  . 
South  Carolina.  . 
Georgia 

Acres  1 

400 

3,700 

1,200 

2,000 

600 

600 

3,300 

560,000 
218,000 
158,000 
142,000 

Bushels  2 
10 
90 
29 
42 

23 

16 
96 

19,712 
6,998 
6,162 
7,881 

Dollars^ 

28 

270 

80 

Florida 

110 

■Missouri 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

California 

55 
43 

182 

53,420 
19,594 
14,789 
21.042 

United  States.  . 

1,089,800 

41,059 

109,613 

^Figures  in  full    (000  not  omitted). 
2(000  omitted). 

Statistics  of  other  products  not  in- 
cluded in  the  tables  above  are  as  fol- 
lows: peanuts,  1,251,400  acres,  produc- 
tion 33,263,000  bushels,  value  $79,839,- 
000;  beans,  1,018,000  acres,  production 
11,488,000  bushels,  value  $49,181,000; 
sweet  potatoes,  1,029,000  acres,  produc- 
tion 103,579,000  bushels,  value  $138,085,- 
000;  hops,  23,900  acres,  production  29,- 
346,000  pounds,  value  $22,656,000.  The 
total  value  of  thirteen  crops  in  all  the 
States  in  1919  was  $12,421,342,000.  The 
total  value  of  live  stock  on  the  farms 
in  1920  amounted  to  $8,566,313,000. 

AGRICULTURE,  DEPARTMENT  OF, 

an  executive  department  of  the  United 
States  Government,  established  by  Con- 
gress in  1889;  originally  a  bureau.  It  dis- 
seminates throughout  the  United  States, 
by  daily,  monthly,  and  annual  reports, 
the  latest  and  most  valuable  agricultural 
information  and  introduces  and  distrib- 
utes new  and  desirable  seeds,  plants,  etc. 
It  includes  the  Weather  Bureau,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  a  herbarium,  a 
museum,  a  laboratory,  propagating  gar- 
dens, a  library,  and  other  useful  adjuncts. 
There  are  now  60  experimental  stations 
established  in  every   State. 

AGRIGENTUM  (ag-re-jen'tum) ,  the 
modern  Girgenti,  a  town  on  the  S.  coast 
of  Sicily,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Gela 
in  582  B.  c,  and  in  the  earlier  ages  one 
of  the  most  important  places  in  the  island. 
After  being  at  first  free,  it  was  utterly 
demolished  by  the  Carthaginians  in  405 
B.  c.  In  the  course  of  the  Punic  Wars  it 
was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Romans. 
From  827  to  1080  A.  D.  it  was  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Saracens,  from  whom  it 
was  conquered  by  Count  Roger  Guiscard. 
The  modern  Girgenti  still  shows  numer- 
ous and  splendid  ruins.  Empedocles  was 
born  here. 


AGRIPPA  II.,  HEROD,  tetrarch  of 
Abilene,  Galilee,  Iturea,  and  Trachonitis, 
born  in  27  A.  D.  During  his  reign  he  en- 
larged Caesarea  Philippi  and  named  it 
Neronias,  in  honor  of  Nero.  He  remained 
faithful  to  the  Romans,  and  tried  to  dis- 
suade the  Jews  from  rebelling.  After 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  100  A,  D.  Before  him  the 
Apostle  Paul  made  his  memorable  de- 
fense  (Acts  xxvi). 

AGUAS  CALIENTES  (ag'waz  kal- 
yan'taz),  a  town  of  Mexico,  capital  of  a 
central  State  of  the  same  name,  with  an 
area  of  2,900  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  125,000,  stands  on  a  plain 
6,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  270  miles 
N.  W.  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  envi- 
rons abound  in  hot  springs,  from  which 
the  town  takes  its  name.  Pop.  about 
50,000. 

AGUE,  an  intermittent  fever,  in  what- 
ever stage  of  its  progress  or  whatever  its 
type.  Marsh  miasma,  or  the  effluvia  aris- 
ing from  stagnant  water,  or  marshy 
ground,  when  acted  upon  by  heat,  are  the 
most  frequent  causes  of  this  fever.  One 
peculiarity  of  this  fever  is  its  great  sus- 
ceptibility of  a  renewal  from  very  slight 
causes,  as  from  the  prevalence  of  an 
easterly  wind,  even  without  the  repetition 
of  the  original  exciting  cause. 

AGUILAR,  GRACE  (a-ge-lar'),  an 
English  novelist;  bom  at  Hackney,  June 
2,  1816;  was  the  daughter  of  Jewish  par- 
ents of  Spanish  origin.  Her  first  books 
were  in  defense  of  the  Jewish  religion: 
"The  Spirit  of  Judaism"  (1842)  ;  "The 
Jewish  Faith,"  etc.  She  is  best  known 
by  her  domestic  and  sentimental  novels, 
"Home  Influence"  (1847)  ;  "The  Vale  of 
Cedars"  (1850),  and  "The  Days  of 
Bruce"  (1852).  She  died  in  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  Sept.   16,  1847. 

AGUINALDO,    EMILIO,    a   leader   of 
the  insurgents  in  the  Philippines  insur- 
rection  of  1896,   and  their  chief  in  the 
Spanish-American     War     of     1898.       A 
Chinese  mestizo  (of  Chinese  and  Tagalog 
parentage),  he  was  born  in  Imus,  in  the 
province   of   Cavite,   in   Luzon,   in    1870. 
His  father  was  a  planter  and  he  received 
his  early  education  at  Catholic  colleges, 
and   studied   medicine.     In   1888  he  had 
some   trouble   with    the   authorities    and 
went  to   Hong   Kong.     On  the  outbreak 
of    the    rebellion    against    Spanish    au- 
thority, in  1896,  Aguinaldo  became  a  com- 
manding figure  with  the  insurgents.     Ht 
was  at  the  head  of  the  diplomatic  party, 
which   succeeded  in  making  terms  with 
the  Spanish  Government,  the  latter  pay- 
ing a  large  sum  to  the  Philippine  leaders 
to  lay  down  their  arms.    Aguinaldo  quar- 


AGULHAS 


76 


AHMED  MIBZA 


reled  with  his  associates  in  Hong  Kong 
over  the  division  of  this  money,  and  went 
to  Singapore,  where  he  came  in  contact 
with  the  United  States  consul,  shortly 
before  the'  breaking  out  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Spain.  On 
the  representations  of  the  consul  Com- 
modore Dewey  telegraphed  to  have 
Aguinaldo  sent  to  him.  Aguinaldo  was 
given  opportunity  to  organize  the  Fili- 
pinos against  the  Spanish  authority;  but 
no  promises  were  made  to  him  and  the 
insurgents  were  never  officially  recog- 
nized by  the  Americans.  Friction  early 
arose  and  the  Americans  protested 
against  the  cruel  treatment  of  Spanish 
prisoners  by  the  Filipinos.  The  strain 
became  serious  at  the  capture  of  Manila, 
the  insurgents  claiming  the  right  to  sack 
tlie  city,  which  the  Americans  denied. 
On  June  12,  1898,  Aguinaldo  organized  a 
so-called  Filipino  Republic,  with  himself 
as  president,  but  very  soon  proclaimed 
himself  dictator.  He  protested  against 
the  Spanish-American  treaty  of  peace, 
which  ceded  the  Philippine  Islands  to 
the  United  States,  and  claimed  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  islands.  He  organized  an 
extensive  conspiracy  among  the  native 
population  of  Manila,  and  ordered  the 
complete  massacre  of  the  Americans,  to- 
gether with  the  entire  European  popula- 
tion. The  plot  was  discovered  in  time 
and  failed.  On  Feb.  4,  1899,  his  forces 
attacked  the  American  lines  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  Manila.  The  news  of  this  overt 
action  caused  the  prompt  ratification  of 
the  Spanish-American  treaty  by  the 
United  States  Senate.  Aguinaldo  made 
a  determined  resistance  to  the  Ameri- 
cans, but  early  in  1900  the  organized  in- 
surrection was  broken  up,  Aguinaldo 
driven  into  hiding  by  General  Funston, 
who  also  captured  the  rebel  himself  in 
March,  1901.  Aguinaldo  then  declared 
his  allegiance  to  the  American  flag. 

AGTJLHAS  (ag-61'as),  CAPE,  the  most 
southern  point  of  Africa,  lies  about  100 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
lat.  34°  49'  S.,  long.  20°  0'  40"  E.  The 
point  is  very  dangerous  for  ships.  In 
1849,  a  lighthouse  was  erected  on  the 
point.  The  Agulhas  bank  extends  along 
the  whole  southern  coast  of  Africa,  from 
near  Natal  to  Saldanha  Bay. 

AHAB,  son  of  Omri,  seventh  king  of 
the  separate  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  vsras 
married  to  Jezebel,  whose  wickedness  in- 
stigated him  to  the  commission  of  acts 
of  cruelty  and  idolatry.  He  was  slain 
by  an  arrow  in  a  war  with  the  Syrians. 

AHASUERUS,    or    AHASHVEROSH, 

the  name  of  the  Persian  monarch  whose 
story  is  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Esther. 


He  is  probably  the  same  king  as  the 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus  of  the  Greek 
historians,  whose  reign  commenced  B.  C. 
465. 

AHMADABAD,  chief  town  of  a  dis- 
trict in  Guzerat,  India,  second  among  the 
cities  of  the  province  of  Bombay.  It 
was  built  in  the  year  1412  by  Ahmad 
Shah,  and  finally  came  under  the  power 
of  the  British  in  1818.  Its  architectural 
relics  are  gorgeous,  even  in  the  midst 
of  decay,  and  illustrate  the  combination 
of  Saracenic  with  Hindu  forms,  mainly 
of  the  Jain  type.  The  Jama  Masjid,  or 
great  mosque,  rises  from  the  center  of 
the  city,  and  is  adorned  by  two  superbly 
decorated  minarets.  There  is  likewise  an 
ivory  mosque,  so  called  because,  although 
built  of  white  marble,  it  is  lined  with 
ivory,  and  inlaid  with  a  profusion  of 
gems.  It  is  famous  for  its  manufacture 
of  rich  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton,  bro- 
cades, and  articles  of  gold,  silver,  steel, 
and  enamel.  The  pottery  is  very  su- 
perior; and  paper  of  various  sorts  is 
largely  manufactured  chiefly  from  jute. 
Pop.  about  250,000.  The  district,  mainly 
a  great  alluvial  plain,  has  an  area  of 
3,821  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
about  900,000. 

AHMED  MIRZA,  Shah  of  Persia,  born 
in  1898.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  when  the  latter  was  de- 
posed from  the  throne  on  July  16,  1909, 


AHMED   MIBZA 


On  account  of  his  youth  when  he  became 
shah,  he  was  not  able  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  administration  of  his  govern- 
ment during  the  first  years  of  his  reign, 
but  he  gradually  acquired  the  ability  to 


AHRIMAN 


77 


AIR 


rule  with  increasing  years  and  during 
the  troubled  days  of  the  World  War 
carried  on  the  affairs  of  the  state  as 
eificiently  as  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances. In  1920  he  visited  France  and 
other  European  countries.    See  Persia. 

AHRIMAN,  a  Persian  deity,  the  de- 
mon or  principle  of  evil,  the  principle  of 
good  being  Oromasdes,  or  Ormuzd. 

AI,  a  species  of  sloth,  the  hradypus 
tridactylus  of  Linnaeus.  As  its  name  im- 
plies it  has  three  toes,  or  rather  nails, 
on  each  foot,  in  this  respect  differing 
from  the  unau  {bradypus  didactylus  of 
Linnaeus),  w^hich  has  but  two.  It  is  of 
the  order  edentata,  or  toothless  mam- 
mals. It  is  the  only  known  species  of  its 
class  which  has  as  many  as  nine  cervical 
vertebrae,  seven  being  the  normal  number. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat.  The  tail  is 
very  short.  The  limbs  also  are  short,  but 
exceedingly  muscular.  It  clings  with  ex- 
traordinary tenacity  to  the  branches  of 
trees.  It  inhabits  America,  from  Brazil 
to  Mexico. 

AID-DE-CAMP,  AIDE-DE-CAMP,  or 
sometimes  simply  AID  or  AIDE,  an 
officer  who  receives  the  orders  of  a  gen- 
eral and  communicates  them. 

aide',  HAMILTON  (a-e-da'),  an  Eng- 
lish novelist  and  poet;  born  in  Paris, 
France,  in  1830.  He  was  educated  at 
Bonn,  and  became  an  officer  in  the  Brit- 
ish army.  His  poems  include  "Eleanore 
and  Other  Poems"  (1856);  "The  Ro- 
mance of  the  Scarlet  Leaf,  and  Other 
Chronicles  and  Reminiscences"  (1856),  a 
masterly  description  of  Russian  family 
life;  "The  Childhood  of  Bragoff,  the 
Grandson"  (1858).     He  died  in  1906. 

AIKEN,  town  and  county-seat  of  Ai- 
ken CO.,  S.  C,  on  the  Southern  railway; 
17  miles  E.  of  Augusta,  Ga.  It  is  a  noted 
winter  health  resort,  especially  for  con- 
sumptives; contains  Aiken  Institute,  the 
Schofield  Normal  School,  and  the  Im- 
manuel  Training  and  High  School;  and 
has  banks,  newspapers,  manufactories, 
and  large  cotton  trade.  Pop.  (1910) 
3,911;    (1920)   4,103. 

AILANTHUS,  or  AILANTUS,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  of 
sinuii-ubacese.  The  glandulosa,  called  tree 
of  heaven  or  Chinese  sumach,  a  native  of 
Mongolia  and  Japan,  has  very  large,  un- 
equally pinnate  leaves  and  unpleasant- 
smelling  flowers.  In  Japan  it  affords 
nourishment  to  a  fine  silkworm.  The 
silk  produced  is  coarser,  but  more  durable 
than  mulberry  silk.  It  was  first  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  1784.  During  the 
first  half-dozen  years  it  outstrips  almost 


any  other  deciduous  tree  in  vigor  of 
growth,  and  leading  stems  grow  12  to  15 
feet  in  a  single  season.  In  four  or  five 
years,  therefore,  it  forms  a  bulky  head, 
but  after  that  period  it  advances  more 
slowly.  In  the  United  States  it  is  planted 
purely  for  ornament;  but  in  Europe  its 
wood  has  been  applied  to  cabinet  work. 

AINSWORTH,  FREDERICK  CRAY- 
TON,  an  American  soldier,  born  in  Wood- 
stock, Vt.,  in  1852.  He  studied  medicine 
at  the  Medical  College  of  New  York  and 
was  appointed  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
army  in  1874.  He  was  promoted  to 
various  grades  until  in  1892  he  became 
a  colonel  and  Chief  of  the  Record  and 
Pension  Office.  He  was  appointed  Brig- 
adier-General in  1899  and  Major-General 
and  Military  Secretary  in  1904,  and 
Major-General  and  Adjutant-General  of 
the  United  States  in  1907.  He  was  re- 
tired at  his  own  request  in  1912.  He 
was  an  efficient  administrator  of  the 
Adjutant-General's  office,  and  introduced 
many  improved  methods  of  carrying  on 
the  business  of  the  War  Department. 

AINSWORTH,  WILLIAM  HARRI- 
SON, an  English  novelist;  born  in  Man- 
chester, Feb.  4,  1905.  Educated  in  Man- 
chester, he  went  to  London,  edited  "Bent- 
ley's  Magazine"  in  1840,  "Ainsworth's 
Magazine"  (1842-1853),  and  the  "New 
Monthly  Magazine."  He  wrote  250  novels 
and  enjoyed  enormous  popularity.  His 
books  are  still  read  for  their  vivacious 
narratives  and  powerful  descriptions. 
The  most  widely  known  among  them  is 
probably  "Jack  Sheppard"  (1839).  He 
died  in  Ryegate,  Jan.  3,  1882. 

AINTAB,  a  town  in  Sjrria  in  the  vil- 
ayet of  Aleppo.  Prior  to  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Turkey  in  1920,  the  tov/n 
belonged  to  Turkey.  It  has  military 
importance  and  is  provided  with  strong 
fortifications.  Before  the  war  it  had  an 
important  trade  in  leather  and  cotton. 
Pop.  about  45,000,  which  is  made  up  for 
the  most  part  of  Armenian  and  Greek 
Christians.  In  April  and  May,  1920,  the 
city  was  attacked  by  Turkish  forces  and 
many  of  its  inhabitants  were  killed  and 
most  of  the  others  were  driven  from  the 
city.  The  French  force  which  was  de- 
fending the  town  withdrew,  leaving  it 
defenseless.  There  were  present  at  the 
time  several  American  missionaries  who, 
however,  escaped  from  the  cfty  without 
injury. 

AIR,  the  gaseous  substance  which  fills 
the  atmosphere  surrounding  our  planet. 
It  is  elastic,  and  is  destitute  of  taste, 
color,  and  smell.  It  contains  by  weight, 
oxygen,  23.10  parts,  and  of  nitrogen, 
76.90;   and  by  volume,  of  oxygen,  20.90, 


AIB-BBAKE 


78 


AIK-BBAEE 


and  of  witrogen,  79.10;  or  of  10,000  parts, 
there  are,  in  perfectly  dry  air,  of  nitro- 
gen, 7,912,  oxygen,  2,080,  carbonic  acid, 
4,  carburetted  hydrogen,  4,  with  a  trace 
of  ammonia.  But  air  never  is  dry;  it 
has  always  in  it  a  varying  amount  of 
watery  vapor. 

The  density  of  air  being  fixed  at  the 
round  number  1,000,  it  is  made  the  stand- 
ard with  which  the  specific  gravity  of 
other  substances  is  compared.  If  water 
be  made  unity,  then  the  specific  gravity 
of  dry  air  is  .0012759.  At  62°  Fahr.  it 
is  810  times  lighter  than  water,  and 
11,000  times  lighter  than  mercury.  At 
::he  surface  of  the  sea,  the  mean  pressure 
•^s  sufficient  to  balance  a  column  of  mer- 
cury 30  inches,  or  one  of  water  34  feet, 
in  height. 

Air,  in  music,  is  a  piece  composed  of  a 
certain  number  of  melodious  phrases, 
united  in  a  regular  symmetrical  form, 
and  terminating  in  the  key  in  which  it 
began. 

AIR-BRAKE,  a  mechanical  device  for 
regulating  the  speed  of  railroad  trains 
and  for  stopping  them.  In  the  course 
of  its  development,  the  air-brake  has  been 
known  in  three  different  forms — the 
straight  air-brake,  the  automatic  air- 
brake and  the  quick-action  automatic 
air-brake,  each  in  its  turn  fulfilling  the 
requirements  of  its  day  and  laying  the 
foundation  for  the  succeeding  form. 

The  straight  air-brake  was  the  easiest 
and  simplest  form  and  was  introduced  by 
Mr.  Westinghouse  about  the  year  1869. 

The  automatic  air-brake,  introduced 
by  Mr.  Westinghouse  in  1873,  was  de- 
signed to  remedy  the  defects  of  the  earlier 
system  and  to  meet  the  advancing  re- 
quirements of  the  time.  The  apparatus 
consisted  of  that  already  employed  in  the 
straight  air-brake  system,  with  the  ad- 
dition upon  each  vehicle  of  a  storage  res- 
ervoir, of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply 
the  brake  cylinder  upon  that  vehicle,  and 
a  valve  mechanism,  called  a  triple  valve, 
operated  by  variations  in  the  air  pressure 
in  the  train  pipe,  to  control  the  operation 
of  the  brake  cylinder.  This  triple  valve 
was  placed  in  the  branch  pipe  leading 
from  the  train  pipe  to  the  brake  cylinder, 
and  was  also  supplied  with  a  pipe  lead- 
ing to  the  new  storage  reservoir.  It  was 
called  a  triple  valve  because  it  performed 
the  three  functions  of  (1)  permitting  air 
to  flow  from  the  train  pipe  into  the  stor- 
age reservoir,  for  the  purpose  of  charging 
the  latter  with  air  pressure;  (2)  permit- 
ting the  compressed  air  to  flow  from  the 
reservoir  into  the  brake  cylinder,  for  the 
purpose  of  applying  the  brakes,  and  (3) 
permitting  the  compressed  air  to  flow 
from  the  brake  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere 


to  remove  the  pressure  from  the  brakd 
cylinders  and  thereby  release  the  brakes. 
The  storage  reservoir  upon  the  locomotive 
became  thereafter  known  as  the  main 
reservoir,  and  those  upon  the  individual 
cars  became  known  as  auxiliary  reser- 
voirs. The  characteristic  feature  of  the 
automatic  air-brake  is  the  triple  valve, 
under  the  immediate  control  of  which  are 
all  the  operations  of  the  brakes  upon  in- 
dividual cars. 

The  automatic  air-brake  is  applied 
by  an  operation  of  the  triple  valve  which 
results  from  the  discharge  of  air  from 
the  train  pipe  to  the  atmosphere.  The 
application  of  the  brakes  need  not  be 
confined  to  the  manipulation  of  the  op- 
erating valve  by  the  engineer,  but  will 
result  from  any  cause  by  which  the  train- 
pipe  air  pressure  may  become  sufficiently 
reduced.  It  was  this  feature  of  the  ap' 
paratus  which  gave  it  the  designation  au- 
tomatic. Should  any  portion  of  the  train 
become  detached,  or  should  the  train  pipe 
or  hose  become  ruptured,  a  reduction  of 
air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe  immediately 
follows,  and  the  brakes  become  automati- 
cally applied  upon  all  the  cars  of  the 
train.  The  importance  of  this  feature 
of  the  automatic  brake  is  very  marked. 
Of  all  the  operations  of  the  air-brake 
apparatus,  the  necessity  of  prompt  and 
reliable  action,  when  the  full  retarding 
effect  of  the  brakes  is  needed,  stands  pre- 
eminent. Of  all  the  various  manipula- 
tions of  the  air  pressure,  that  of  per- 
mitting the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe 
to  be  discharged  to  the  atmosphere  is  the 
simplest  and  most  surely  attainable.  In 
this  way  the  prompt  response  of  the 
brake  apparatus,  when  emergency  calls 
for  its  operation,  is  most  fully  assured, 
and  the  .automatic  air-brake  has,  there- 
fore, taken  a  most  conspicuous  place  in 
the  front  rank  of  railroad  safety  ap- 
pliances. No  accidental  disorder  of  the 
apparatus  can  prevent  the  application  of 
the  brakes  in  emergencies.  By  means  of 
the  engineer's  operating  valve,  or  of  a 
valve  called  the  conductor's  valve,  con- 
nected with  the  train  pipe  in  each  pas- 
senger car,  or  by  the  occurrence  of  any 
disorder  which  dissipates  the  air  pres- 
sure in  the  train  pipe,  the  apparatus 
automatically  causes  the  train  to  come^  to 
a  stop — in  the  latter  case  calling  attention 
to  the  disorder  and  giving  opportunity 
for  such  repair  as  shall  again  insure 
safety  before  the  train  proceeds. 

The  automatic  air-brake  was  very  gen- 
erally adopted  for  the  passenger  trains 
of  all  important  railroads,  and  fully  met 
all  the  requirements  of  its  day.  When, 
however,  in  the  development  of  railroad 
transportation,  the  necessity  for  the  use 
of  an  automatic  power  brake  upon  freight 


AIB-BRAEE 


79 


AIB-BBAEE 


trains  became  apparent,  new  conditions 
were  discovered  which  the  automatic  air- 
brake was  not  qualified  to  meet. 

It  was  clearly  evident  that  the  useful- 
ness of  the  automatic  air-brake  upon 
freight  trains  became  contingent  upon  the 
discovery  of  some  means  whereby  the  in- 
terval of  time  elapsing  between  the  ap- 
plication of  the  brakes  upon  the  cars  of 
the  forward  end  of  the  train  and  of  those 
at  the  rear  end  of  the  train  could  be  so 
diminished  that  no  damaging  shocks 
should  result  from  any  operation  of  the 
brakes.  An  examination  of  the  con- 
ditions of  operation  made  it  equally  evi- 
dent that  but  two  methods  could  be  uti- 
lized for  securing  a  more  nearly  simul- 
taneous application  of  the  brakes  to  all 
the  cars,  one  of  which  is  to  reduce  the  air 
pressure  in  the  train  pipe  so  gradually 
that  such  reduction  is  nearly  uniform 
throughout  the  train,  and  the  other  is  to 
provide  a  series  of  openings  in  the  train 
pipe,  in  addition  to  that  through  the 
engineer's  brake  valve,  so  that  the  train 
pipe  air  may  be  discharged  at  different 
points  throughout  the  train  at  approxi- 
mately the  same  time.  While  the  first  of 
these  two  methods  proves  entirely  satis- 
factory for  ordinary  application  of  the 
brakes  in  regular  service,  so  much  time 
is  occupied  by  it  that  it  is  wholly  unsuit- 
able for  applying  the  brakes  when  emer- 
gencies require  prompt  and  efficient 
action.  The  second  method,  therefore, 
became  the  only  practical  solution  of  the 
use  of  the  compressed  air-brake  as  an 
effective  safety  appliance  upon  freight 
trains. 

The  quick-action  air-brake  was  in- 
troduced by  Mr.  Westinghouse  about  1888, 
and  was  the  result  of  the  development 
of  this  principle. 

The  quick-action  automatic  air-brake 
system  virtually  consists  of  two  dis- 
tinct brake  systems,  one  of  moderate 
power  and  smooth  and  gentle  application 
for  all  the  customary  operations  of  every- 
day train  service,  and  the  other  of  high 
power  and  violent  application  for  use 
only  when  emergencies  require  most 
energetic  means  to  avert  destruction  of 
life  and  property.  It  has  practically 
succeeded  all  other  forms  of  power  brake 
upon  railroad  trains,  and  in  1900  was  in 
use  upon  about  1,000,000  cars. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the 
condition  which  determines  whether  a 
service  or  an  emergency  application  of 
the  brakes  will  result  from  a  reduction 
of  the  air  pressure  in  the  ti'ain  pipe  is 
the  rate  of  rapidity  or  the  suddenness 
with  which  the  reduction  of  the  air  pres- 
sure in  the  train  pipe  takes  place.  When 
the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe  is  re- 
duced comparatively  slowly,  the  leftward 


movement  of  the  triple  valve  piston  is 
terminated  by  the  resistance  of  the  spring 
supporting  the  stem  in  such  a  position 
that  the  compressed  air  of  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  becomes  discharged  into  the 
brake  cylinder,  thereby  reducing  the  air 
pressure  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir  (which 
acts  upon  the  right  face  of  the  triple 
valve  piston)  co-ordinately  with  the  con- 
tinued reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in 
the  train  pipe  (acting  upon  the  left  face 
of  the  piston) ,  so  that  such  a  preponder- 
ance of  air  pressure  upon  the  right  face 
of  the  piston,  as  is  necessary  to  compress 
the  spring  of  the  stem,  does  not  oc- 
cur. It  is  only  when  the  air  pressure, 
acting  upon  the  left  face  of  the  triple 
valve]  piston,  is  reduced  much  more  rapidly 
than  the  discharge  of  auxiliary  reservoir 
air  to  the  brake  cylinder,  will  permit  the 
air  pressure  upon  the  right  face  of  the 
piston  to  be  reduced,  that  the  piston 
makes  its  complete  movement  to  the  left 
and  causes  a  quick  application  of  the 
brakes  throughout  the  train.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  the  engineer's  brake 
operating  valve  shall  be  provided  with 
such  means  as  shall  readily  enable  the 
engineer  to  discharge  air  from  the  train 
pipe  with  only  such  rapidity  as  shall  re- 
sult in  a  service  application,  or  to  dis- 
charge the  air  with  such  greater  rapidity 
as  shall  cause  the  emergency  application 
of  the  brakes. 

It  is  found  also  that,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  necessary  to  elevate  the  air  pressure 
in  the  train  pipe  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
to  a  point  somewhat  above  the  pressure 
of  the  air  remaining  in  the  auxiliary  res- 
ervoirs after  an  application  of  the  brakes, 
in  order  to  force  the  triple  valve  piston 
to  the  right  and  release  the  brakes,  the 
provision  of  a  stored  pressure  in  the  main 
reservoir  upon  the  locomotive,  higher 
than  that  ordinarily  charged  into  the 
train  pipe  and  brake  apparatus,  is  very 
desirable  for  temporary  use  in  effecting 
a  prompt  release  of  the  brakes.  It  has 
thus  occurred  that  the  primitive  three- 
way  cock,  used  for  an  engineer's  brake 
operating  valve,  with  the  earlier  forms 
of  the  air-brake,  has  given  place  to  a 
more  complicated  device,  now  employed 
for  effecting  the  varrous  operations  of 
the  quick-action   air-brake. 

The  functions  of  the  modern  engineer's 
brake  valve  may  be  enumerated  as  fol- 
lows: To  supply  air  to  the  train  pipe  and 
the  auxiliary  reservoirs  throughout  the 
train,  at  a  certain  definitely  determined 
pressure  for  the  proper  operation  of  the 
brakes,  the  standard  pi-essure  adopted 
for  this  purpose  by  the  railroads  being 
70  pounds;  to  discharge  air  from  the 
train  pipe  to  the  atmosphere  at  such  a 
rate  of  rapidity  that  all  the  applications 


AIRD 


80 


AISNE 


of  the  brakes  in  customary  service  may 
be  effected  without  the  operation  of  the 
quick-action  mechanism  of  the  triple 
valves;  to  maintain  any  reduced  train 
pipe  air  pressure  resulting  from  an  ap- 
plication of  the  brakes,  so  that  the  brakes 
may  be  kept  applied  with  the  force  cor- 
responding to  such  reduced  train  pipe 
pressure;  to  discharge  air  from  the  train 
pipe  to  the  atmosphere  with  such  rapidity, 
in  emergency  applications  of  the  brakes, 
as  shall  cause  the  quick-action  mechan- 
ism of  the  triple  valves  to  operate  with 
certainty;  and  to  temporarily  supply  the 
train  pipe  with  an  unusually  high  air 
pressure  whenever  the  brakes  are  to  be 
released.  These  various  operations  are 
in  practice  controlled  by  different  posi- 
tions of  a  rotary  disk  valve,  the  various 
positions  of  which  are  defined  and  se- 
cured by  the  movement  of  a  handle  op- 
erated by  the  engineer. 

For  detailed  descriptions  of  the  oper- 
ation of  the  air-brake  consult  "The  De- 
velopment of  the  Electro-Pneumatic 
Brake,"  and  other  publications  of  the 
Westinghouse  Air-Brake  Company. 

AIRD,  SIR  JOHN,  an  English  engi- 
neer; born  in  1833.  In  his  earliest  years 
he  exhibited  remarkable  skill  in  mechanics 
and  when  only  18  years  old  carried  on 
important  engineering  work  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Exhibition  of  1857.  He 
constructed  many  large  projects  in  Eng- 
land and  elsewhere,  but  is  best  known  as 
the  builder  of  the  great  Assuan  Dam. 
Under  his  direction  the  dam  was  com- 
pleted twelve  months  earlier  than  the 
contracted  time.  lie  was  a  member  of 
Parliament  from  1887  to  1905.  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1901.  He  died  in 
1911. 

AIR-GUN,  an  instrument  designed  to 
propel  balls  by  the  elastic  force  of  con- 
densed aid.  A  strong  metal  globe  is 
formed,  furnished  with  a  small  hole  and  a 
valve  opening  inward.  Into  this  hole  a 
condensing  syringe  is  screwed.  When, 
by  means  of  this  apparatus,  the  con- 
densation has  been  brought  to  the  req- 
uisite point  of  intensity,  the  globe  is 
detached  from  the  syringe  and  screwed 
at  the  breech  of  a  gun,  so  constructed 
that  the  valve  may  be  opened  by  means 
of  a  trigger.  A  ball  is  then  inserted  in 
the  barrel  near  the  breech,  so  fitting  it 
as  to  render  it  air-tight,  and,  the  trigger 
being  pulled,  the  elasticity  of  the  con- 
densed air  impels  it  with  considerable 
force. 

AIR-PUMP,  an  instrument  invented 
by  Otto  von  Guericke  of  Magdeburg,  in 
1650.  It  was  designed  to  exhaust  the  air 
from  a  receiver.    The  air-pump  now  gen- 


erally in  use  is  a  considerable  improve- 
ment. A  bell-formed  receiver  of  glass  is 
made  to  rest  on  a  horizontal  plate  of 
thick  glass  ground  perfectly  smooth.  In 
the  center  of  that  plate,  under  the  re- 
ceiver, is  an  opening  into  a  tube  which, 
passing  for  some  distance  horizontally, 
ultimately  branches  at  right  angles  into 
two  portions,  entering  two  upright  cyl-' 
inders  of  glass.  The  cylinders  are  firmly 
cemented  to  the  glass  plate,  and  within 
them  are  two  pistons  fitting  them  so 
closely  as  to  be  air-tight.  Each  piston  is 
worked  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  turned  by 
a  handle;  while  each  cylinder  is  fitted 
with  a  valve,  so  contrived  that,  when  the 
piston  is  raised,  communication  is  opened 
between  the  cylinder  and  the  receiver, 
which  communication  is  again  closed  as 
the  piston  falls.  It  is  evident  that  when 
anyone  commences  to  work  the  machine, 
the  air  in  the  cylinders  will  be  immedi- 
ately expelled  the  first  upward  motion 
that  they  are  made  to  take.  The  valve 
will  then  fly  open,  and  the  air  from  the 
receiver  will  fill  both  the  cylinders  as 
well  as  itself,  though,  of  course,  now  in  a 
somewhat  rarefied  state.  As  the  same 
process  is  again  and  again  repeated,  the 
air  will  become  increasingly  rarefied, 
though,  as  stated  above,  an  actual 
vacuum  never  can  result  from  the  action 
now  described. 

AIR-PUMP  GAUGE,  a  gauge  for  test- 
ing the  extent  to  which  the  air  has  been 
exhausted  in  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump, 
It  consists  of  a  glass  tube  bent  like  a 
siphon.  One  leg  is  closed,  as  in  a  barom- 
eter, the  other  open.  It  is  placed  under 
a  small  bell  jar  communicating  by  a 
stopcock  with  the  receiver,  and  the 
more  nearly  the  mercury  stands  at  the 
same»level  the  more  nearly  has  a  vacuum 
been  produced. 

AIR-SHIPS.     See  AERONAUTICS. 

AISNE,  a  river  in  France  rising  in 
the  forest  of  the  Argonne  and  flowing 
first  N.  W.  and  then  W.  to  a  junction 
with  the  Oise  near  Compiegne.  It  is 
about  170  miles  long  and  is  navigable 
over  one-half  its  length.  Canals  connect 
it  with  the  Meuse  and  the  Mame  rivers. 
The  Aisne  and  the  country  through  which 
it  runs  formed  the  most  prominent  field 
of  operation  during  the  World  War.  The 
northern  banks  of  the  river  were  forti- 
fied by  the  Germans  against  a  failure  of 
their  initial  attempts  to  capture  Paris  in 
1914,  and  following  tWir  defeat  at  the 
Mame  the  German  armies  fell  back  to 
these  defenses.  It  constituted  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  war  the  northern 
limit  of  their  possession  of  French  soil. 
Much  of  the  bitterest  fighting  during  the 


AITKEN 


81 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


•war  took  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Aisne 
or  in  the  country  tributary  to  it.  The 
battles  of  the  Aisne  constitute  a  very 
important  chapter  in  the  history  of  the 
World  War.    See  World  Wae. 

AITKEN,  BOBERT  GRANT,  an 
American  astronomer;  born  in  Jackson, 
Cal.,  in  1864.  He  graduated  from  Wil- 
liams College  in  1887.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  instructor  of  mathe- 
matics of  Livermore  College,  California. 
From  1891  to  1895  he  was  professor  of 
mathematics  and  astronomy  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  Pacific.  He  was  appointed 
astronomer  at  the  Lick  Observatory  in 
1895,  and  has  to  his  credit  the  discovery 
of  about  three  thousand  double  stars.  He 
was  awarded  prizes  and  medals  by  many 
American  and  foreign  scientific  societies. 
He  was  editor  of  "Publications  of  the 


he  executed  were  busts  of  Mme.  Mod- 
jeska,  Augustus  Thomas,  William  H. 
Taft,  Henry  Roger  Wolcott,  and  others. 
He  also  designed  many  important  monu- 
ments, including  the  McKinley  Monu- 
ment in  Golden  Gate  Park  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  Bret  Harte  Monument  in  San 
Francisco,  etc.  He  was  awarded  many 
medals  for  his  work  and  became  secre- 
tary of  the  National  Sculpture  Society, 
and  a  member  of  many  American  and 
foreign  societies  relating  to  art  and 
sculpture. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (ax'la-shap-el') 
(German  Aachen),  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Pop.  about 
175,000.  Aix-la-Chapelle  is  the  center  of 
a  valuable  coal  district,  and  of  numerous 
thriving  manufactories,  especially  for 
spinning    and   weaving   woolen   fabricSj 


THE    CATHEDRAL    AT    AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


Astronomical  Societies  of  the  Pacific," 
and  contributed  much  to  astronomical 
and  other  scientific  journals. 

AITKEN,  ROBERT  INGERSOLL,  an 
American  sculptor;  born  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  was  professor  of  sculpture  at 
public  schools,  studied  art  at  the  Mark 
Hopkins  Institute  of  Art  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  was  professor  of  scupture  at 
this  institution  from  1901  to  1904.  He 
showed  remarkable  talent  in  the  making 
of  portrait  busts.     Among  those  which 


and  for  needle  and  pin  making.  There 
are  also  immense  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery, bells,  glass  buttons,  chemicals 
and  cigars.  The  city  is  rich  in  histori- 
cal associations.  It  emerged  from  histor- 
ical obscurity  about  the  time  of  Pepin; 
and  Charlemagne  founded  its  world-wide 
celebrity.  Whether  it  was  his  birthplace 
is  doubtful,  but  in  814  it  became  his 
grave.  In  796  he  had  rebuilt  the  impe- 
ria)  palace,  as  well  as  the  chapel  in  which 
Pepin  had  celebrated  Christmas  in  765. 
The  present  town-house  was  built  in  1353 


AIX-LES-BAINS 


82 


AJAX 


on  the  ruins  of  the  palace.  The  ancient 
cathedral  is  in  the  form  of  an  octagon, 
which,  with  various  additions  round  it, 
forms  on  the  outside  a  sixteen-sided  fig- 
ure. In  the  middle  of  the  octagon,  a 
stene,  with  the  inscription  "Carolo 
Magno,"  marks  the  site  of  the  grave  of 
Charlemagne.  In  1215  Frederick  II. 
caused  the  remains  of  the  emperor  to  be 
inclosed  in  a  costly  shrine.  The  columns 
brought  by  Charlemagne  from  the  palace 
of  the  Exarch  at  Ravenna,  to  decorate 
the  interior  of  the  octagon,  had  been  car- 
ried off  by  the  French;  but  most  of  them 
were  restored  at  the  Peace  of  Paris,  and 
replaced  in  1846.  The  town-house  con- 
tains the  coronation  hall  in  which  35 
German  emperors  anr^  11  empresses  have 
celebrated  their  coronation  banquet.  The 
emperors  were  crowned  in  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  from  Louis  the  Pious  to  Ferdinand 
I.  (813-1531).  Seventeen  imperial  diets 
and  11  provincial  councils  were  held 
within  its  walls.  The  name  of  the  place 
is  derived  from  the  springs,  for  which  it 
has  been  always  famous.  They  are  effi- 
cacious in  cases  of  gout,  rheumatism, 
cutaneous  diseases,  etc.  In  1793,  and 
again  in  1794,  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  occu- 
pied by  the  French.  By  the  treaties  con- 
cluded at  Campo  Formio  and  Luneville, 
it  was  formally  ceded  to  France,  until  in 
1915  it  fell  to  Prussia.  The  town  has 
been  the  meeting  place  for  many  impor- 
tant peace  congresses.  The  first  Peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1668)  ended  the  war 
carried  on  between  France  and  Spain 
for  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. The  second  Peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle (1748)  concluded  the  war  respect- 
ing the  succession  of  Maria  Theresa  to 
the  empire. 

The  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was 
held  in  1818,  for  regulating  the  affairs 
of  Europe  after  the  war.  It  began  on 
Sept.  30,  and  ended  on  Nov.  21.  Its 
principal  object  was  the  withdrawal 
from  France  of  the  army  of  occupation, 
150,000  strong,  as  well  as  the  receiving 
of  France  again  into  the  alliance  of  the 
great  powers.  The  Emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia  were 
present  in  person.  The  five  great  powers 
assembled  signed  a  protocol  announcing 
a  policy  known  as  that  of  the  "Holy 
Alliance."  During  the  World  War  the 
city  played  an  important  part  as  a  Ger- 
man depot,  due  to  its  nearness  to  the 
western  front.  As  a  result  of  the  armi- 
stice Belgian  troops  occupied  the  city 
in  December,  1919. 

AIX-LES-BAINS  (ax'la-ban'),  a  town 
of  France,  in  Haute  Savoie,  on  the  E. 
side  of  Lake  Bourget,  8  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Chambery,  celebrated  for  its  sulphur- 


etted hot  springs.  They  were  in  vogue 
among  the  Romans,  and  are  still  exten- 
sively used.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

AJACCIO  (a-yatch'yo),  the  chief  town 
of  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  forms  a 
department  of  France.  It  is  the  hand- 
somest city  of  Corsica,  and  the  birth- 
place of  Napoleon  I.,  whose  house  is  still 
to  be  seen.  During  the  World  War  the 
city  was  a  naval  base  for  vessels  of  the 
Allied  forces  operating  in  the  Mediter- 
rean.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

AJALON,  said  to  be  the  modem  Yalo, 
a  village  a  little  to  the  N.  of  the  Jaffa 
road,  about  14  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Jeru- 
salem; the  town  was  rendered  memor- 
able by  Joshua's  victory  over  the  five 
Canaanitish  kings,  and  still  more  so  by 
the  extraordinary  circumstance  of  the 
miraculously  lengthened  day. 

AJAX,  the  name  of  two  heroes  of  the 
Trojan  War.  (1)  Ajax,  son  of  Telamon, 
King  of  Salamis,  was  next  in  warlike 
prowess  to  Achilles.     His  chief  exploits, 


AJAX 

recorded  in  the  "Iliad,"  are  his  duel  with 
Hector  (7th  book),  and  his  obstinate 
defense  of  the  ships  in  the  protracted 
battle  described  in  the  13th,  14th,  15th, 
16th,  and  17th  books.  After  Achilles' 
death,  the  armor  of  that  hero  was  to  be 
given  as  a  prize  to  him  who  had  deserved 
best  of  the  Greeks.  Ajax  and  Ulysses 
alone  advanced  their  claims,  and  the  as- 
sembled princes  awarded  the  splendid 
prize  to  Ulysses.  Ajax  was  so  much 
mortified  at  this  that  he  went  mad,  and 
afterward  slew  himself.  (2)  Ajax,  son 
of  Oileus,  remarkable  for  swiftness  of 
foot  and  skill  in  using  the  bow  and  jave- 
lin. When  the  Greeks  had  entered  Troy, 
Ulysses  accused  Ajax  of  having  violated 
Cassandra  in  the  temple  of  Pallas.     He 


AEBAB 


83 


AKSTT 


exculpated  himself  with  an  oath ;  but  the  He  wrote  "The  Courage  of  the  Coward'' 

anger   of   the    goddess   at   last   overtook  (1905),  "Old  Events  and  Modern  Mean- 

him,  and  he  perished  in  the  waves  of  the  ings"     (1908),    "The    Divine    Drama    of 

sea.  Job"   (1913). 


AKBAR  (ak'bar)  [i.  e.,  "the  Great," 
his  proper  name  being  Jelal-el-din-Mo- 
hammed],  Mogul  Emperor  of  India,  the 
greatest  Asiatic  monarch  of  modern 
times.  His  father,  Humayun,  was  de- 
prived of  the  throne  by  usurpers,  and 
had  to  retire  for  refuge  into  Persia; 
and  it  was  on  the  way  thither,  in  the 
town  of  Amarkot,  that  Akbar  was  born 
in  1542.  Humayun  recovered  the  throne 
of  Delhi  after  an  exile  of  12  years;  but 
died  within  a  year.  The  young  prince 
at  first  committed  the  administration  to 
a  regent-minister,  Beiram;  but,  finding 
his  authority  degenerating  into  tyranny, 
he  shook  it  off  at  the  age  of  18  and  took 
the  power  into  his  own  hands.  In  10  or 
12  years  Akbar's  empire  embraced  the 
whole  of  India  N.  of  the  Vindhya  moun- 
tains, but  in  southern  India  he  was  less 
successful.  He  promoted  commerce  by 
constructing  roads,  establishing  a  uni- 
form system  of  weights  and  measures, 
and  a  vigorous  police.  He  exercised 
the  utmost  vigilance  over  his  viceroys 
of  provinces  and  other  officers  to  see 
that  no  extortion  was  practiced  and 
that  justice  was  impartially  admin- 
istered to  all  classes  of  his  subjects. 
For  a  born  Mohammedan,  the  tolerance 
with  which  he  treated  other  religions 
was  wonderful.  He  was  fond  of  in- 
quiries as  to  religious  beliefs;  and  Por- 
tuguese missionaries  from  Goa  were  sent 
at  his  request  to  give  him  an  account  of 
the  Christian  faith.  He  even  attempted 
to  promulgate  a  new  religion  of  his  own. 
Literature  received  the  greatest  encour- 
agement. Schools  were  established  for 
the  education  both  of  Hindus  and  Mo- 
hammedans; and  numbers  of  Hindu 
works  were  translated  from  Sanskrit 
into  Persian.     Akbar  died  in  1605. 

AKED,  CHARLES  FREDERIC,  a 

Baptist  clergyman;  born  in  Nottingham, 
England,  in  1864.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Midland  Baptists'  College  and  the 
University  College,  Nottingham,  and  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1886.  After  serv- 
ing as  pastor  in  several  places  in  Eng- 
land, he  became  pastor  of  Pembroke 
Chapel  at  Liverpool  in  1890.  Here  he 
attracted  great  attention  through  his 
powerful  sermons  on  social  and  religious 
subjects.  He  was  called  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Baptist  Chui'ch  of 
New  York  in  1907,  remaining  there  until 
1911,  when  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  of  San  Francisco, 
where  he  remained  until  1915.  He  was 
well  known  as  a  lecturer  and  preacher, 

7 — Vol.  I— Cyc 


A   KEMPIS,    THOMAS.    See    Kempis. 

AKENSIDE,  MARK,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Nov.  9,  1721. 
Studied  at  first  theology,  then  medicine 
in  Edinburgh  and  in  Leyden.  He  prac- 
ticed medicine  with  poor  success  at  first, 
but  slowly  gained  eminence,  and  in  1761 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  queen. 
His  literary  fame  rests  on  the  "Pleas- 
ures of  the  Imagination,"  a  didactic  poem 
(1744,  remodeled  and  enlarged  1757  and 
1765).    He  died  in  London,  June  23,  1770. 

AKERS,  BENJAMIN  PAUL,  an 
American  sculptor,  born  in  1825.  Studied 
in  Florence  and  was  especially  noted  for 
the  rapidity  of  his  work.  His  best  known 
statues  are  "Una  and  the  Lion,"  "Eliza- 
beth of  Hungary,"  "Morning,"  "Eve- 
ning," "Diana  and  Endymion,"  "Paolo 
and  Francesca,"  and  "The  Dead  Pearl 
Diver."     He  died  in  May,  1866. 

AKRON,  city  and  county-seat  of  Sum- 
mit CO.,  0.;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Erie,  the  Northern  Ohio,  and  the 
Akron,  Canton  and  Youngstown  rail- 
roads, and  the  Ohio  and  Erie  canal; 
40  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  many  fresh- water  lakes;  is 
the  seat  of  Akron  University  (Universal- 
ist),  and  has  several  National  banks, 
numerous  manufactories,  daily,  weekly, 
and  monthly  periodicals.  In  the  decade 
1910-1920  the  city  increased  its  indus- 
trial importance  greatly.  It  became  the 
center  of  the  rubber-making  industry  of 
the  United  States.  Other  industries,  con- 
nected especially  with  the  automobile  in- 
dustry, also  became  established.  This 
condition  is  reflected  in  the  greatly  in- 
creased population.  Pop.  (1910)  09,067; 
(1920)  208,435. 

AKRON,  MUNICIPAL  UNIVER- 
SITY OF,  an  institution  of  higher  learn- 
ing in  Akron,  O.,  founded  in  1872  as 
Buchtel  College.  In  1913  the  college  was 
transferred  to  the  city  of  Akron  as  the 
nucleus  of  a  municipal  university,  which 
came  into  existence  on  Jan.  1,  1914.  The 
name  of  Buchtel  College  is  retained  for 
the  College  of  Liberal  Arts.  There  are 
departments  of  co-operative  engineer- 
ing and  home  economics.  In  1919  there 
were  in  the  university  454  students  and 
30  instructors.  President  P.  R.  Colby, 
Ph.  D. 

AKSU,  a  town  of  Chinese  Turkestan, 
at  the  southern  base  of  the  Thian-shan 
mountains,  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
separate  khanate.     In  1867  it  became  a 


AKYAB 


84 


ALABAMA 


part  of  the  state  of  Eastern  Turkestan, 
under  Yakub  Beg,  but  was  conquered 
again  by  China  in  1877.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  manufactures  of  cotton  cloth  and 
saddlery,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by 
caravans,  as  an  entrepot  of  commerce  be- 
tween Russia,  Tartary,  and  China.  Pop. 
about  25,000. 

AKYAB,  a  town  of  Burma,  the  chief 
seaport  of  Aracan,  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  island  of  Akyab,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Kuladan  river,  190 
miles  S.  E.  of  Calcutta.  In  1826  it  was 
chosen  for  the  chief  station  of  the  prov- 
ince, and  now  is  a  great  rice  port.  It  is 
well  built,  with  broad  and  regular 
streets.  Savage  Island,  with  a  light- 
house, shelters  the  harbor.  Pop.  about 
40,00a 

ALABAMA,  a  State  in  the  South  Cen- 
tral Division  of  the  North  American 
Union;  bounded  by  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Mississippi,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico;  gross  area,  52,250  square  miles; 
admitted  into  the  Union,  Dec.  14,  1819; 
seceded,  Jan.  11,  1861;  readmitted,  June 
25,  1868;  number  of  counties,  67.  Pop. 
(1900)  1,828,697;  (1910)  2,138,093; 
(1920)  2,348,174.     Capital,  Montgomery. 

Topoginphy. — The  surface  is  highest 
in  the  N.  E.,  where  the  Blue  Ridge  range 
of  the  Appalachian  mountains  enters 
the  State.  South  of  this  the  surface  is 
almost  level,  and  consists  of  plains  form- 
ing a  gentle  declivity  toward  the  Gulf. 
The  State  comprises  four  distinctive 
belts:  the  cereal,  mineral,  cotton,  and 
timber;  the  first  covering  8  counties,  the 
second  28,  the  third  17,  and  the  fourth, 
the  remainder.  Among  the  valleys,  those 
of  the  Tennessee,  the  Warrior,  and  the 
Coosa  are  the  most  important.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Alabama,  Tennessee, 
Mobile,  Tombigbee,  Black  Warrior,  and 
Chattahoochee.  A  number  of  others,  ris- 
ing in  Alabama,  have  their  outlets  in 
Florida.  Bays  comprise  the  Grand,  Bon 
Secours,  Perdido,  and  Mobile,  the  last 
being  one  of  the  most  important  in  the 
country. 

Geology. — All  of  the  formations  of  the 
Appalachian  region  are  found  in  this 
State,  which  has  three  geological  divi- 
sions: (1)  the  northern,  showing  sub- 
carboniferous  rock  masses  and  coal 
measures;  (2)  the  middle,  metamorphic, 
and  calcareous  rocks,  silurian  sediments, 
and  coal  measures;  and  (3)  the  south- 
ern, drift  beds  over  cretaceous  and  ter- 
tiary rocks. 

Mineralogy. — The  State  has  large 
wealth  in  its  mineral  resources,  which 
include  coal,  iron,  asbestos,  asphalt,  pot- 
tery and  porcelain  clays,  marble,  gran- 
ite phosphates,  natural  gas,  gold,  silver. 


and  copper.  The  most  valuable  of  these 
at  present  are  coal  and  iron.  Alabama 
produces  a  large  amount  of  coal  and  iron. 
The  coal  production,  which  is  bituminous, 
was,  in  1918,  21,280,000  short  tons.  The 
shipment  of  iron  ore  from  the  State  in 
1917  was  6,121,087  tons,  valued  at  $15,- 
334,561.  The  production  for  1919  was 
valued  at  $21,280,000.  In  the  production 
of  iron  Alabama  ranks  third,  being  sur- 
passed only  by  Michigan  and  Minnesota. 
The  State  is  also  an  important  producer 
of  cement,  coke,  and  pig  iron.  The  rapid 
development  of  its  mineral  resources  in 
recent  years  has  greatly  increased  the 
industrial  importance  of  the  State,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  rapid  growth  of  sevei-al 
cities,  notably  Birmingham.  The  total 
value  of  the  mineral  products  of  the 
State  in  1917  was  $65,371,469. 

Soil. — In  the  S.  part  of  the  State  the 
soil  is  a  light  alluvial  and  diluvial;  in 
the  central,  the  cotton  belt,  limestone  and 
chalk  lands  predominate;  and  in  the  N. 
part,  which  contains  the  Tennessee  val- 
ley, are  exceedingly  rich  mineral  lands. 
Besides  the  agricultural,  mineral,  and 
grazing  lands,  there  are  large  tracts  of 
valuable  yellow  pine  forests. 

AgriciCltnre. — The  production  and 
value  of  the  principal  crops  in  1919 
was  as  follows:  Corn,  62,843,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $99,920,000;  wheat,  1,242,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $3,043,000;  oats,  6,- 
696,000  bushels,  valued  at  $7,031,000; 
tobacco,  1,890,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$567,000;  rye,  38,000  bushels,  valued  at 
$99,000;  rice,  16,000  bushels;  valued  at 
$43,000;  potatoes,  3,520,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $7,568,000;  sweet  potatoes,  14.- 
194,000  bushels,  valued  at  $16,139,000; 
hay,  1,367,000  tons,  valued  at  $30,484,- 
000;  cotton,  715,000  bales,  valued  at 
$124,410,000;  peanuts,  6,840,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $14,911,000. 

Mamifactitres. — In  1914  there  were 
3,242  manufacturing  establishments,  with 
an  average  of  78,717  wage  earners.  The 
capital  invested  was  $227,505,000;  value 
of  materials,  $107,412,000;  and  value  of 
the   finished   product,  $178,798,000. 

Banking. — In  1919  there  were  95  Na- 
tional banks  in  operation,  having  $10,- 
825,000  in  capital.  There  were  also  261 
State  banks,  with  $10,877,000  in  capital, 
$81,576,000  in  deposits,  and  $101,700,000 
in  resources.  The  exchanges  at  the 
United  States  clearing-house  at  Birming- 
ham aggregated  $146,918,000  in  the  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1919. 

Education. — Alabama,  in  common  with 
other  Southern  States,  has  had  great 
difficulty  in  developing  its  educational 
system.  The  common  schools  of  the 
State  are  fairly  well  equipped,  and  near- 
ly all  counties   are  provided  with  high 


i 


It 


N 


ALABAMA 


85 


ALABAMA 


schools.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  is 
high,  but  is  steadily  decreasing.  The 
large  percentage  of  negro  population  ac- 
counts in  a  large  measure  for  the  low 
average  of  literacy.  The  school  popula- 
tion is  about  750,000.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  schools  is  about  450,000. 
There  are  about  8,000  teachers  in  schools 
for  white  children  and  about  3,000  in 
schools  for  colored  children.  The  prin- 
cipal universities  and  colleges  are  the 
University  of  Alabama  (opened  1831; 
non-sectarian) ;  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and 
Industrial  Institute  (1881) ;  Birming- 
ham Southern  College,  Woman's  College 
of  Alabama,  Spring  Hill  College,  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute,  Howard  College, 
St.  Bernard  College,  Judson  College, 
Athens  Female  College. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions numerically  in  the  State  are  the 
Baptist;  Methodist  Episcopal,  South; 
Roman  Catholic;  Methodist  Episcopal; 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Railroads. — The  total  railway  mileage 
in  the  State  in  1919  was  5,420.  During 
the  year  there  were  built  about  12  miles 
of  main  track.  Recent  developments  in 
the  coal,  iron,  and  manufacturing  indus- 
tries have  greatly  stimulated  railroad 
construction  and  extension. 

State  Government. — The  governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  Legis- 
lative sessions  are  held  biennially  and 
are  limited  to  50  days  each.  The  Legis- 
lature has  35  members  in  the  Senate  and 
106  in  the  House,  each  of  whom  receives 
$4  per  day  and  mileage.  There  are  10 
representatives  in  Congress.  In  politics, 
the  State  is  strongly  Democratic. 

History. — Alabama  was  first  settled 
by  Bienville,  in  1702.  The  region  N.  of 
31°,  which  belonged  to  France,  was  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  in  1763,  transferred  to 
the  United  States  in  1783,  and  attached 
to  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  till  1802, 
when  it  was  organized  as  the  Mississippi 
Territory.  The  region  S.  of  31°,  which 
belonged  to  Spain,  was  seized  and  joined 
to  Mississippi  Territory  in  1812,  and 
with  Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain 
in  1819.  The  great  Creek  Indian  war  of 
1813-1814  was  waged  within  the  pres- 
ent limits  of  the  State.  After  Alabama 
was  admitted  to  the  Union,  it  became 
one  of  the  strongest  slave-holding  States 
in  the  Union.  It  was  one  of  the  first  of 
the  Southern  States  to  favor  secession, 
and  Montgomery,  its  capital,  became  the 
first  capital  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 
During  the  Civil  War  its  soil  and  waters 
were  the  scenes  of  memorable  conflicts, 
eepecially  the  Federal  naval  operations 
against  Mobile  (q.v.).  Since  the  war, 
the  State  has  had  an  era  of  uniform 
prosperity. 


ALABAMA,  a  river  in  the  State  of 
Alabama,  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa  above  Mont- 
gomery, and  uniting  with  Tombigbee  to 
form  the  Mobile  river;  tortuous  in  its 
course;  312  miles  long,  navigable  its  en- 
tire length  for  small  vessels,  and  for 
60  miles  of  its  lower  course  for  vessels 
of  6-feet  draft. 

ALABAMA  CITY,  a  city  of  Alabama 
in  Etowah  co.  It  is  on  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  the  Alabama  Great 
Southern,  the  Nashville,  the  Chatta- 
nooga and  St,  Louis,  and  the  Southern 
railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  an  im- 
portant agricultural  region  producing 
the  chief  varieties  of  grain.  Coal  is 
found  in  the  vicinity.  The  city  has  a 
cotton  mill  and  a  steel  foundry.  Pop. 
(1910)  4,313;   (1920)  5,432. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS,  a  series  of 
claims  made  in  1871  by  the  United 
States  against  the  English  Government 
for  damages  done  to  shipping  during 
the  Civil  War,  after  a  formal  discussion 
between  the  two  governments  in  1865, 
and  fruitless  conventions  for  their  settle- 
ment in  1868  and  1869.  These  dam- 
ages were  inflicted  chiefly  by  the  "Ala- 
bama," an  armed  vessel  of  the  Con- 
federate States,  which  was  fitted  out  in 
a  British  port  and  permitted  to  sail  in 
violation  of  existing  international  law. 
A  tribunal,  created  in  1871  to  pass  upon 
these  claims,  held  its  sessions  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  during  the  year  1872,  and 
awarded  the  United  States  the  sum  of 
$15,500,000  in  gold,  in  satisfaction  of  all 
claims  at  issue. 

ALABAMA  POLYTECHNIC  INSTI- 
TUTE, a  coeducational  (non-sectarian) 
institution  in  Auburn,  Ala.,  organized 
in  1872;  reported  in  1899:  Professors 
and  instructors,  31;  students,  347;  vol- 
umes in  the  library,  13,000;  grounds  and 
buildings  valued  at  $136,500;  productive 
funds,  $253,500;  income,  $58,182;  grad- 
uates, 522;  president,  W.  Le  Roy  Broun, 
LL.  D. 

ALABAMA,  THE,  a  Confederate 
cruiser  which  devastated  American  ship- 
ping during  the  Civil  War.  She  was  a 
bark-rigged  steamer  of  1,040  tons,  built 
under  secret  instruction  at  Birkenhead, 
England.  Her  destination  was  suspected 
by  the  United  States  minister,  but  when 
orders  for  her  detention  were  finally 
obtained,  she  had  departed  (July  31, 
1862).  She  made  for  the  Azores,  where 
she  was  equipped  and  manned  by  an 
English  crew,  under  the  command  of 
Capt.  Raphael  Semmes,  of  Maryland. 
She  then  proceeded  to  capture  and  burn 
vessels  bearing  the  American  flag,  and 


ALABAMA,  TTNIVERSITY  OF        86 

the  destruction  wrought  in  less  than  two 
years  amounted  to  65  vessels,  and  about 
$4,000,000  in  property.  In  June,  1864, 
she  put  into  Cherbourg,  France,  for  re- 
pairs. Here  she  was  intercepted  by  the 
Federal  corvette  "Kearsarge,"  Captain 
Winslow,  and,  after  an  hour's  battle, 
Semmes  surrendered.  An  account  of  her 
history  is  given  in  "Two  Years  on  the 
Alabama,"  by  Arthur  Sinclair  (1895). 

ALABAMA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  or- 
ganized in  1831;  location,  Tuscaloosa. 
Besides  a  curriculum  of  science  and 
belles-lettres,  it  has  a  medical  school  at 
Mobile.  In  1919  it  had  a  teaching  corps 
of  125  instructors  and  was  attended  by 
1,800  students.  It  has  6,000  graduates. 
President,  G.  H.  Denny,  LL.  D. 

ALABASTER  (from  Greek  alabastros, 
br  the  earlier  form,  alabastos) ,  a  taper- 
ing box,  made  for  holding  ointment;  a 
rosebud;  a  measure  of  capacity,  holding 
10  ounces  of  wine  or  9  of  oil.  The  word 
is  also  applied  to  the  mineral  now  called 
granular  gypsum,  and  to  any  vessel 
made  of  it.  Alabaster  was  named  from 
Alabastron  (near  modern  Antinoe),  an 
Egyptian   town. 

In  mineralogy,  massive  gypsum,  either 
white  or  delicately  shaded. 

ALAGOAS,  a  maritime  state  of  the 
republic  of  Brazil,  bounded  on  the  N.  and 
W.  by  Pernambuco.  The  country  is 
mountainous  in  the  N.  W.,  and  low, 
marshy  and  unhealthy  on  the  coast.  The 
chief  productions  are  the  sugar-cane, 
cotton  plant,  manioc  or  cassava,  ipecacu- 
anha, maize,  rice,  etc.,  and  also  timber 
and  dye-woods.  Fop.  (1917)  946,617. 
The  town  of  Alagoas,  once  the  capital, 
pop.  about  50,000.  The  present  capital  is 
the  port  of  Maceio. 

ALAJTJELA  (al-a-wha'la),  a  city  of 
of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America,  23  miles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Cartago.  The  same  name  is 
used  for  a  state.  Pop.  (1917)  state,  109,- 
063;  city,  6,481. 

ALAMANNI,  or  ALEMANNI,  LTJIGI 
(al-a-ma'ne),  an  Italian  poet  and  diplo- 
matist, born  in  Florence,  on  Oct.  25,  1495. 
In  1522  he  took  part  in  a  conspiracy 
against  Cardinal  Giulio  de  Medici,  and 
after  its  discovery,  fled  to  France,  where 
he  found  protection  with  Frangois  I.  In 
1527  he  reappeared  in  Florence,  endeav- 
ored to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  em- 
peror for  the  republic,  but  was  compelled 
to  flee  the  city.  The  Medici,  on  their  re- 
turn in  1532,  declared  him  a  rebel.  He 
went  back  to  France,  where  he  served  as 
ambassador  for  Francois  I.  to  Henry  II. 
He  wrote  "La  Cultivazione"    (1533),  a 


ALARCdN 

book  about  agriculture.  He  also  wrote 
love  songs,  epigrams,  satires,  comedies, 
translations,  and  various  other  things. 
He  died  April  18,  1556. 

ALAMEDA,  coextensive  city  and 
township  in  Alameda  co.,  Cal.;  on  San 
Francisco  Bay  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
railway;  11  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  is  the  seat  of  the  College  of 
Notre  Dame  (Roman  Catholic) ;  a  popu- 
lar summer  resort,  and  the  place  of  resi- 
dence of  many  San  Francisco  business 
men.  It  has  a  State  bank,  electric  light 
and  street  railway  plants,  the  largest 
borax  works  in  the  world,  extensive  pot- 
teries, oil  refineries,  and  ship-building 
yards.  Pop.  (1910)  23,383;  (1920)  28,- 
806. 

ALAMO,  THE,  a  mission  church  at 
San  Antonio,  in  what  is  now  Bexar  co., 
Tex.;  converted  into  a  fort.  In  1836  it 
was  occupied  by  about  150  of  the  revolu- 
tionists in  the  Texan  War  of  Independ- 
ence. Though  attacked  by  4,000  Mexi- 
cans under  Santa  Ana,  the  Texans  held 
it  from  Feb.  23  to  March  6,  when  Santa 
Ana  took  it  by  storm.  All  but  seven  of 
the  garrison  perished,  six  of  these  being 
murdered  after  their  surrender,  and  one 
man  escaping  to  report  the  affair.  In 
this  garrison  were  the  celebrated  David 
Crockett  and  Col.  James  Bowie,  inventor 
of  the  bowie-knife.  The  memory  of  this 
massacre  became  an  incitement  to  the 
Texans  in  subsequent  encounters,  and 
"Remember  the  Alamo!"  became  a  war- 
cry  in  their  struggle  for  autonomy. 

ALARCON,  HERNANDO,  a  Spanish 
navigator;  flourished  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury; leader  of  an  expedition  to  Mexico, 
which  set  sail  in  1540.  He  proved  that 
California  was  a  peninsula  and  not  an 
island,  as  had  been  previously  supposed. 
He  penetrated  in  boats  a  considerable 
distance  up  the  Colorado  river.  On  his 
return  to  New  Spain  he  made  a  valuable 
map  of  the  California  peninsula. 

ALARC6n  Y  MENDOZA^  don  JUAN 
RUIZ  DE  (a-lar-kon  e  man-do'tha),  a 
noted  Spanish  dramatist,  born  at  Tasco, 
Mexico,  about  1580  or  1590.  He  went  to 
Spain  in  1600  and  became  royal  attorney 
in  Seville.  He  was  appointed  reporter 
of  the  royal  council  of  the  Indies  at 
Madrid  about  1628.  The  last  great  dram- 
atist of  the  old  Spanish  school,  he  may 
be  considered  also  as  the  creator  of  the 
so-called  character  comedy.  His  princi- 
pal works  are:  "The  Weaver  of  Sego- 
via"; "Suspicious  Truth,"  the  model  for 
Corneille's  "Liar";  "Walls  Have  Ears"; 
"The  Proof  of  Promises";  "The  Anti- 
Christ."  He  died  in  Madrid,  Aug.  4, 
1639. 


AliABIA 


87 


ALASKA 


ALABIA,  a  genus  of  sea-weeds  belong- 
ing to  the  order  fucacese,  or  sea-wracks, 
and  the  tribe  luminaHdse.  One  species, 
alaria  esculenta,  called  by  the  Scotch 
balderlocks,  is  used  for  food  in  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Iceland,  Denmark,  and  the 
Faroe  Isles. 

ALARIC  (al'ar-ik),  a  celebrated  con- 
queror. King  of  the  Visigoths.  He  was  a 
commander  of  the  Goths  in  the  service 


tian,  like  his  people,  forbidding  his  sol- 
diers to  dishonor  women  or  destroy  re- 
ligious buildings.  When  Alaric  quitted 
Rome,  it  was  only  to  prosecute  the  con- 
quest of  Sicily.  In  410  he  died  at  Co- 
senza,  in  Calabria. 

ALARIC  II.,  eighth  King  of  the  Visi- 
goths, ruled,  from  484  onward,  Gaul  S. 
of  the  Loire,  and  most  of  Spain.  An 
Arian,  he  was  attacked,  completely  routed 


THE  ALAMO,  SAN  ANTONIO,  TEXAS. 


of  Rome,  and  in  395  revolted  and  in- 
vaded Greece,  capturing  Athens.  He 
was  opposed  by  Stilicho,  and  retreated 
to  Epirus;  was  then  made  prefect  of 
Illyricum  by  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  and 
was  elected  king  by  his  own  people.  In 
400  he  invaded  the  Western  Empire, 
reaching  Milan  in  403.  He  besieged  the 
Emperor  Honorius  in  Asto,  who  was  re- 
lieved by  Stilicho,  and  a  drawn  battle 
was  fought  at  Pollentia;  soon  afterward 
he  suffered  a  serious  defeat  at  Verona. 
He  was  again  appointed  prefect  of  Illy- 
ricum. On  the  death  of  Stilicho,  Hono- 
rius repudiated  his  obligations  to  Alaric, 
who  immediately  marched  upon  Rome  and 
laid  siege  to  it  (408) ;  but  was  induced  to 
leave  by  the  promise  of  5,000  pounds  of 
gold  and  30,000  pounds  of  silver.  En- 
raged by  further  breach  of  covenant,  he 
advanced  on  Rome  a  third  time  (410), 
and  his  troops  pillaged  the  city  for  six 
days,  Alaric,  who  was  an  Arian  Chris- 


near  Poitiers,  and  slain  by  the  orthodox 
Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks  (507). 

ALASKA,  a  Territory  in  the  Western 
Division  of  the  North  American  Union, 
comprising  the  extreme  northwestern 
part  of  the  American  continent;  bounded 
by  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  Bering 
Sea,  British  Columbia,  and  the  North- 
west Territories  of  Canada;  gross  area, 
as  far  as  determined,  581,107  square 
miles;  purchased  from  Russia,  in  1867, 
for  $7,200,000;  given  a  territorial  dis- 
trict government  in  1884;  administrative 
districts  4;  pop.  (1910)  64,356;  (1920) 
54,718;  seat  of  government,  Juneau. 

Topography. — The  Territory  includes 
Prince  of  Wales  Island,  the  Alexander  or 
KingGeorge  Archipelago,  and  the  Kadiak, 
Aleutian,  Pribiloff,  and  St.  Lawrence 
Islands.  The  coast  line  exceeds  that  of 
the  entire  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the 
United  States,  and  has   several   notable 


ALASKA 


88 


ALASKA 


indentations,  as  Prince  William's  Sound, 
Cook  Inlet,  Bristol  Bay,  and  Northern 
and  Kotzebue  Sounds.  The  extreme  length 
of  the  mainland,  from  N.  to  S.,  is  about 
1,100  miles;  extreme  width,  800  miles. 
Among  rivers,  the  most  important  are 
the  Yukon,  rising  in  British  Columbia, 
and  about  2,000  miles  in  total  length;  the 
Kuskokwim,  which  empties  into  Bering 
Sea;  the  Colville,  Copper,  and  Sushitna. 
Here  the  Rocky  Mountains  merge  into 
the  Alaskan,  culminating  in  Mount  Wran- 
gell,  17,500  feet  high.  Another  range, 
near  the  coast,  reaches  its  extreme  height 
in  Mount  Logan,  19,500  feet  (according 
to  Harrington),  and  Mount  Fairweather, 
15,500  feet. 

Geology. — The  Arctic  District  is  tree- 
less with  ranges  of  hills;  the  Yukon 
Basin  has  large  areas  of  forests;  the 
Kuskokwim  District  resembles  the  Yukon 
Basin,  but  has  more  mountains;  the 
Aleutian  comprises  treeless  islands;  the 
Kadiak  is  still  but  little  known;  and  the 
Sitka  has  valuable  timber  lands.  The 
glacial  and  volcanic  periods  still  survive; 
beds  of  cretaceous  and  miocene  lignites, 
dikes  of  plutonic  rock,  hot  and  boiling 
springs,  quartz-bearing  ledges,  and  aurif . 
erous  gravel  beds  and  sands  are  abun- 
dant. 

Mineralogy. — Gold  was  discovered  on 
the  Kenai  peninsula  in  1848,  but  was  not 
sought  further.  In  1880,  surface  gold 
was  found  in  the  S.  E.,  and  systematic 
mining  may  be  said  to  have  begun  then. 
Lignite  coal,  native  copper,  cinnabar, 
graphite,  iron  ore,  white  marble  sulphur, 
medicinal  springs,  mica,  kaolin,  manga- 
nese, asphalt,  and  petroleum  are  found 
in  various  sections,  and  many  of  them 
in  accessible  locations  and  paying  quan- 
tities. At  present  gold  mining  is  the 
principal  mineral  industry,  and  the  larg- 
est fields  are  in  the  Yukon  region,  on 
both  sides  of  the  boundary  line,  and  in 
the  Cape  Nome  district,  on  Bering^  Sea, 
and  wholly  within  the  American  territory, 
where  gold  was  first  discovered  in  1898. 

The  annual  production  of  gold  has 
fallen  off  greatly  in  the  last  decade.  It 
reached  in  1909  a  maximum  of  $29,411,- 
716,  falling  to  $9,480,952  in  1918.  ^  This 
is  caused  chiefly  by  the  falling  off  in  the 
discovery  of  bonanza  mines  and  the  neg- 
lect of  the  systematic  development  of  the 
lower-grade  ores.  The  production  of  cop- 
per has  also  shown  a  gradual  decrease. 
The  production  in  1917  was  88,793,400 
pounds,  valued  at  $24,240,598.  This  fell 
off  in  1918  to  69,224,951  pounds,  valued 
at  $17,098,563.  The  loss  was  due  chiefly 
to  a  shortage  of  labor,  and  transportation. 
The  production  in  1919  was  about  44,- 
800,000  pounds  of  copper  valued  at 
$8^500,000.      The    coal    production    con- 


tinues to  be  small,  due  chiefly  to  a  lack 
of  development.  In  1918  it  amounted  to 
75,616  tons,  valued  at  $411,815.  Other 
mineral  products  are  lead,  tin,  platinum, 
and  petroleum.  The  resources  of  the  lat- 
ter are  indicated  to  be  large  and  await 
only  development  and  the  building  of  rail- 
way lines. 

Fisheries. — Fish  are  the  most  valuable 
of  Alaskan  products  in  value.  The  total 
investment  in  fishing  industries  in  1913 
was  $73,750,789.  There  were  employed 
in  the  industry  nearly  35,000  persons. 
The  total  value  of  fishery  products  was 
$69,154,859  in  1918.  Over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  fish  taken  were  salmon.  Others 
were  herring,  halibut,  and  whales.  The 
herring  industry  has  greatly  increased 
in  recent  years  through  the  introduction 
of  the  Scotch  curing  method.  Salmon 
canneries  in  1918  shipped  about  5,500,- 
000  cases  of  48  pounds  each. 

The  number  of  seals  in  the  waters 
about  Alaska  has  greatly  increased,  owing 
to  the  restrictions  placed  upon  sealing 
by  laws  passed  by  Congress.  The  seal 
herds  in  1919  numbered  524,269  seals.  The 
number  of  seals  taken  during  that  year 
was  25,381.  Under  the  International  Con- 
vention, 15  per  cent,  of  all  seals  taken  go 
to  Canada  and  an  equal  number  to  Japan. 

Agriculture. — The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  for  many 
years  made  persistent  and  intelligent 
efforts  to  develop  agriculture  in  the 
territory  and  these  results  have  met  with 
considerable  success.  There  are  large 
areas  of  land  suitable  for  the  raising 
of  crops,  both  agricultural  and  horticul- 
tural. The  Central  Tanana  Valley  has 
been  extensively  occupied  by  farmers  and 
in  the  Fairbanks  district  there  are  nearly 
100  homesteads  comprising  nearly  25,000 
acres.  Nearly  all  varieties  of  hardy 
grains  can  be  grown  in  Alaska  and  most 
hardy  fruits  and  vegetables  can  be  grown 
without  difficulty. 

Education. — There  were  in  1919  65 
schools  for  natives  in  which  were  enrolled 
about  3,600  pupils.  There  was  a  Fed- 
eral appropriation  of  $215,000  for  the 
support  of  these  schools.  Schools  are  also 
maintained  in  the  different  localities  for 
white  pupils. 

Banking. — In  1919,  the  Territory  had 
one  National  bank,  with  $125,000  in  cap- 
ital, $11,250  in  outstanding  circulation. 
Much  of  the  banking  is  done  in  Seattle, 
Wash.,  and  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  whither 
the  bulk  of  the  output  of  gold  is  sent. 

Commerce. — Trade  between  Alaska  and 
continental  United  States  has  greatly  in- 
creased in  recent  years.  The  value  of 
shipments  into  and  from  Alaska  in  1916 
was  $97,917,650;  in  1917,.  $121,265,- 
947;     in     1918,     $131,767,788;     and     in 


ALASKA 


89 


ALASKA 


t919,  $117,018,135.  The  loss  in  the  last 
year  was  chiefly  due  to  the  falling  off  of 
mineral  production.  Trade  suffered  from 
insufficient  and  irregular  transportation. 

Railroads. — There  was  under  construc- 
tion in  1919  the  so-called  United  States 
railroad,  authorized  in  1914  at  a  cost  of 
$35,000,000.  This  sum  was  increased  in 
1919  to  $52,000,000,  of  which  $6,000,000 
was  appropriated  for  work  durin-g  1919. 
The  purpose  of  the  project  is  to  furnish 
transportation  between  a  port  on  the 
Gulf  of  Alaska  and  the  rich  mines  and 
lands  of  the  Tanana  valley  and  the  Cen- 
tral Yukon  valley.  The  system  when 
completed  will  include  601  miles  of  track 
from  Seward  on  the  Kenai  Peninsula  to 
Fairbanks,  the  mining  center  of  the 
Tanana  valley.  There  will  also  be  branch 
railroads  to  other  important  localities. 
There  was  at  the  end  of  1919  in  prep- 
aration a  northern  section  of  143  miles 
and  a  southern  section  of  206  miles. 
There  are  only  two  railroads  in  the 
Territory  under  private  control.  These 
run  from  Cordova  to  Kennecott  and 
from  Skagway  to  White  Horse. 

Govei'nment. — Up  to  1912  Alaska  was 
an  unorganized  Territory  and  had  no 
local  legislative  body.  It  was  governed  di- 
rectly by  Congress,  and  the  officers  were 
appointed  by  the  President.  In  the  year 
mentioned  Congress  passed  a  Civil  Gov- 
ernment Act  which  created^  a  Legisla- 
ture and  Assembly  with  limited  powers. 
By  this  act  Alaska  became  an  organized 
Territory  with  a  Legislature  consisting 
of  a  Senate  of  8  members,  two  from  each 
of  the  four  districts,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives,  consisting  of  16  mem- 
bers, four  from  each  judicial  district. 
Senators  serve  four  years  and  repre- 
sentatives two  years.  The  Legislature 
meets  every  two  years.  Its  first  session 
was  held  in  March,  1913.  The  legisla- 
tive powers  are  limited,  and  it  can  pass 
no  laws  which  are  inconsistent  with  the 
laws  already  passed  by  Congress.  At 
its  first  session  the  Legislature  modified 
the  qualifications  for  voters  by  extend- 
ing the  franchise  to  women.  The  gov- 
ernor has  the  usual  power  of  veto.  The 
executive  officers  are  a  governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  the  secretary  of  the  gov- 
ernor, and  a  surveyor-general.  There 
are  four  judicial  districts,  with  centers 
at  Juneau,  Nome,  Valdez,  and  Fairbanks. 
Except  in  towns  of  300  or  more,  which 
are  allowed  to  incorporate,  there  is  no 
local  government.  Alaska  is  represented 
in  Congress  by  one  delegate. 

History. — Alaska  was  discovered  by 
Bering  in  1741,  and  Russian  settlements 
were  made  to  a  considerable  distance 
southward.    In  1772  many  trading  com- 


panies were  established,  and  later  Cap- 
tain Cook's  accounts  of  the  fur  animals 
there  caused  many  more  to  be  organized. 
In  1799  the  Territory  was  granted  to  a 
Russian  company  by  the  Emperor  Paul 
VIII.,  and  in  1867  it  passed  to  the  United 
States  by  treaty  with  Russia.  For  sev- 
eral years  there  has  been  a  contention 
between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  concerning  the  boundary  line  be- 
tween Alaska  and  the  British  territory 
in  Canada,  which  became  greatlj  ac- 
cented in  1896  in  consequence  of  the 
remarkable  discoveries  of  gold  in  the 
Yukon  valley.  Both  governments  have 
had  the  disputed  region  surveyed,  sep- 
arately and  by  a  joint  commission,  and 
the  delimitation  of  the  boundary  was  the 
most  important  matter  referred  to  the 
Anglo-American  Commission  of  1898.  In 
January,  1900,  it  was  believed  that  a 
satisfactory  settlement  had  been  nego- 
tiated by  the  two  governments. 

On  Jan.  24,  1903,  a  treaty  was  signed 
between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  by  which  was  created  the  Alaska 
Boundary  Tribunal,  consisting  of  three 
from  each  country  to  settle  questions  ir 
dispute.  This  tribunal  met  in  London 
in  the  following  September,  and  on  Oct. 
20,  1914,  the  majority  voted  against  the 
Canadian  contentions.  The  deciding  vote 
was  cast  by  a  representative  of  Great 
Britain.  By  this  decision  Canada  was 
shut  off  from  the  seacoast  north  of  54° 
40'.  Surveying  was  at  once  begun  to 
determine  a  new  boundary,  and  con- 
tinued through  the  years  following.  In 
1910-1911  there  was  carried  on  an  acute 
dispute  in  regard  to  the  coal  lands  of 
Alaska,  as  a  result  of  charges  made  that 
large  corporations  acting  under  lawi 
passed  by  Congress  were  attempting  to 
secure  control  of  valuable  coal  land.  As 
a  result  of  this  agitation,  R.  L.  Ballingei', 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  resigned,  and 
his  successor,  Walter  L.  Fisher,  undei'- 
took  a  thorough  investigation  of  the 
matter.  The  syndicates  which  had  at- 
tempted to  secux'e  possession  of  the  coal 
lands  finally  withdrew.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War  over  3,000  men  en- 
rolled for  service,  a  number  far  beyond 
the  required  quota.  Ninety-four  per 
cent,  of  the  white  population  and  1,303 
of  the  natives  were  enrolled  in  the  Red 
Cross.  Alaska  led  all  other  States  in  its 
per  capita  subscription  for  War  Stamps. 
In  1918  the  Government  set  apart  as  a 
National  monument  the  gi'eat  volcano  of 
Katmai  and  the  surrounding  region,  com- 
prising over  1,000,000  acres.  This  vol- 
cano erupted  violently  in  1912  and  had 
smJ.ller  eruptions  in  following  years. 
The  National  Georgraphical  Society  in 
1919  carried  on  explorations  in  the  Kat- 


ALBA  LONGA 


90 


ALBANIA 


mai  regions.  Since  its  creation  as  an  or- 
ganized Territory,  Alaska  has  steadily 
advanced   in   population  and   industries. 

ALBA  LONGA,  a  considerable  city  of 
Latium.  founded  by  Ascanius,  son  of 
^neas,  in  b.  c.  1152.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Romulus,  under  whose  dominion 
it  fell,  in  consequence  of  the  victory  of 
the  Romans  in  the  contest  between  the 
Horatii  and  the  Curiatii.  It  was  situ- 
ated on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Lake 
Albano  from  where  the  new  town  of  Al- 
bano  stands.  There  was  also  a  city  of 
Alba  near  the  Lacus  Fucinus;  an  Alba 
Pompeia  in  Liguria;  and  an  Alba  Julia, 
now  Weissenburg,  in  Transylvania. 

ALBAN,  ST.,  the  first  Christian  mar- 
tyr in  Great  Britain,  lived  in  the  3d 
century.  After  having  served  years  as  a 
soldier  under  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  he 
returned  to  Britain,  embraced  Chris- 
tianity, and  suffered  martyrdom  in  the 
great  persecution  of  Diocletian. 

ALBANI,  a  powerful  family  of  Rome, 
which  has  supplied  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  with  several  cardinals.  Two  of 
them  are  well  known  as  patrons  of  the 
fine  arts:  (1)  Albani,  Alessandro, 
born  in  1692;  died  in  1779;  he  was  a 
great  virtuoso,  and  possessed  a  collec- 
tion of  drawings  and  engravings  which, 
at  his  death,  was  purchased  by  George 
III.  for  14,000  crowns.  (2)  Albani, 
Giovanni  Francesco,  nephew  of  the 
former,  born  1720;  a  great  friend  to  the 
Jesuits,  but  in  other  respects  liberal  and 
enlightened.  His  palace  was  plundered 
by  the  French  in  1798,  when  he  made  his 
escape  to  Naples,  stripped  of  all  his  pos- 
sessions.    Died  in  1803. 

ALBANI,  FRANCESCO,  a  famous 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna,  1578; 
was  a  scholar  of  Guido.  He  was  fond  of 
representing  the  fair  sex,  and  his  com- 
positions, in  love  subjects,  are  held  in 
high  esteem.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
productions  are:  "The  Sleeping  Venus," 
"Diana  in  the  Bath,"  "Danae  Reclining," 
"Galathea  on  the  Sea,"  and  "Europa  on 
the  Bull."  He  has  been  called  the  Anac- 
reon  of  painters.  It  is  said  that  his  sec- 
ond wife,  who  was  very  beautiful,  and 
his  children,  served  as  models  for  his 
Venuses  and  Cupids.  Died  in  1660.  His 
brother  and  disciple,  Giovanni  Battista, 
was  a  distinguished  historical  and  land- 
scape painter.     Died  in  1668. 

ALBANI,  MAHIE  EMMA  (LAJETJ- 
NESSE),  a  dramatic  soprano  and  opera 
singer,  born  in  1852,  at  Chambly,  near 
Montreal,  Canada.  After  studying  with 
Lamperti,  at  Milan,  she  made  her  debut 
at  Messina  (1870),  in  "La  Sonnambula," 
under  the  name  Albani,  in  compliment  to 


the  city  of  Albany,  where  her  public  ca- 
reer began. 

ALBANIA,  the  name  given  to  a  region 
between  the  Adriatic  Sea,  Greece,  Mace- 
donia, and  Montenegro.  Upper  or  north- 
ern Albania  formed  part  of  the  Illyria 
of  the  Romans;  lower  or  southern  Al- 
bania corresponds  to  ancient  Epirus.  It 
comprises  the  vilayets  of  Scutari  and 
Janina  and  parts  of  Monastir  and  Kos- 
sovo.  It  formed  the  southwestern  por- 
tion of  former  European  Turkey,  and 
extends  along  the  western  shore  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  from  the  river  Bojana 
to  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  There  are  three 
lakes,  Scutari,  Ochrida,  and  Janina.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Boyana,  Drin, 
Shkumbi,  and  Artino.  A  fine  climate  and 
a  favorable  soil  would  seem  to  invite  the 
inhabitants  to  agriculture,  but  in  the  N. 
little  is  cultivated  but  maize,  with  some 
rice  and  barley,  in  the  valleys;  the  moun- 
tain terraces  are  used  as  pastures  for 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  In 
the  S.  the  slopes  of  the  lower  valleys  are 
covered  with  olives,  fruit,  and  mulberry 
trees,  intermixed  with  patches  of  vines 
and  maize,  while  the  densely  wooded 
mountain  ridges  furnish  valuable  sup- 
plies of  timber.  The  plateau  of  Janina 
yields  abundance  of  grain;  and  in  the 
valleys  opening  to  the  S.  the  finer  fruits 
are  produced,  along  with  maize,  rice,  and 
wheat.  The  inhabitants  form  a  peculiar 
people,  the  Albanians,  called  by  the 
Turks  Arnauts,  and  by  themselves  Ski- 
petar.  The  Albanians  are  half-civilized 
mountaineers,  frank  to  a  friend,  vindic- 
tive to  an  enemy.  They  are  constantly 
under  arms,  and  live  in  perpetual  anar- 
chy. At  one  time  the  Albanians  were 
all  Christians;  but  after  the  death 
of  their  last  chief,  the  hero  Skanderbeg, 
in  1467,  and  their  subjugation  by  the 
Turks,  a  large  part  became  Mohamme- 
dans. Albania  became  an  independent 
state  in  1912.  Pop.  about  860,000.  Du- 
razzo,  the  capital,  5,000;  Scutari,  32,000. 
Prince  Wilhelm  of  Wied  accepted  the 
crown  in  March,  1914,  but  fled  at  the  out- 
break of  the  European  War  and  the  state 
fell  into  anarchy.  Essad  Pasha  Topdani 
attempted  to  establish  a  military  gov- 
ernment in  October,  1914,  but  failed. 
Austrian  armies  overran  Albania  in 
1916  and  again  in  1917.  The  Italian  gen- 
eral commanding  Italian  forces  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  the  country 
and  a  government  was  set  up  at  Durazzo. 
The  political  status  of  Albania  was  un- 
determined in  1920.  The  people  had 
turned  against  Italy  by  whom  they 
thought  they  had  been  betrayed  in  offer- 
ing Scutari  to  Jugoslavia  and  south  Al- 
bania to  Greece. 


ALBANO 


91 


ALBANY 


ALBANO  (al-ba'no),  a  town  of  Italy, 
18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Rome,  on  the  de- 
clivity of  rtie  lava-walls  which  encom- 
pass Lake  Albano,  and  opposite  the  site 
of  Alba  Longa.  There  are  numerous 
remains  of  ancient  buildings,  including 
an  aqueduct.  A  valuable  wine  is  made 
here.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

The  Alban  Lake,  or  Lago  di  Castello, 
is  formed  in  the  basin  of  an  extinct 
volcano,  and  has  a  circumference  of  6 
miles,  with  a  depth  of  530  feet.  Its 
surface  is  961  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
While  the  Romans  were  at  war  with 
Veil  (390  B.  c),  this  lake  rose  to  an 
extraordinary  height  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, and  diviners  declared  that  the  con- 
quest of  Veil  depended  upon  letting  off 
the  waters  of  the  lake.  Hereupon  the 
Romans  opened  a  tunnel  through  the 
lava-walls  which  still  remains  and  still 
fulfills  its  ancient  office,  is  a  mile  in 
length,  with  a  height  of  7  feet,  and  a 
width  of  4  feet.  On  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  lake  rises  Monte  Cavo,  the  ancient 
Mount  Albanus,  3,000  feet  high. 

ALBAN'S,  ST.,  a  small  and  ancient 
borough  of  England,  Hertfordshire,  20 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  London,  by  the  London 
and  Northwestern  railway.  It  is  the 
ancient  Roman  Verulamium.  The  abbey 
church  was  built  in  796,  in  honor  of  St. 
Alban,  by  the  King  Offa.  Of  this  first 
abbey  there  remains  but  a  gateway.  The 
present  abbey  is  an  object  worthy  the 
attention  of  the  antiquarian  and  the  stu- 
dent of  architecture.  It  is  built  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  running  547  feet  from 
east  to  west,  and  having  a  breadth  of 
206  feet,  at  the  intersection  of  the  tran- 
sept. Every  style  of  architecture,  from 
the  time  of  the  Romans  to  that  of  Henry 
VII.,  may  be  traced  in  it.  Near  the 
town  of  St.  Alban's,  two  battles  were 
fought  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster.  In  the  first,  May  22,  1455, 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  obtained  a 
victory  over  Henry  VI.  In  the  second, 
Feb.  2,  1461,  Margaret  of  Anjou  de- 
feated the  army  of  the  Yorkists,  com- 
manded by  Warwick. 

ALBANY,  a  city  of  Alabama,  formerly 
known  as  New  Decatur.  It  is  about  80 
miles  N.  of  Birmingham.  It  is  on  the 
Tennessee  river  and  on  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville  railroad.  The  town  has 
grown  rapidly  in  recent  years  and  is 
now  an  important  industrial  center. 
There  are  extensive  iron  manufactures. 
It  has  also  manufactories  of  cottonseed 
oil,  lumber,  railroad  repair  shops,  and  tan- 
neries.   Fop.   (1910)  6,119;   (1920)  7,652. 

ALBANY,  a  city  of  Georgia,  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Dougherty  co.  It  is  on  the 
Central  of  Georgia,  the  Atlantic  Coast 


Line,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the 
Georgia  Southwestern  and  Gulf,  the 
Georgia  Northern,  and  the  Albany  and 
Northern  railroads.  It  is  also  on  the 
Flint  river,  which  is  navigable  at  that 
point.  It  is  both  an  agricultural  and  an 
industrial  community.  The  chief  intei-- 
ests  are  cotton,  cottonseed  oil,  bricks 
fertilizers,  and  lumber.  The  city  has  an 
excellent  street  system  and  water  supply 
furnished  by  artesian  wells.  There  is  i 
public  library.  Federal  building,  and  a 
monument  to  Confederate  soldiers.  Pop. 
(1910)   8,190;   (1920)   11,555. 

ALBANY,  the  capital  of  the  State  of 
New  York  and  the  county-seat  of  Albany 
CO.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Hudson  river,  about  145  miles  N.  of 
New  York  City.  It  is  at  the  head  of  the 
navigation  of  the  Hudson  river  and  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain 
barge  canals.  Six  railroads  radiate  from 
it  to  every  part  of  the  country.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  rail- 
road and  the  division  terminus  of  the 
main  lines  of  the  West  Shore,  the  New 
York  Central,  and  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  railroads.  The  city  has  direct 
steamboat  communication  by  day  and 
night  lines  with  New  York  and  Hudson 
river  points,  while  the  Erie  and  Cham- 
plain  canals  give  water  communication 
with  the  interior  of  the  State  and  the 
west  and  noi-th.  The  excellent  shipping 
facilities  of  the  city  have  made  it  an  im- 
portant commercial  center.  It  is  the  sec- 
ond largest  express  and  third  largest 
mail  transfer  in  the  United  States.  Al- 
bany is  a  distributing  point  for  the  large 
oil  companies,  mail-order  houses,  ma- 
chinery companies,  and  other  corpora- 
tions which  do  a  national  business. 

Albany  is  an  attractive  city  both  in 
site  and  as  a  result  of  careful  city  plan- 
ning, which,  in  recent  years,  has  trans- 
formed certain  portions.  There  is  an 
extensive  park  system  with  parks  con- 
veniently located  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
various  sections  of  the  city.  Among  these 
are  Washington  Park,  90  acres,  and 
Lincoln  Park,  78  acres.  The  city  main- 
tains free  public  baths  and  other  recrea- 
tional features.  The  v/ater  and  sewer 
systems  are  of  the  latest  approved  de- 
sign. There  are  excellent  hospitals,  in- 
chiding  three  large  general  hospitals, 
and  a  number  of  special  hospitals. 

Albany  is  well  equipped  with  public 
school  facilities.  There  were  in  1920,  23 
grammar  school  buildings  and  a  high 
school  building  costing  $1,000,000.  There 
are  housed  in  these  buildings  over  12,000 
people.  In  addition  to  the  public  schools 
there  are  many  well-equipped  private 
and  parochial  schools.     In  the  city  are 


ALBANY  CONGRESS 


92 


ALBAY 


12  libraries,  not  including  the  State  Li- 
brary, which  contains  over  525,000 
books.  There  are  75  churches,  some  of 
them  of  great  architectural  merit.  Among 
the  most  notable  public  buildings  are 
the  State  Capitol,  City  Hall,  Union  Sta- 
tion, State  College  for  Teachers,  county 
court  house,  the  State  Hall,  State  Educa- 
tion Building,  and  the  State  Library  and 
State  Museum.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  many  handsome  business  build- 
ings. 

The  industries  of  the  city  are  varied. 
It  has  the  oldest  and  largest  baling  press 
factory  in  the  world,  as  well  as  the  larg- 
est factory  devoted  to  the  manufacture 
of  car-heating  apparatus.  It  has  also 
the  largest  toy  factory  in  the  United 
States.  Other  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  billiard  balls,  patent  stove 
specialties,  writing  paper,  underwear, 
locomotives,  gas  ranges,  beds,  dies,  cart 
wheels,  chemicals,  lumber,  printing  prod- 
ucts, shirts,  etc. 

The  assessed  valuation  of  real  estate 
of  the  city  is  about  $100,000,000,  with  a 
personal  valuation  of  about  $10,000,000. 
There  are  four  banks  of  discount,  two 
trust  companies,  and  seven  savings 
banks,  in  the  latter  a  deposit  of  nearly 
$100,000,000. 

The  first  permanent  site  of  Albany  was 
made  in  1614  by  a  company  of  Dutch 
traders  who  established  a  station  at 
Castle  Island  under  the  name  of  Fort 
Nassau.  The  station  was  removed  later 
to  the  mainland.  In  1623  eighteen  Wal- 
loon families  sent  by  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company  settled  on  the  present 
site  of  the  city.  In  the  same  year  Fort 
Orange  was  erected  near  the  site  of  the 
present  Steamboat  Square.  The  settle- 
ment suffered  severely  from  Indian  at- 
tacks but  continued  to  grow  steadily.  It 
received  its  name  in  1^64  from  the  Duke 
of  York  and  Albany,  afterward  James 
II.  It  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1686 
and  became  the  capital  of  the  State  in 
1797.  Albany  was  selected  for  the  con- 
vention of  the  First  Provisional  Congress 
which  formed  "a  plan  for  a  proposed 
union  of  several  colonies."  Pop.  (1890) 
94,923  r  (1900)  94,154;  (1910)  100,253; 
(1920)  113,344. 

ALBANY  CONGRESS,  an  assembly  of 
representatives  of  the  most  important 
British  North  American  colonies,  which 
was  called  together  in  1754  by  the  Brit- 
ish Government  to  consult  in  regard  to 
the  threatening  French  war.  Two  plans 
were  proposed:  First,  a  league  with  the 
Indians,  which  was  carried  out,  and,  sec- 
ond, a  proposal  offered  by  Franklin  for  a 
political  union.  In  this  a  common  presi- 
dent was  proposed  and  a  great  council, 


representing  the  different  colonies.  This 
plan  was  rejected  by  the  British  crown 
because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the 
colonies,  and  by  the  colonies  because  it 
gave  too  much  power  to  the  crown.  Tke 
significance  of  this  congress  lies  in  the 
fact  that  it  stimulated  the  union  of  the 
colonies  which  was  afterward  accom- 
plished. 

ALBANY  REGENCY,  THE,  a  name 
given  in  American  political  history  to  a 
powerful  combination  of  eminent  Demo- 
cratic leaders  of  New  York  State.  It 
was  instituted  in  1822  by  Martin  Van 
Buren,  who  remained  its  dominating 
spirit  for  many  years.  It  continued  to 
exercise  large  power  until  1854,  with 
such  men  as  William  L.  Marcy,  Silas 
Wright,  John  A.  Dix,  and  Horatio  Sey- 
mour identified  with  it.  Afterward  Sam- 
uel J.  Tilden,  Dean  Richmond,  and  Dan- 
iel Manning  preserved  in  a  manner  its 
traditions. 

ALBATROSS,  a  large  sea  bird,  belong- 
ing to  the  procellaridse,  or  petrol  family. 
It  is  the  diomedea  exulans  of  Linnaeus. 
When  young  it  is  of  a  sooty  or  brown 


ALBATROSS 

color,  but  when  mature  Jt  is  white  with 
black  wings.  It  nests  on  eievated  land, 
and  lays  numerous  eggs,  which  are  edi- 
ble. S.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  sailors 
call  it  the  Cape  sheep;  sometimes,  also, 
it  is  named  the  man-of-war  bird.  Every- 
thing about  the  great  wandering  alba- 
tross is  vast — the  wings  are  enormous, 
its  flight  is  reckoned  by  the  thousand 
miles.  There  is  a  northern  species  near 
Bering  Straits. 

ALBAY,  a  province  in  the  S.  E.  part 
of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  and  the 
richest  hemp-growing  district  on  the 
island.  In  January,  1900,  Brig.  Gen.  Wil- 
liam A.  Kobbe,  United  States  Volun- 
teers, was  appointed  military  governor 
of  the  province  and  Catanduanes  Island, 


ALBEMARLE  SOUND 


93 


ALBERT  I. 


with  temporary  authority  over  Samar 
and  Leyte  Islands,  for  the  purpose  of  oc- 
cupying and  opening  to  trade  the  vari- 
ous hemp  ports.  He  had  several  sharp 
fights  to  gain  possession  of  his  new 
command.    Pop.  about  250,000. 

ALBEMARLE  SOUND,  an  inlet  near 
the  N.  E.  extremity  of  the  State  of 
North  Caroiinas  running  inland  for  60 
miles,  with  a  breadth  of  from  4  to  15 
miles.  It  has  no  great  depth  of  water, 
and  a  narrow  island  at  its  mouth  pre- 
vents the  sound  from  being  affected  by 
the  tides.  Into  its  upper  extremity  the 
Roanoke  and  Chowan  rivers  debouch.  It 
is  connected  by  channels  with  Chesa- 
peake Bay  and  Currituck  and  Pamlico 
Sounds. 

ALBERONI,  GIULIO  (al-ber-o'ne), 
cardinal  and  minister  of  the  King  of 
Spain,  was  the  son  of  a  gardener.  Born 
in  1664,  at  Firenzuola,  a  village  of  Par- 
ma, and  educated  for  the  Church,  his 
first  office  was  that  of  bell-ringer  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Piacenza.  Possessed  of  un- 
common talents,  he  soon  became  canon, 
chaplain,  and  favorite  of  the  Count  Ron- 
covieri,  and  Bishop  of  St.  Donnin.  The 
Duke  of  Parma  sent  him  as  his  minister 
to  Madrid,  where  by  cunning  and  in- 
trigue he  became  privy  councillor,  prime 
minister,  and  cardinal.  He  engaged  him- 
self with  schemes  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Spanish  nation;  but,  being  undermined 
by  foreign  influence,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  posts  and  banished  to  Rome.  Died 
at  Placentia,  1752. 

ALBERT  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  and 
afterward  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  son 
of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  who  founded 
the  Austrian  imperial  dynasty.  He  was 
crowned  in  1298,  after  defeating  and 
slaying  his  competitor,  Adolphus  of  Nas- 
sau, and  was  assassinated  in  1308  by  his 
nephew  John,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Suabia, 
whose  paternal  estates  he  had  seized. 
The  story  of  William  Tell  is  connected 
with  Albert  I. 

ALBERT  II.,  King  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia  and  Duke  of  Austria,  suc- 
ceeded Sigismund  as  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many in  1438,  He  held  a  great  diet  at 
Nuremberg,  in  which  the  Vehmic  or  se- 
cret courts  were  suppressed.  He  died  the 
following  year,  as  he  was  preparing  to 
take  the  field  against  the  Turks,  who 
were  ravaging  Hungary. 

ALBERT  I.,  King  of  the  Belgians, 
born  April  8,  1875,  son  of  Prince  Phi- 
lippe de  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  and  of 
Flanders,  who  died  Nov.  1,  1905.  At  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  Leopold  II.,  Dec.  17, 
1909,  Albert  ascended  the  throne.     His 


character  has  proved  to  be  in  complete 
antithesis  to  that  of  his  predecessor, 
whose  profligate  and  shameless  life  had 
been  the  scandal  of  Europe.  His  family 
and  public  life  has  been  without  re- 
proach, and  his  winning  qualities  have 


ALBERT    I.,     KING    OF    THE    BELGIANS 

won  him  the  esteem  and  affection  of  his 
people.  On  Oct.  2,  1900,  he  married 
Princess  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria.  He  has 
three  children,  of  whom  Prince  Leopold, 
born  Nov.  3,  1901,  is  the  heir  to  the 
throne.  The  reign  of  Albert  prior  to 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  in  1914 
was  one  of  marked  progress  and  pros- 
perity. The  Socialist  party  was  strong 
in  Belgium,  and  labor  troubles  were  fre- 
quent and  at  times  serious,  but  the  tact 
of  the  king  was  successful  in  composing 
them.  When  the  war  broke  out,  the  king 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
and  throughout  the  conflict  shared  the 
hardships  of  his  men.  When  the  over- 
whelming forces  of  the  Germans  had 
taken  possession  of  the  little  kingdom, 
the  government  was  removed  to  Havre, 
France.  In  the  four  years  of  conflict 
that  ensued  the  king  exhibited  military 
qualities  of  a  high  order,  and  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  1918  operations 
that  compelled  the  Germans  to  evacuate 
his  kingdom.  After  the  armistice  was 
signed  he  made  a  triumphal  entry  into 
Ghent,  Brussels,  and  other  cities  of  Bel- 
gium, and  was  received  with  the  wildest 
rejoicings.  In  1919  he  visited  the  United 
States  with  his  wife  and  the  heir  appar- 
ent, and  everywhere  was  met  with  en- 
thusiastic welcome.  See  World  War; 
Belgium. 


ALBERT  OF  BRANDENBURG        94 

ALBERT,  MARGRAVE  OF  BRAN- 
DENBURG,  and  first  Duke  of  Prussia, 
was  born  in  1490.  He  was  elected,  in 
1511,  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  which  held  dominion  over  Prussia 
proper,  that  part  of  the  former  Kingdom 
of  Prussia  which  borders  on  the  Baltic 
Sea.  He  fought  against  Sigismund,  King 
of  Poland,  for  the  defense  of  his  order, 
which  had  been  for  ages  at  war  with 
the  Poles.  Peace  was  made  in  1525,  at 
Cracow,  in  which  Albert  managed  to  have 
the  Duchy  of  Prussia  secured  to  himself 
and  his  descendants  as  a  fief  of  the  crown 
of  Poland,  thus  laying  aside  the  rights 
of  the  order.  Albert,  some  time  after, 
embraced  the  Protestant  faith,  and  mar- 
ried a  princess  of  Denmai'k.  One  of  his 
descendants,  Frederick  William,  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  threw  off  the  allegiance 
of  Poland,  and  his  son,  Frederick  I., 
changed  the  title  of  duke  into  that  of 
King  of  Prussia  in  1701. 

ALBERT,    PRINCE    CONSORT,    was 

born  at  Schloss  Rosenau,  near  Coburg, 
Aug.  26,  1819,  the  younger  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  by  his  first 
marriage  with  Louisa,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.  After  a 
careful  domestic  education,  the  prince, 
along  with  his  elder  brother,  studied  at 
Brussels  and  Bonn  (1836-1838).  This 
prince  the  young  Queen  of  Great  Brit- 
ain selected  as  her  partner  for  life.  They 
met  first  in  1836,  and  the  marriage  was 
celebrated  in  London  on  Feb.  10,  1840, 
when  Prince  Albert  received  the  title  of 
Royal  Highness,  was  naturalized  as  a 
subject  of  Great  Britain,  and  obtained 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  The  title  of 
Consort  of  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty 
was  formally  conferred  in  1842,  and  that 
of  Prince  Consort  in  1857.  Notwith- 
standing his  high  and  favored  position, 
he  abstained  from  undue  meddling  with 
state  affairs,  and  thus  escaped  the  jeal- 
ousy and  detraction  of  parties.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  the  encouragement  and 
promotion  of  science  and  art,  appearing 
as  the  patron  of  many  useful  associa- 
tions and  public  undertakings.  The  Ex- 
hibition of  1851  owed  much  to  his  strong 
interest.  As  regards  Continental  politics, 
his  ruling  idea  was  that  Prussia  should 
be  supreme  in  Germany.  He  died  of 
typhoid  fever  at  Windsor  Castle,  Dec.  14, 
1861. 

ALBERT,  PRINCE  OF  MECKLEN- 
BURG, was  called  to  the  throne  of  Swe- 
den, 1364,  by  the  nobility,  who  had  de- 
posed King  Magnus.  The  Swedes  being 
dissatisfied  with  Albert,  who  favored  his 
German  countrymen  at  their  expense, 
offered  the  crown  to  Margaret,  Queen 
of  Denmark  and  Norway.    After  several 


ALBERTA 


years  of  war,  Albert  lost  the  decisive 
battle  of  Falkoping,  1388,  and  was  made 
a  prisoner.  Peace,  however,  was  not  re- 
established in  Sweden  till  1395,  when 
Albert  consented  to  give  up  his  claims 
to  the  crown.  He  then  retired  to  Meck- 
lenburg, where  he  died. 

ALBERT  EDWARD  NYANZA  (Muta- 
Nzige,  southern  Luto  Nzige),  a  lake  of 
equatorial  Africa,  discovered  by  Stanley 
in  1876,  and  again  visited  by  him  in 
1889.  It  occupies  the  southern  end  of  a 
vast  natural  depression,  of  which  the 
Albert  Nyanza  fills  the  northern  extrem- 
ity. It  is  3,242  feet  above  sea-level; 
and  beyond  the  depression  in  which  it 
lies  is  a  table  land  from  5,500  to  6,500 
feet  high.  The  water  of  the  lake  flows 
into  the  Albert  Nyanza  by  the  Semliki 
river. 

ALBERT  LEA,  a  city  of  Minnesota, 
the  county-seat  of  Freeborn  co.,  about 
100  miles  S.  of  Minneapolis.  It  is  on 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis,  and  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  Iowa 
Central,  and  the  Illinois  Central  rail- 
roads. Its  fine  natural  surroundings 
make  it  a  popular  summer  resort.  It 
has  two  lakes,  parks,  and  boulevards.  In 
the  city  are  a  handsome  court  house, 
Albert  Lea  College  for  Women,  and 
Luther  Academy.  It  is  the  center  of 
an  extensive  agricultural  and  dairying 
region.  Its  industries  include  gas-engine 
works  and  a  paper-box  factory,  tank 
factories,  creameries,  packing  houses. 
Pop.   (1910)   6,112;   (1920)  8,056. 

ALBERTA,  a  Province  of  northwest 
Canada,  east  of  British  Columbia  and 
west  of  Saskatchewan.  It  has  an  area 
of  253,540  square  miles.  Pop.  about 
500,000.  The  chief  cities  are  Calgary, 
(pop,  about  5,700),  and  Edmonton  (pop. 
about  5,400).  The  latter  is  the  capital. 
The  constitution  under  which  the  Prov- 
ince is  governed  was  established  in  1905. 
The  executive  power  is  nominally  in  the 
hands  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  but 
actually  is  carried  on  by  the  Executive 
Council  or  Cabinet  of  the  Legislature. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
assembly  elected  by  universal  suffrage. 
Women  have  the  right  to  vote. 

Alberta  is  of  great  importance  agricul- 
turally. The  production  of  fall  wheat  in 
1919  was  about  616,000  bushels;  of  spring 
wheat,  about  26,000,000  bushels;  oats, 
about  27,000,000  bushels;  barley,  about 
10,000,000;  rye,  about  1,300,000.  Dairy 
products  in  1918  were  valued  at  $27,- 
500,000.  There  were  in  the  same  year 
1,317  manufacturing  establishments  with 
a  capital  of  $63,215,444,  and  the  value 
of  products,  $71,669,423.     The  live  stock 


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ALSEBTSON 


95 


ALBION 


industry  is  important.  The  total  live 
stock  numbered  3,417,141,  including  about 
330,000  cows,  and  735,000  other  cattle. 
Swine  numbered  about  600,000  and  sheep 
about  330,000.  There  were  valuable  min- 
eral deposits.  There  were  mined  in 
1918  nearly  3,000,000  tons  of  coal.  There 
are  also  rich  natural  gas  deposits.  The 
railway  mileage  in  1918  was  4,444.  The 
trade  imports  in  1918-1919  were  valued 
at  $15,926,379,  and  the  exports  at 
$2,256,186. 

ALBERTSON,  CHABLES  CABBOLL, 

an  American  clergyman;  born  in  Plain- 
field,  Ind.,  in  1865.  He  studied  law  and 
afterward  theology  at  the  Garrett  Bib- 
lical Institute  and  the  Northwestern 
University,  and  then  served  as  pastor  in 
several  cities  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. From  1899  to  1904  he  was  pastor 
in  Philadelphia  and  from  1904  to  1913 
he  was  pastor  of  the  Central  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  In 
1913  he  became  pastor  of  the  Lafayette 
Avenue  Presbyterian  Church  of  Brooklyn. 
He  was  the  founder  and  president  of  the 
Book  Lovers'  Guild  and  lecturer  for  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  He 
edited  several  works  and  was  the  author 
of  many  books,  sermons,  and  essays  in- 
cluding "Death  and  Afterwards"  (1907); 
"College  Sermons"  (1912);  "Distinctive 
Ideas  of  Jesus"  (1915). 

AliBEBTUS  MAGNUS,  "Albert  the 
Great,"  Count  von  Bollstadt,  a  German 
scholastic  philosopher;  born  at  Lauingen, 
Suabia,  1193.  He  became  Bishop  of 
Ratisbon  in  1260.  One  of  the  greatest 
scholars  of  his  age,  he  taught  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Cologne  and  Paris.  So 
great  was  his  knowledge  that  he  was 
accounted  a  magician  by  his  contem- 
poraries. His  works,  treating  chiefly  of 
physical  science,  fill  21  volumes.  They 
appeared  in  1651.  He  died"  at  Cologne, 
Nov.  15,  1280. 

ALBl,  or  ALBY,  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  Tarn,  France;  the  an- 
cient Albiga;  a  stronghold  of  the  Albi- 
genses,  to  whom  it  gave  their  name. 
The  Cathedral  of  St.  Cecilia  is  chiefly 
of  the  14th  century,  with  Italian  frescoes 
dating  from  about  1505.  Pop.  about 
25,000. 

ALBIA,  a  city  of  Iowa,  the  county- 
seat  of  Monroe  co.,  about  70  miles  S.  E. 
of  Des  Moines.  It  is  on  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy,  the  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Louis,  the  Wabash,  and  the 
Southern  Iowa  Traction  Company  rail- 
roads. The  city  has  a  large  coal  in- 
dustry and  is  the  center  of  an  extensive 
coal  mining  community.  There  are  also 
important  agricultural   industries.     The 


city  has  metal  works,  a  packing  house, 
a  telephone  factory.  Pop.  (1910)  4,969; 
(1920)    5,067, 

ALBIGENSES  (al-be-zhans'  or  al-be- 
jen'sez),  the  name  commonly  given  to 
a  Christian  sect,  or  to  several  sects,  which 
arose  in  the  south  of  France;  suppressed 
early  in  the  13th  century  on  account  of 
alleged  heresies.  Their  name  may  have 
been  derived  from  the  town  of  Albiga  or 
Albi,  where  their  doctrines  had  many  fol- 
lowers. In  their  belief  were  included 
some  of  the  Manichaean  tenets,  such  as 
the  repudiation  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  dualistic  philosophy  of  the  evil 
of  matter  and  the  emanation  of  spirit. 
The  growth  of  the  sect  and  the  spread 
of  their  heresies  brought  them  in  con- 
flict with  the  Catholic  authorities,  who 
waged  against  them  a  policy  of  exter- 
mination. They  were  condemned  at 
various  councils,  and  in  1198  Innocent 
III.  endeavored  to  extirpate  them  by 
sending  several  legates  to  Toulouse  as 
inquisitors.  He  excommunicated  Count 
Raymond  of  Toulouse  (1207),  who  con- 
sistently protected  the  Albigenses.  The 
murder  of  the  Legate  Peter  of  Cas- 
telnau,  in  1209,  gave  the  Pope  occasion 
for  employing  severer  means.  He  pro- 
claimed a  crusade  for  the  abolition  of 
the  sect.  The  war  against  the  Albi- 
genses was  waged  zealously,  and  many 
were  sacrificed  who  had  no  connection 
with  them.  After  a  peace  concluded  in 
1229  between  Raymond  VII.  and  the 
Pope,  they  were  left  without  protection, 
and  the  Inquisition  completed  their  de- 
struction. 

ALBINO,  a  human  being  or  animal 
abnormally  white,  with  pinkish  eyes.  The 
phenomenon  must  have  struck  most 
people  in  the  case  of  white  mice  and 
white  rabbits.  A  human  albino  has  the 
skin  preternaturally  fair.  The  hairs  on 
the  head  and  body  are  white,  the  eyes 
a  pinkish  appearance;  moreover  they  are 
painful  when  exposed  to  light  of  even 
the  oi'dinary  intensity. 

ALBION,  the  oldest  name  by  which 
the  island  of  Great  Britain  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  were  known  by  the  gen- 
eral  appellation  of  the  Britannic  Islands, 
while  the  former  was  designated  by  the 
particular  name  of  Albion  or  Alwion, 
and  the  latter  by  that  of  lerne,  louernia, 
or  Erin.  Caesar  does  not  use  the  word 
Albion ;  his  name  for  England  is  Britan- 
nia. The  name  of  Albion  was  probably 
given  to  England  by  the  Gaels  of  the  op- 
posite coast,  who  could  not  fail  to  be 
struck  with  the  chalky  cliffs  that  charac- 
terize the  nearest  part  of  Kent. 


ALBION 


96 


ALBUQUERQUE 


ALBION,  a  city  of  Michigan  in  Cal- 
houn CO.  It  is  on  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 
railroads,  and  an  electric  line  running 
from  Kalamazoo  to  Detroit.  It  is  also  on 
the  Kalamazoo  river.  The  city  has  im- 
portant manufactures  of  iron,  automobile 
springs,  and  other  accessories,  and  agri- 
cultural implements;  a  library,  two  hos- 
pitals, a  park,  and  is  the  seat  of  Albion 
College.  Pop.  (1910)  5,833;  (1920) 
8,354. 

ALBION,  a  village  of  New  York,  the 
county-seat  of  Orleans  co.  It  is  on  the 
New  York  Central,  the  Buffalo,  Lockport 
and  Rochester  railroads  and  the  Erie 
canal.  It  has  a  library,  high  school, 
court  house,  memorial  church,  and  sev- 
eral public  institutions.  Its  industries 
include  a  canning  factory,  cement  works, 
etc.     Pop.   (1910)   5,016;   (1920)   4,683. 

ALBION  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Albion,  Mich.,  oi'ganized 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church;  reported  in  1919:  Pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  24;  students, 
560;  president,  Samuel  Dickie,  LL.  D. 

ALBOIN,  a  king  of  Lombardy,  who, 
after  having  slain  Cunimund,  King  of 
the  Gepidae,  married  his  daughter  Rosa- 
mond. He  was  slain  in  574,  by  an  assas- 
sin instigated  by  his  wife. 

ALBOLENE,  a  hydrocarbon  oil  used 
in  medicine  to  carry  remedies  to  be 
sprayed  into  the  nose  and  deeper  air 
passages.  It  is  also  used  for  dressing 
wounds.     It  is  a  petroleum  product. 

ALBBIGHT  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  for  higher  learning 
under  the  control  of  the  Knight  Evan- 
gelic Church  at  Myerstown,  Pa.  There 
were  in  1919-1920,  232  students  and  20 
instructors.  The  library  contains  about 
10,000  volumes.  The  property  is  valued 
at  about  $150,000,  and  the  income  about 
$30,000  annually.  President,  Rev.  L.  C. 
Hunt,  A.  D. 

ALBUERA  (al-bo-a'ra) ,  a  village  of 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Badajoz,  on  the 
Albuera  river;  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Bada- 
joz. Here  (May  16,  1811)  a  British  and 
Portuguese  army  of  32,500,  under  Gen- 
eral Beresford,  defeated  in  a  sanguinary 
battle  a  French  army  of  23,000  under 
Marshal  Soult,  the  total  loss  being  16,- 
000,  about  equally  divided.  Soult  tried 
to  relieve  Badajoz,  which  was  besieged 
by  the  British,  but  was  obliged  to  with- 
draw to  Seville,  while  the  allied  British 
and  Portuguese,  of  whom  Wellington 
then  took  command,  continued  the  siege. 

ALBUMEN  or  ALBUMIN.  (1)  In 
chemistry,  the  name  of  a  class  of  albu- 


minoids that  are  soluble  in  water,  as 
serum  and  egg  albumen.  Egg  albumen 
differs  from  serum  by  giving  a  precipi- 
tate when  agitated  with  ether;  it  is 
scarcely  soluble  in  strong  nitric  acid;  its 
specific  relation  is  35.50  for  yellow  light. 
The  white  of  eggs  is  composed  of  this 
substance;  it  dries  up  into  a  light  yellow 
gum-like  substance,  which  will  not  putre- 
fy. It  is  an  antidote  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing by  corrosive  sublimate  or  copper 
salts. 

Derived  albumens  are  insoluble  in 
water,  and  in  solutions  of  NaCl  (sodium 
chloride) ,  but  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and 
alkalies.  There  are  acid  albumens  and 
alkali  albumens. 

Acid  albumen  is  formed  by  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  dilute  HCl  (hydro- 
chloric acid)  to  serum  or  egg  albumen, 
and  gradually  raising  the  temperature 
to  70°. 

Alkali  albumen,  or  albumenate,  is  ob- 
tained by  adding  very  dilute  caustic  ah 
kali,  heating  the  liquid,  and  precipitat- 
ing with  acids.  It  closely  resembles  the 
casein  of  milk.  Potassium  albuminate 
is  also  called  protein, 

(2)  In  botany,  a  substance  interposed 
between  the  embryo  and  the  testa  of 
many  plants.  It  varies  greatly  in  amount, 
being  particularly  large  in  some  endo- 
gens,  such  as  the  cocoanut,  in  which  it 
constitutes  the  eatable  part  of  the  fruit. 

(3)  In  photography,  a  process  by  which 
albumen  is  used  instead  of  collodion  to 
coat  glass  or  paper. 

ALBUMINOIDS,  in  chemistry,  a  name 
given  to  certain  chemical  substances 
which  occur  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
tissues.  They  are  amorphous,  and  their 
chemical  constitution  has  not  yet  been 
discovered. 

ALBUQUERQUE  (al'be-kerk) ,  a  town 
and  country-seat  of  Bernalillo  co.,  N.  M.; 
on  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Santa 
Fe  Pacific  railroads;  75  miles  S.  W.  of 
Santa  Fe.  It  has  an  elevation  of  5,000 
feet  above  sea-level;  is  an  ancient  and 
interesting  settlement,  divided  into  the 
Old  and  New  towns;  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  New  Mexico  and 
of  a  Government  school  for  Indians.  The 
town  has  extensive  railroad  shops,  a 
foundry  and  machine  works,  a  National 
bank,  and  large  mining,  trading,  and  job- 
bing interests.  Pop.  (1910)  11,020; 
(1920)   15,157. 

ALBUQUERQUE,   AFFONSO  D*    (al'- 

bo-kark'e),  "the  Great,"  Viceroy  of  the 
Indies,  was  born  in  1453,  near  Lisbon. 
In  that  age,  the  Portuguese  people  were 
distinguished  for  heroism   and  a   spirit 


ALC2EUS 


97 


ALCHEMY 


of  adventure.  They  had  discovered  and 
subjugated  a  great  part  of  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  and  were  beginning  to 
extend  their  dominion  over  the  seas  and 
the  people  of  India.  Albuquerque  was 
appointed  Viceroy  of  Portugal's  new 
possessions  in  the  east  and  landed  at 
Malabar  with  troops  in  1503.  Con- 
quered Goa,  and  later  Ceylon,  the  Sunda 
Isles,  Malaccas,  and  the  island  of  Ormuz. 
He  made  the  Portuguese  name  profoundly 
respected  among  the  princes  and  people 
of  the  East;  and  many  of  them,  especially 
the  Kings  of  Siam  and  Pegu,  sought  his 
alliance  and  protection.  He  maintained 
strict  military  discipline,  was  active,  far- 
seeing,  wise,  humane,  and  equitable,  re- 
spected and  feared  by  his  neighbors  while 
beloved  by  his  subjects.  Yet  he  did  not 
escape  the  envy  of  courtiers  and  the  sus- 
picions of  his  king,  who  appointed  Soarez, 
a  personal  enemy  of  Albuquerque,  to 
supersede  him  as  Viceroy.  This  news 
reached  him  just  as  he  was  leaving 
Ormuz,  and  gave  a  severe  shock  to  his 
shattered  health.  A  few  days  after,  he 
died  at  sea  near  Goa,  Dec.  16,  1515. 

ALCffiUS  (al-ki'us  or  al-se'us),  a 
Greek  lyric  poet;  native  of  Mitylene; 
flourished  in  the  6th  century  B.  C.  Of 
his  poems  we  have  only  fragments;  some 
were  hymns  to  the  gods,  others  battle 
songs,  still  others  were  in  praise  of 
liberty;  very  many  were  love  songs  of 
pronounced  erotic  character. 

ALCALA  DE  HEN  ARES  (al-ka-la'  de 
a-nar-as),  a  town  in  Spain,  Cervantes' 
birthplace,  on  the  Henares,  21  miles  E. 
of  Madrid  by  rail.  It  once  boasted  of  a 
university,  founded  by  the  famous  Cardi- 
nal Ximenes  in  1510.  Here  was  printed 
in  1517  the  great  Complutensian  Bible. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  Colegio  de 
San  Ildefonso,  the  archbishop's  palace, 
the  cathedral,  and  the  Church  of  Santa 
Maria,  in  which  Cervantes  was  baptized, 
Oct.  9,  1547.  The  house  in  which  he  was 
born  is  marked  by  an  inscription.  The 
Complutum  of  the  Romans,  the  town 
owes  its  modern  name  to  the  Moors. 
Pop.  about  12,000. 

ALCANTARA,  a  former  suburb  of  Lis- 
bon, noted  for  the  signal  victory  gained 
there  by  the  Duke  of  Alva  over  the  Por- 
tuguese in  1580. 

ALCANTARA,  a  fortified  town  of 
Spain,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name,  province  of  Estremadura,  the  Nova 
Caesarea  of  the  Romans.  The  famous 
bridge  of  Trajan,  built  A.  D.  105,  exists 
to-day  practically  as  the  Romans  left  it. 

Order  of  Alcantara. — At  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  in  1213,  which  was  aided 
by  the  Knights  of  San  Julian  del  Pereyro, 


the  defense  of  the  town  was  intrusted 
to  them,  and  they  thenceforward  assumed 
the  title  of  Knights  of  Alcantara.  In 
1492,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  united  the 
office  of  grand  master  with  the  crown. 
The  Order  has  been  since  abolished. 

ALCAZAR  (al-ka'thar),  the  name  of 
many  castles  and  palaces  in  Spam.  Ciu- 
dad-Rodrigo,  Cordova,  Segovia,  Toledo, 
and  Seville  have  alcazars.  The  one  at 
Seville  is  an  imposing  relic  of  the  Arab 
dominion.  The  Alcazar  of  Segovia  suf- 
fered from  a  fire  in  1862, 

ALCEDO,  the  typical  genus  of  the 
family  alcedinidse,  or  kingfishers.  Two 
species  occur  in  the  United  States,  the 
alcedo  ispida,  and  the  alcedo  alcyon. 

ALCESTE,  or  ALCESTIS,  was  the 
daughter  of  Peleus,  and  wife  of  Admetus, 
King  of  Thessaly.  Her  husband,  accord- 
ing to  an  oracle,  would  die,  unless  some 
one  made  a  vow  to  meet  death  in  his 
stead.  This  was  secretly  done  by  Alceste, 
who  became  sick,  and  Admetus  recovered. 
After  her  decease,  Hercules  visited  Ad- 
metus, and  promised  to  bring  her  from 
the  infernal  regions.  He  made  Pluto  re- 
store Alceste  to  her  husband.  Euripides 
has  made  this  the  subject  of  a  tragedy. 

ALCHEMY,  a  study  of  nature  with 
three  special  objects:  (1)  That  of  ob- 
taining an  alkahest  or  universal  solvent. 
(2)  That  of  acquiring  the  ability  to  trans- 
mute all  metals  into  gold  or  silver,  es- 
pecially the  former,  (3)  That  of  ob- 
taining an  elixir  vitae,  or  universal  medi- 
cine, which  might  cure  all  diseases  and 
indefinitely  prolong  human  life. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  Arabic 
alkimia,  compounded  of  the  Arabic  article 
and  a  Greek  word  chemia,  used  in  Diocle- 
tian's decree  against  Egyptian  works 
treating  of  the  chemia  (transmutation) 
of  gold  and  silver. 

Tradition  points  to  Egypt  as  the  birth, 
place  of  the  science,  Hermes  Trismegis- 
tus  is  represented  as  the  father  of  it; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
speculations  of  some  of  the  early  Greek 
philosophers,  as  of  Empedocles,  who  first 
named  the  four  elements,  pointed  in  the 
direction  of  a  rudimentary  chemical  the- 
ory. Zosimus  the  Theban  discovered 
in  sulphuric  acid  a  solvent  of  the  metals, 
and  liberated  oxygen  from  the  red  oxide 
of  mercury.  The  students  of  the  "sacred 
art"  at  Alexandria  believed  in  the  trans- 
mutation of  the  four  elements.  The 
Roman  Emperor  Caligula  is  said  to  have 
instituted  experiments  for  producing  gold 
out  of  orpiment  (sulphuret  of  arsenic) , 
and  in  the  time  of  Diocletian  the  passion 
for  this  pursuit,  conjoined  with  magical 
arts,  had  become  so  prevalent  in  the  em- 


ALCHEMY 


98 


ALCIBIADES 


pire  that  that  emperor  is  said  to  have 
ordered  all  Egyptian  works  treating  of 
the  chemistry  of  gold  and  silver  to  be 
burned.  For  at  that  time  multitudes  of 
books  on  this  art  appeared,  written  by 
Alexandrian  monks  and  by  hermits,  but 
bearing  famous  names  of  antiquity  such 
as  Democritus,  Pythagoras,  and  Hermes. 

At  a  later  period,  the  Arabs,  who  had 
enthusiastically  adopted  Aristotle  from 
the  Greeks,  appropiated  the  astrology 
and  alchemy  of  the  Persians  and  the  Jews 
of  Mesopotamia  and  Arabia;  and  to 
them  European  alchemy  is  directly  trace- 
able. The  school  of  polypharmacy,  as  it 
has  been  called,  flourished  in  Arabia  dur- 
ing the  caliphates  of  the  Abbassides. 
They  worked  with  gold  and  mercury, 
arsenic  and  sulphur,  salts  and  acids;  and 
had,  in  short,  become  familiar  with  a 
large  range  of  what  are  now  called 
chemicals.  Gebir  discovered  corrosive 
sublimate,  the  process  of  cupellation  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  distillation.  To  the 
Arab  alchemists  we  owe  the  terms  alco- 
hol, alkali,  borax,  elixir. 

From  the  Arabs,  alchemy  found  its 
way  through  Spain  into  Europe  generally, 
and  speedily  became  entangled  with  the 
fantastic  subtleties  of  the  scholastic  phi- 
losophy. In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  monks 
occupied  themselves  with  alchemy.  Pope 
John  XXII.  took  great  delight  in  it,  but 
denounced  the  searchers  for  gold  "who 
promise  more  than  they  can  perform, 
and  the  art  was  afterward  forbidden 
by  his  successor.  The  earliest  authentic 
works  on  European  alchemy  now  extant 
are  those  of  Roger  Bacon  (1214-1294) 
and  Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280).  Roger 
Bacon,  who  was  acquainted  with  gun- 
powder, condemns  magic  necromancy, 
charms,  and  all  such  things,  but  believes 
in  the  convertibility  of  the  inf  eror  metals 
into  gold.  Still,  he  does  not  profess  to 
have  ever  effected  the  conversion.  Alber- 
tus Magnus  had  a  great  mastery  of  the 
practical  chemistry  of  his  times;  he 
was  acquainted  with  alum,  caustic  alkali, 
and  the  purification  of  the  royal  metals 
by  means  of  lead.  In  addition  to  the  sul- 
phur-and-mercury  theory  of  the  metals, 
dra^vn  from  Gebir,  he  regarded  the  ele- 
ment water  as  still  nearer  the  soul  of 
nature  than  either  of  these  bodies.  He  is 
the  first  to  speak  of  the  affinity  of  bodies, 
a  term  he  uses  in  reference  to  the  action 
of  sulphur  on  metals.  Thomas  Aquinas 
also  wrote  on  alchemy,  and  was  the  first 
to  employ  the  word  amalgam.  Raymond 
Lully  is  another  great  name  in  the  an- 
nals of  alchemy.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  use  of  chemical  symbols, 
his  system  consisting  of  a  scheme  of 
arbitrary  hieroglyphics.  He  wrote  more 
than  500  works  on  alchemy. 


Basil  Valentine  introduced  antimony 
into  medical  use.  He,  along  with  some 
previous  alchemists,  regarded  salt,  sul- 
phur, and  mercury  as  the  three  bodies 
contained  in  the  metals.  His  practical 
knowledge  was  great;  he  knew  how  to 
precipitate  iron  from  solution  by  potash, 
and  was  acquainted  with  many  similar 
processes,  so  that  he  is  ranked  as  the 
founder  of  analytical  chemistry. 

But  more  famous  than  all  was  Para- 
celsus, in  whom  alchemy  proper  may  be 
said  to  have  culminated.  He  held,  with 
Basil  Valentine,  that  the  elements  of 
compound  bodies  were  salt,  sulphur 
and  mercury — representing  respectively 
earth,  air,  and  water,  fire  being  already 
regarded  as  an  imponderable — but  these 
substances  were  in  his  system  purely 
representative.  All  kinds  of  matter  were 
reducible  under  one  or  other  of  these 
typical  forms;  everything  was  either  a 
salt,  a  sulphur,  or  a  mercury,  or,  like  the 
metals,  it  was  a  mixed  or  compound. 
There  was  one  element,  however,  com- 
mon to  the  four;  a  fifth  essence  or 
quintessence  of  creation;  an  unknown 
and  only  true  element,  of  which  the  four 
generic  principles  were  nothing  but  de- 
rivative forms  or  embodiments:  in  other 
words,  he  inculcated  the  dogma  that 
there  is  only  one  real  elementary  matter, 
nobody  knows  what.  This  one  prime 
element  of  things  he  appears  to  have 
considered  to  be  the  universal  solvent 
of  which  the  alchemists  were  in  quest, 
and  to  express  which  he  introduced  the 
term  alkahest. 

After  Paracelsus,  the  alchemists  of 
Europe  became  divided  into  two  classes. 
The  one  class  was  composed  of  men  of 
diligence  and  sense,  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  discovery  of  new  com- 
pounds and  reactions.  The  other  class 
took  up  the  visionary,  fantastical  side 
of  the  older  alchemy,  and  carried  it  to  a 
degree  of  extravagance  before  unknown. 
Instead  of  useful  work,  they  compiled 
mystical  trash  into  books,  and  fathered 
them  on  Hermes,  Aristotle,  Albertus 
Magnus,  Paracelsus,  and  other  really 
great  men.  These  visionaries  formed 
themselves  into  Rosicrucian  societies  and 
other  secret  associations. 

ALCIBIADES,  son  of  Clinias  and  Dei- 
nomache,  was  born  in  Athens  about 
450  B.  C.  He  lost  his  father  in  the 
battle  of  Coronea  (447),  so  was  brought 
up  in  the  house  of  his  kinsman  Pericles. 
His  friend  Socrates  was  unable  to  re- 
strain his  love  of  luxury  and  dissipation, 
which  found  ample  means  of  gratifica- 
tion in  the  wealth  that  accrued  to  him 
by  his  union  with  Hipparete.  He  first 
bore  arms  in  the  expedition  against  Po- 


ALCIBIADES 


99 


ALCOCK 


tidaea  (432),  where  his  life  was  saved 
by  Socrates — a  debt  which  eight  years 
later  he  repaid  at  Delium,  by  saving, 
in  his  turn,  the  life  of  the  philosopher. 
He  seems  to  have  taken  no  part  in 
political  matters  till  after  the  death  of 


ALCIBIADES 

the  demagogue  Cleon,  when  Nicias 
brought  about  a  50  years'  treaty  of 
peace  between  Athens  and  Lacedaemon. 
Alcibiades,  jealous  of  the  esteem  in 
which  Nicias  was  held,  persuaded  the 
Athenians  to  ally  themselves  with  the 
people  of  Argos,  Elds,  and  Mantinea 
(420).  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that, 
in  415,  they  engaged  in  the  Sicilian  ex- 
pedition, which  he  commanded,  along 
with  Nicias  and  Lanoachus.  But  while 
preparations  were  making,  one  night  all 
the  statues  of  Hermes  in  Athens  were 
mutilated.  Alcibiades'  enemies  threw  on 
him  the  blame  of  the  sacrilege,  but  post- 
poned the  impeachment  until  he  had  set 
sail,  when  they  stirred  up  the  people 
against  him  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was 
recalled  in  order  to  stand  his  trial.  On 
the  voyage  home,  he  landed  in  Italy, 
and  thence  crossed  to  Lacedaemon,  where 
he  soon  became  a  favorite.  He  induced 
the  Lacedaemonians  to  send  assistance  to 
Syracuse,  to  form  an  alliance  with 
Persia,  and  to  support  the  people  of 
Chios  in  their  eifort  to  throw  off  the 
Athenian  yoke.  He  went  thither  him- 
self, and  raised  all  Ionia  in  revolt.  But 
Agis,  and  other  leading  Spartans,  jeal- 
ous of  Alcibiades'  succeea,  ordered  their 

8 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


generals  in  Asia  to  have  him  assas- 
sinated. Discovering  the  plot,  he  fled  to 
Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap,  who  had 
orders  to  act  in  concert  with  the  Spar- 
tans. He  now  resumed  his  old  manners, 
adopted  the  luxurious  habit  of  Asia,  and 
made  himself  indispensable  to  Tissa- 
phernes, representing  to  him  that  it  was 
contrary  to  Persia's  interests  entirely  to 
disable  the  Athenians.  He  then  sent 
word  to  the  Athenian  commanders  at 
Samos  that  he  would  procure  for  them 
the  friendship  of  the  satrap  if 
they  would  establish  an  oligarchy  at 
Athens.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and 
the  supreme  power  vested  in  a  council 
of  four  hundred.  When  it  appeared, 
however,  that  this  council  had  no  inten- 
tion of  recalling  Alcibiades,  the  army  of 
Samos  chose  him  for  a  general,  desiring 
him  to  lead  them  to  Athens.  But  Alci- 
biades did  not  wish  to  return  to  his 
native  country  till  he  had  rendered  it 
some  service;  and  during  the  next  four 
years  he  defeated  the  Lacedaemonians  at 
Cynossema,  Abydos,  and  Cyzicus;  recov- 
ered Chalcedon  and  Byzantium,  and  re- 
stored to  the  Athenians  the  dominion  of 
the  sea.  He  then  returned  home  (407), 
on  a  formal  invitation,  and  was  received 
with  general  enthusiasm.  His  triumph, 
however,  was  brief.  He  was  sent  back 
to  Asia  with  a  hundred  ships;  but  his 
own  ill-success  against  Andros,  and  the 
defeat  of  his  lieutenant  at  Notium,  en- 
abled his  enemies  to  get  him  superseded 
(406).  He  went  into  exile  in  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus,  and  two  years 
later  crossed  over  to  Phrygia,  with  the 
intention  of  repairing  to  the  court  of 
Artaxerxes.  One  night,  in  404,  his  house 
was  fired  by  a  band  of  armed  men;  and, 
rushing  out  sword  in  hand,  he  fell 
pierced  with  a  shower  of  arrows. 

ALCID-ffi,  or  ALCADiE,  a  family  of 
birds  (natatores),  including  auks,  pen- 
guins, puf!ans,  and  guillemots.  They  are 
oceanic,  and  have  the  bill  compressed  and 
pointed.  Their  wings  are  adapted  for  an 
aquatic  life. 

ALCMAN,  one  of  the  earliest  and 
greatest  of  Greek  lyric  poets,  belonging 
to  the  7th  century  B.  C.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Lydia,  and  to 
have  been  taken  as  a  slave  to  Sparta. 
Only  small  fragments  of  his  odes  re- 
main. He  used  the  broad,  homely  Doric 
dialect.  His  poems  were  love  ditties, 
hymns,  paeans,   processional  chants,  etc. 

ALCOCK,  SIR  JOHN,  British  aviator, 
born  in  Manchester,  England,  in  1892. 
He  is  famous  as  having  been  the  first  air 
pilot  to  make  a  transatlantic  crossing 
in  a  non-stop  continuous  flight.      With 


ALCOHOL 


100 


ALCOTT 


one  companion,  Lieutenant  Arthur  W. 
Brown,  he  left  St.  Johns,  Newfound- 
land, at  1.43  a.  m.,  June  14,  1919,  in  a 
Vickers-Vimy  biplane  and  reached  Clif- 
den,  Ireland,  the  following  morning,  16 


CAPTAIN   SIR  JOHN  ALCOCK 

hours  and  12  minutes  from  the  time  he 
started.  The  distance  traveled  was 
1,960  miles.  The  journey  was  a  terrible 
one  through  fog  and  snow  and  ice,  the 
latter  having  at  times  to  be  chipped  off 
the  machine.  For  hours  they  saw  neither 
moon  nor  stars.  Their  machine  landed 
in  a  bog,  nose  down,  but  the  aviators, 
though  shaken  up,  were  not  injured. 
They  received  from  the  London  "Daily 
Mail"  the  prize  of  $50,000  that  had  been 
offered  for  the  first  who  should  make  the 
flight  and  later  were  knighted  by  the 
king.  Alcock  was  killed  by  his  airplane 
crashing  to  earth  while  flying  over  Nor- 
mandy, France,  Dec.  20,  1919. 

ALCOHOL,  a  colorless,  inflammable 
liquid,  of  agreeable  odor,  and  burning 
taste,  termed  also  spirit  of  wine,  and 
ethylic  or  vinic  alcohol. 

In  organic  chemistry,  alcohol  is  the 
name  given  to  a  class  of  compounds  dif- 
fering from  hydrocarbons  in  the  substi- 
tution of  one  or  more  hydrogen  atoms  by 
the  monatomic  radical  hydroxyl  (OH)'. 
Alcohols  are  divided  into  monatomic,  dia- 
tomic, triatomic,  etc.,  according  as  they 
contain  1,  2,  or  3  atoms  of  H  (hydrogen), 
each  replaced  by  (OH)'.  Alcohols  may 
also  be  regarded  as  water  in  which  one 
atom  of  H  is  replaced  by  a  hydrocarbon 


radical.  Alcohol  can  unite  with  certain 
salts,  as  alcohol  of  crystallization. 

Alcohol  is  said  to  be  primary,  second- 
ary, or  tertiary,  according  as  the  carbon 
atom  which  is  in  combination  with  hy- 
droxyl (OH)  is  likewise  directly  com- 
bined with  one,  two,  or  three  carbon 
atoms.  The  hydrocarbon  radicals  can 
also  have  their  carbon  atoms  linked  to- 
gether in  different  ways,  forming  iso- 
meric alcohols.  Primary  alcohols,  by  the 
action  of  oxidizing  agents,  yield  alde- 
hydes, then  acids;  secondary  alcohols,  by 
oxidation,  yield  ketones;  tertiary  alco- 
hols, by  oxidation,  yield  a  mixture  of 
acids.  Alcohols  derived  from  benzol,  or 
its  substitution  compounds,  are  called 
aromatic  alcohols;  they  contain  one  or 
more  benzol  rings. 

In  chemistry,  pure  ethyl  alcohol,  also 
called  absolute  alcohol,  is  obtained  by 
distilling  the  strongest  rectified  spirit  of 
wine  with  half  its  weight  of  quicklime. 
Alcohol  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  alkaloids, 
resins,  essential  oils,  several  salts,  etc. 
Alcohol  is  obtained  by  the  fermentation 
of  sugars,  when  a  solution  of  them  is 
mixed  with  yeast,  Mycoderma  cervisise, 
and  kept  at  a  temperature  between  25° 
and  30°,  till  it  ceases  to  give  off  COs 
(carbonic  acid  gas).  It  is  then  distilled. 
Proof  spirit  contains  49.5  per  cent,  of 
alcohol,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.9198  at  20°  C.  Methylated  spirit  con- 
tains 10  per  cent,  of  wood  spirit  in  alco- 
hol of  specific  gravity  0.830;  it  is  duty 
free,  and  can  be  used  instead  of  spirits 
of  wine  for  making  chloroform,  olefiant 
gas,  varnishes,  extracting  alkaloids,  and 
for  preserving  anatomical  preparations, 
etc.  Wines  contain  alcohol;  port  and 
sherry,  19  to  25  per  cent.;  claret  and 
hock  and  strong  ale,  about  10  per  cent.; 
brandy,  whisky,  gin,  etc.,  about  40  to  50 
per  cent. 

ALCOHOLISM,  a  morbid  condition 
resulting  from  the  excessive  and  per- 
sistent use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  It 
has  been  recognized  in  recent  years  as 
a  disease  and  has  been  so  treated. 

ALCOTT,  AMOS  BRONSON,  an  Amer- 
ican philosophical  writer  and  edu- 
cator, one  of  the  founders  of  the  trans- 
cendental school  of  philosophy  in  New 
England;  born  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Nov. 
29,  1799.  From  1834-1837  his  private 
school  in  Boston,  conducted  on  the  plan 
of  adapting  the  instruction  to  the  indi- 
viduality of  each  pupil,  attracted  atten- 
tion. He  was  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Channing, 
Thoreau,  Margaret  Fuller.  After  1840 
he  lived  in  Concord,  Mass.,  and  was  the 
projector  and  dean  of  the  Concord  School 
of  Philosophy.     Lectures  on  speculative 


ALCOTT 


101 


ALDEN 


and  practical  subjects  occupied  his  later 
years.  His  chief  works  are  "Orphic 
Sayings,"  contributed  to  the  "Dial" 
(1840);  "Tablets"  (1868);  "Concord 
Days"  (1872);  "Table-Talk"  (1877); 
"Sonnets  and  Canzonets"  (1882);  "Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  His  (Character  and 
Genius"  (1882);  "New  Connecticut" 
(1886).  He  died  in  Boston,  March  4, 
1888. 

ALCOTT,  LOUISA  MAY,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  daughter  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  Nov.  29,  1832; 
wrote  at  an  early  age,  "Little  Women" 
(1868),  "Little  Men"  (1871),  "Old- 
Fashioned  Girl,"  "Aunt  Jo's  Scrap-Bag," 
"Rose  in  Bloom,"  and  many  others  of 
like  character  and  popularity.  She  died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  6,  1888. 

ALCUIN  (alk'win),  an  English  eccle- 
siastic, bom  at  York  in  735.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Bede  and  of  Egbert,  whose 
librarian  he  became,  and  who  appointed 
him  director  of  the  school  of  York.  His 
reputation  reached  Charlemagne,  who 
called  him  to  France  in  782  to  aid  in 
his  designs  for  education  in  the  empire. 
Charlemagne  became  himself  a  pupil  of 
Alcuin.  Alcuin's  teaching  was  in  the 
seven  liberal  arts  of  that  time,  which 
include  music  and  astronomy;  and  to 
these  were  added  Biblical  exegesis.  Un- 
der his  influence  schools  were  estab- 
lished at  Lyons,  Orleans,  and  Tours. 
He  was  so  much  trusted  as  to  be  made 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  Frankfort 
(794).  where  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel, 
was  condemned  for  heresy.  Charle- 
magne loaded  Alcuin  with  riches,  and 
allowed  him  to  have  more  than  1,000 
slaves.  He  made  with  his  own  hand  a 
copy  of  the  Scripture,  which  he  pre- 
sented to  Charlemagne,  and  which  be- 
came of  great  assistance  to  later  edi- 
tors. His  importance  lies  not  so  much 
in  his  erudition  as  in  the  fact  that  he 
transplanted  the  wisdom  of  antiquity 
into  the  kingdom  of  Charlemagne,  and 
thus  into  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
Till  his  death  here  in  804,  he  still  cor- 
responded constantly  with  Charlemagne. 
His  works  comprise  poems,  woi'ks  on 
grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics,  theo- 
logical and  ethical  treatises,  lives  of 
several   saints,  and  over  200  letters. 

ALCYONIUM,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
polyps;  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
alcyonidse.  The  alcyonium  digitatum  is 
found  attached  to  stones,  mussel  shells, 
as  "dead  men's  fingers,"  "dead  men's 
toes,"  and  "cow's  paps."  These  names 
are  applied  to  the  alcyonium  from  its 
resemblance  to  finger-shaped  masses, 
each  of  which  masses  consists  of  a  col- 


ony of  several  hundred  polyps  united  to 
form  a  composite  organism.  They  are 
found  attached  to  stones,  mussel  shells, 
and  other  objects.  The  alcyonium  car- 
neum  abounds  on  the  shores  of  America 
N.  of  the  latitude  of  Cape  Cod. 

ALDEHYDES,  in  chemistry^  com- 
pounds formed  by  the  oxidation  of  alco- 
hols, and  are  reconverted  into  alcohols 
by  the  action  of  nascent  hydrogen;  by 
further  oxidation  they  are  converted 
into  acids.  They  differ  from  alcohols 
in  having  two  atoms  less  of  hydrogen, 
which  are  removed  from  the  carbon 
atom  containing  the  radical  HO'  (hy- 
droxyl)  connected  to  it  in  the  alcohol; 
thus  the  aldehyde  monatomic  radical  is 
(0=C — H)'.  Many  aldehydes  of  mona- 
tomic alcohols  have  been  prepared  by 
oxidation  of  the  alcohols,  or  by  distilling 
a  mixture  of  the  potassium  salt  of  the 
corresponding  acid  with  potassium  for- 
mate, which  yields  potassium  carbonate 
and  the  aldehyde.  Aldehydes  form 
crystalline  compounds  with  acid  sul- 
phites; they  also  unite  with  aniline. 
Ketones  are  aldehydes  in  which  the  atom 
of  hydrogen  united  to  the  radical  (CO)" 
is  replaced  by  a  hydrocarbon  radical. 

ALDEN,  HENRY  MILLS,  an  Ameri- 
can editor  and  prose  writer,  born  at 
Mount  Tabor,  Vt.,  Nov.  11,  1836.  He 
was  graduated  at  Williams  College  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary;  settled 
in  New  York  in  1861,  became  managing 
editor  of  "Harper's  Weekly"  in  1864, 
and  editor  of  "Harper's  Monthly  Mag- 
azine" in  1868.  He  published  "The  An- 
cient Lady  of  Sorrow,"  a  poem  (1872); 
"God  in  His  World"  (1890);  and  "A 
Study  of  Death"  (1895).  He  died  in 
1919. 

ALDEN,  JOHN,  a  magistrate  of  the 
Plymouth  colony,  bom  in  1599.  His 
name  is  familiarized  by  the  poem  of 
Longfellow,  "The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish."  He  was  originally  a  cooper 
of  Southampton,  was  employed  in  mak- 
ing repairs  on  the  ship  "Mayflower," 
and  came  over  in  her  with  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers.  He  was  for  over  50  years  a 
colonial  magistrate.     He  died  in  1687. 

ALDEN,  WILLIAM  LIVINGSTON, 
an  American  humorous  writer  and  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
Oct.  9,  1837.  He  introduced  the  sport 
of  canoeing  into  the  United  States.  He 
was  for  a  time  United  States  Consul- 
General  at  Rome.  Among  his  principal 
writings  are  "Domestic  Explosives" 
(1877);  "Shooting  Stars"  (1878); 
"Moral  Pirates"  (1880);  "The  Comic 
Liar"    (1882);    "A   New  Robinson   Cm- 


ALDENHOVEN 


102 


ALDINE  EDITIONS 


soe"  (1888),  etc;  London  correspondent 
"New  York  Times,"  1900.  He  died  Jan. 
14.  1908. 

ALDENHOVEN,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
Rhine  province;  12  miles  N.  E.  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  Here  the  French,  in  1793, 
under  Dumouriez,  were  defeated  by 
50,000  Austrians.  under  Prince  Josias 
of  Coburg,  and  were  prevented  from 
making  their  contemplated  invasion  of 
Holland.  In  1794  the  French  under 
Jourdon,  numbering  35,000.  conquered 
the  Austrians  under  Clerfayt. 

ALDER,  the  common  name  for  a 
genus  of  plants  (alnus),  of  the  order 
cujnliferse  (oak  family).  In  the  eastern 
United  States  it  is  a  very  common 
shrub.  On  the  W.  coast  it  often  attains 
a  height  of  from  40  to  60  feet  in  favor- 
able locations.  It  is  found  in  temperate 
and  cold  regions.  The  species  familiar 
in  England  has  a  wood  soft  and  light, 
but  very  durable  in  the  water,  and 
therefore  well  adapted  to  mill  work, 
sluices,  piles  of  bridges,  etc.  Its  bark 
and  shoots  are  used  for  dye,  and  its 
branches  for  the  charcoal  employed  in 
making  gunpowder. 

ALDERMAN,  a  title  pertaining  to  an 
office  in  the  municipal  corporations  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
In  early  Saxon  times  the  term  was 
indefinitely  applied,  and  was  generally 
given  to  a  person  possessed  of  an  office 
of  rank  or  dignity.  In  the  court  of  the 
corporation  of  London  the  aldermen 
have  legislative  and  judicial  authority, 
and  are  elected  for  life.  In  the  United 
States  the  powers  and  duties  of  alder- 
men differ  in  the  various  States  and 
cities.  As  a  rule  they  are  elected  by 
popular  vote  and  constitute  the  source 
of  municipal  legislation. 

ALDERMAN,  EDWIN  ANDERSON, 
an  American  educator,  born  in  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C,  May  15,  1861;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in 
1882;  was  superintendent  of  the  Gold- 
boro  city  schools  in  1884-1887;  Assist- 
ant State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction in  1889-1892;  Professor  of 
English  in  the  State  Normal  College  in 
1892;  and  Professor  of  Pedagogy  in  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  in  1892- 
1896.  In  the  last  year  he  was  chosen 
President  of  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  and  in  April,  1900,  was  elected 
President  of  Tulane  University  in  New 
Orleans.  He  was  chosen  President  of 
the  University  of  Virginia  in  1904.  His 
publications  include  "Life  of  William 
Cooper,"  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence;  "School  History  of  North 
Carolina";  "The  Growing  South";  etc. 


ALDERNEY  (French,  Aurigny;  Latin, 
Ridiina),  a  British  island  in  the  English 
channel,  55  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Portland 
Bill,  15  N.  E.  of  Guernsey,  31  N.  of 
Jersey,  and  10  W.  of  Cape  La  Hague. 
The  length  of  the  island  is  4^/1  miles;  its 
extreme  breath,  1^/^  miles;  and  its  area 
is  1,962  acres,  or  three  square  miles. 
The  highest  point  is  281  feet  above  sea- 
level.  To  the  S.  the  coast  is  bold  and 
lofty;  to  the  N.  it  descends,  forming  nu- 
merous small  bays.  The  Caskets  are  a 
small  cluster  of  dangerous  rocks,  6% 
miles  to  the  W.,  on  which  are  three 
lighthouses.  The  soil  in  the  center  of 
the  island  is  highly  productive;  and  the 
Alderney  cattle,  a  small  but  handsome 
breed,  have  always  been  celebrated.  The 
population  was  originally  French,  but 
half  the  inhabitants  now  speak  English, 
and  all  understand  it.  Protestantism 
has  prevailed  here  since  the  Reforma- 
tion. Alderney  '  is  a  dependency  of 
Guernsey,  and  subject  to  the  British 
crown.  The  civil  power  is  vested  in  a 
judge  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  six 
jurats  who  are  chosen  by  the  people. 
These,  with  12  popular  representatives 
or  douzeniers  (who  do  not  vote),  con- 
stitute the  local  legislature.  Pop.  about 
3,000. 

ALDINE  EDITIONS,  the  books  printed 
by  Aldus  Manutius  and  his  family,  in 
Venice  (1490-1597).  They  comprise  the 
first  editions  of  Greek  and  Roman  clas- 
sics; others  contain  corrected  texts  of 
modern  classic  writers,  as  of  Petrarch, 
Dante,  or  Boccaccio,  carefully  collated 
with  the  MSS.  All  of  them  are  distin- 
guished for  the  remarkable  correctness 
of  the  typography.  The  editions  pub- 
lished by  Aldo  Manuzio  (1450-1515), 
the  father,  form  an  epoch  in  the  annals 
of  printing.  No  one  had  ever  before 
used  such  beautiful  Greek  types,  of 
which  he  got  nine  different  kinds  made, 
and  of  Latin  as  many  as  14.  It  is  to 
him,  or  rather  to  the  engraver,  Fran- 
cesco of  Bologna,  that  we  owe  the  tjrpes 
called  by  the  Italians  Corsivi,  and 
known  to  us  as  italics,  which  he  used 
for  the  first  time  in  the  octavo  edition 
of  ancient  and  modern  classics,  com- 
mencing with  Vergil  (1501).  From 
1515  to  1533  the  business  was  carried 
on  by  his  father  and  brother-in-law, 
Andrea  Torresano  of  Asola,  and  his  two 
sons — the  three  Asolani.  Paolo  Manuzio 
(1512-1574),  Aldo's  son,  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  the  younger  Aldo  (1547- 
1597).  The  printing  establishment 
founded  by  Aldo  continued  in  active 
operation  for  100  years,  and  during  this 
time  printed  908  different  works.  The 
distinguishing  mark  is  an  anchor,  en- 
twined by  a  dolphin,  with  the  motto  either 


ALDBICH 


103 


ALEMANNI 


of  "Festina  lente"  or  of  "Sudavit  et 
alsit."  Among  the  Aldine  works  which 
have  now  become  very  rare  may  be 
mentioned  the  "Horas  Beatae  Marise 
Virginis,"  of  1497.  the  "Vergil"  of  1501, 
and  the  "Rhetores  Graeci,"  not  to  men- 
tion all  the  editions,  dated  and  undated, 
from  1490  to  1497. 

ALDBICH,  NELSON  WILMARTH, 
an  American  politician,  born  in  Foster, 
R.  I.,  in  1841.  His  early  life  was  spent 
in  business  and  he  became  a  partner  in 
a  wholesale  grocery  firm  in  Providence. 
He  early  showed  an  interest  in  and  ca- 
pacity for  politics  and  was  elected  to 
the  Rhode  Island  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1875.  Within  a  few  years  he 
was  the  chief  political  power  in  the  State. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1878,  but 
resigned  in  1881  to  enter  the  Senate, 
to  which  he  was  successfully  re-elected 
until  1911.  His  powerful  personality 
and  his  deep  knowledge  of  business  and 
economics  from  the  political  standpoint 
made  him  a  powerful  factor  in  the  Sen- 
ate, especially  in  relation  to  measures 
affecting  the  tariff.  He  was  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  McKinley  Bill  in  1890. 
Greatly  interested  in  financial  matters, 
he  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
Aldrich-Vreeland  Currency  Law.  At  the 
height  of  his  power  he  was  the  most 
dominant  figure  in  the  Senate.  At  the 
expiration  of  his  term  in  1911  he  de- 
clined renomination,  undoubtedly  fore- 
seeing the  conditions  that  were  about  to 
result  from  the  splitting  up  of  the  Re- 
publican party,  which  took  place  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  a  chief  au- 
thority on  banking  and  finance  and 
through  his  efforts  banking  laws  were 
greatly  improved.  After  his  retirement 
he  took  no  active  part  in  politics,  and 
died  on  April  16,  1915. 

ALDRICH,     THOMAS    BAILEY,    an 

American  poet,  essayist,  and  writer  of 
fiction,  born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Nov. 
11,  1836.  He  spent  his  early  youth  in 
Louisiana,  but  at  the  age  of  17  entered 
a  mercantile  house  in  New  York.  Re- 
moving to  Boston  in  1866,  he  became 
editor  of  "Every  Saturday,"  and,  in 
1881,  editor  of  the  "Atlantic  Monthly." 
He  has  become  almost  equally  eminent 
as  a  prose  writer  and  poet.  Among  his 
prose  works  the  best  known  are:  "The 
Story  of  a  Bad  Boy"  (1870)  ;  "Marjorie 
Daw  and  Other  People"  (1873)  ;  "Pru- 
dence Palfrey"  (1874);  "The  Queen  of 
Sheba,"  a  romance  of  travel  (1877); 
"The  Stillwater  Tragedy"  (1880).  Of 
his  poems,  most  are  included  in  "Com- 
plete Poems"  (1882)  and  "Household 
Edition"  (1895).  He  died  in  Boston, 
Mass..  March  19,  1907. 


ALDBICH  WILLIAM  SLEEPEB,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1863.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1883, 
and  in  the  following  year  received  a  de- 
gree in  engineering  from  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology.  After  teaching 
for  several  years  in  high  schools  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  staff  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  From  1893  to  1899 
he  was  professor  of  mechanical  engi- 
neering and  director  of  mechanical  arts 
at  West  Virginia  University.  From 
1899  to  1901  he  was  professor  and  head 
of  the  Department  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neering at  the  University  of  Illinois. 
From  1901  to  1911  he  was  director  of 
the  Thomas  S.  Clarkson  School  of  Tech- 
nology. He  was  a  member  of  many  sci- 
entific societies.  He  wrote  much  on 
building  construction  and  architecture 
and  manuals  for  electrical  engineering 
laboratories. 

ALE,  the  current  name  in  England  for 
malt  liquor  in  general  before  the  intro- 
duction of  "the  wicked  weed  called  hops" 
from  the  Netherlands,  about  the  year 
1524.  The  two  names,  ale  and  beer,  are 
both  Teutonic,  and  seem  originally  to 
have  been  synonymous.  In  the  eastern 
counties  of  England,  and  over  the 
greater  portion  of  the  country,  ale  means 
strong,  and  beer,  small,  malt  liquor; 
while  in  the  W.  country,  beer  is  the 
strong  liquor  and  ale  the  small.  The 
ales  of  Edinburgh,  Wrexham,  and  Alloa 
have  a  high  reputation.  Burton  ale  is 
the  strongest  made,  containing  as  much 
as  8  per  cent,  of  alcohol;  while  the  best 
brown  stout  has  about  6  per  cent,,  and 
table-beer  only  1  or  2  per  cent.  India 
pale  ale  differs  chiefly  in  having  a  larger 
quantity  of  hops. 

ALEMAN,  MATTEO  (a-Ia-man'),  a 
Spanish  novelist,  born  in  Seville  about 
1550.  For  some  time  an  oflicial  in  the 
royal  treasury,  he  resigned  or  was  dis- 
missed, and  about  1608  went  to  Mexico. 
His  fame  rests  on  the  satirical  romance, 
"The  Life  and  Deeds  of  the  Picaroon 
Gusman  de  Alfarache,"  one  of  the  most 
famous  representatives  of  the  "picar- 
esque" novel.  Its  first  part,  under  the 
title  of  "Watch-Tower  of  Human  Life," 
appeared  in  1599.  The  work  was  trans- 
lated into  every  European  language,  and, 
in  1623,  even  into  Latin.  He  died  in 
Mexico  after  1609. 

ALEMANNI  or  ALAMANNI,  a  con- 
federacy of  several  German  tribes  which, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  3d  century 
after  Christ,  lived  near  the  Roman  terri- 
tory, and  came  then  and  subsequently 
into    conflict    with   the    imperial    troops. 


ALEMBIC 


104 


ALEPPO 


Caracalla  first  fought  with  them  in  213, 
but  did  not  conquer  them;  Severus  was 
likewise  unsuccessful.  About  250  they 
began  to  cross  the  Rhine  westward,  and 
in  255  they  overran  Gaul  along  with  the 
Franks.  In  259  a  body  of  them  was  de- 
feated in  Italy  at  Milan,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  they  were  driven  out  of  Gaul 
by  Postumus.  In  the  4th  century  they 
crossed  the  Rhine  and  ravaged  Gaul,  but 
were  severely  defeated  by  the  Emperor 
Julian  and  driven  back.  Subsequently 
they  occupied  a  considerable  territory  on 
both  sides  of  the  Rhine;  but  at  last  Clovis 
broke  their  power  in  496  and  deprived 
them  of  a  large  portion  of  their  posses- 
sions. Part  of  their  territory  was  lat- 
terly formed  into  a  duchy  called  Ale- 
mannia  or  Suabia.  It  is  from  the 
Alemamni  that  the  French  have  derived 
their  names  for  Germans  and  Germany. 

ALEMBIC,  a  simple  apparatus  some- 
times used  by  chemists  for  distillation. 
The  body  contains  the  substance  to  be 
distilled,  and  is  like  a  bottle,  bulging 
below  and  narrowing  toward  the  top;  the 
head,  of  a  globular  form,  with  a  flat 
under-ring,  fits  onto  the  neck  of  the 
cucurbit,  condenses  the  vapor  from  the 
heated  liquid,  and  receives  the  distilled 
liquid  on  the  ring  inclosing  the  neck  of 
the  lower  vessel,  and  thus  causes  it  to 
find  egress  by  a  discharging  pipe  into 
the  third  section,  called  the  receiver. 

ALENCON  (al-an-s6n') ,  an  ancient 
countship' of  France;  united  to  the  crown 
in  1212  by  Philip  Augustus.  Later  it  be- 
came a  duchy,  dependent  on  the  house  of 
Valois.  Jean  IV.,  born  in  1409,  in  1417 
lost  the  duchy  to  the  King  of  England. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars 
against  England  and,  when  they  were 
driven    out,    received    his    duchy    back. 


received  his  freedom,  title,  and  estates 
back  from  Charles  VIII.,  and  died  Nov. 
1,  1492.  The  son  of  Rene,  Duke  Charles 
IV.,  born  in  1489,  married  Marguerite 
DE  Valois,  sister  of  Francis  I.  At  the 
battle  of  Pavia  he  was  commander  cf 
the  left  wing.  At  a  decisive  moment  he 
and  his  troops  took  to  flight  and  caused 
the  misfortune  of  the  day,  the  capture 
of  King  Francis  I.  He  died  April  11, 
1525,  and  with  him  perished  the  house 
of  Alengon.  His  wife.  Marguerite,  re- 
mained in  possession  of  the  duchy  until 
her  death  in  1549.  From  1549  to  1566 
Catherine  de  Medici  was  Duchesse 
d'Alen^on,  and  Charles  IX,  presented  it 
to  his  younger  brother,  Francis  of 
Anjou.  After  his  death  it  was  reunited 
to  the  crown.  Henry  IV.  transferred  the 
duchy  in  1595  to  the  Duke  of  Wiirttem- 
berg,  who  willed  it  in  1608  to  his  son, 
from  whom,  in  1612,  Marie  de  Medici  pur- 
chased it  back  for  the  crown.  The  title 
is  now  borne  by  a  grandson  of  Duke 
Philippe  de  Nemours.     See  Bourbon. 

ALENCON,  a  city  of  France,  and  cap- 
ital of  tfie  department  of  Orne,  on  the 
Sarthe.  Its  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
built  between  1553  and  1617,  is  in  the 
Gothic  style.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  was 
built  in  1783  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
castle  of  the  dukes  of  Alen^on,  two  of 
the  towers  of  which  are  still  preserved 
and  used  as  prisons.  There  are  manu- 
factories of  muslin,  linen,  leather,  and 
a  lace  called  point  d'Alen^on.  It  has  also 
a  lively  trade  in  horses.  During  the 
Fi'anco-Prussian  War  the  city  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Grand-Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg.    Pop.  about  17,500. 

ALEPPO,  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Asia, 
in  northern  Syria,  on  the  Koeik  river, 
71  miles  E.  of  the  Mediterranean.    The 


ALEPPO 


Twice   he   was    condemned   to    death    on    foundation  of  Aleppo  dates  back  to  about 


account  of  supposed  intrigues  in  favor 
of  England  against  Charles  VIII.  and 
Louis  XL,  but  was  pardoned,  and  died 
in  1476.  Ren^,  son  of  Jean  IV.,  aroused 
suspicion,  and  Louis  XL,  in  1481,  had 
him  confined  three  months  in  an  iron 
cage.     After  the  death  of  Louis  XI.  he 


2,000  years  B.  c.  Its  first  name  was 
Khaieb,  which  the  Greeks  called  Chlybon. 
After  the  fall  of  Palmyra,  it  became  of 
great  importance.  Seleucos  Nikator 
beautified  the  city  and  called  it  Beroyia, 
which  name  it  bore  till  its  conquest  by 
the  Arabs;  then  the  name  was  Haleb, 


ALESSANDKIA 


105 


ALEXANDER 


which  the  Italians  called  Aleppo.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Saracens  in  636;  was 
the  seat  of  a  Seljuk  sultanate  in  the 
11th  and  12th  centuries;  was  plundered 
by  Timur  in  1402;  in  the  15th  century 
became  the  great  emporium  of  trade  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia;  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  in  1517;  and  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1822,  when 
it  lost  two-thirds  of  its  250,000  inhabit- 
ants. The  present  inhabitants  are  Turks, 
Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews.  In  spite 
of  the  earthquakes  and  insurrections, 
which  devastated  the  city,  there  is  now 
a  great  trade  there.  The  chief  exports 
are  apples,  dyestuffs,  cotton,  tobacco, 
wheat,  nuts,  oil,  etc.  Pop.  about  250,000. 
It  was  occupied  by  British  forces  in 
1918. 

ALESSANDRIA,  city  and  capital  of 
the  province  of  Alessandria,  Italy;  on 
the  river  Tanaro.  It  was  built  in  1168 
for  protection  against  Emperor  Freder- 
ick I.  Its  original  name,  Caesarea,  was 
changed  to  Alessandria  in  honor  of  Pope 
Alexander  III.  It  was  taken  by  Sforza, 
Duke  of  Milan,  in  1522,  by  Prince  Eu- 
gene in  1707,  and  ceded  to  Savoy  in  1713 
by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht.  By  the  armi- 
stice of  Alessandria,  after  the  battle  of 
Marengo  (1800),  all  of  north  Italy  as 
far  as  the  Mincio  was  ceded  to  France. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Austrians  in  1821, 
and  became  the  headquarters  of  the  Pied- 
montese  in  the  insurrection  of  1848-1849. 
The  richly  decorated  cathedral  was  re- 
built in  1823.  Pop.  about  72,500.  The 
province  has  an  area  of  1,980  square 
miles.  Pop.  about  900,000.  A  consider- 
able trade  is  conducted  in  linen,  silk,  and 
woolen  stuffs,  hats,  and  artificial  flowers. 

ALEUTIAN  (a-lu'shi-an)  ISLANDS, 
or  CATHERINE  ARCHIPELAGO,  a 
group  of  about  150  islands,  extending  W. 
from  Alaska  peninsula  for  a  distance  of 
1,650  miles;  belongs  to  Alaska  Territory. 
The  principal  islands  are  Umnak  and 
Unalaska.  The  inhabitants  are  nearly 
all  Aleuts,  a  people  allied  to  the  Eskimos. 
These  islands  were  discovered  by  Bering 
in  1728.     Pop.  about  3,000. 

ALEWIFE,  a  North  American  fish 
(clupea  pseiuioharengus)he\ongmg  to  the 
same  family  as  the  herring  and  the  shad, 
and  closely  allied  to  them.  It  is  caught 
in  seines  with  the  shad,  in  large  quanti- 
ties, at  many  places  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  North  Carolina  to  Nova  Scotia, 
notably  in  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  har- 
bor of  St.  John,  N.  B.  The  name  is  given 
also  to  other  related  species  and  to  fish 
of  other  families,  as  the  round  pompano 
of  the  Bermudas  and  the  allice-shad  of 
England. 


ALEXANDER,  a  name  of  various 
ancient  writers,  philosophers,  etc.  (1) 
Alexander  of  ^gae;  a  peripatetic  philos- 
opher of  the  1st  century  A.  d.;  tutor  of 
Nero.  (2)  Alexander  the  .^Etolian;  a 
Greek  poet  who  lived  at  Alexandria 
about  285-247  B.  c.  (3)  Alexander  of 
Aphrodisias,  surnamed  Exegetes;  lived 
about  200  A.  D.;  a  learned  commentator 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle.  (4)  Alex- 
ander Cornelius,  surnamed  Polyhistor, 
of  the  1st  century  b.  c.  The  surname 
Polyhistor  was  given  him  on  account  of 
his  prodigious  learning,  (5)  A  Greek 
rhetorician  and  poet,  surnamed  Lych- 
nus;  lived  about  30  B.  c,  wrote  astro- 
nomical and  geographical  poems.  (6) 
Alexander  Numenius;  a  Greek  rhetori- 
cian and  teacher  of  elocution,  of  the  2d 
century  A.  D,  two  of  whose  works  are 
historically  known.  (7)  A  Greek  rhetori- 
cian of  the  2d  century  A.  d.,  surnamed 
Peloplaton,  who  vanquished  Herodes 
Atticus  in  a  rhetorical  contest.  (8) 
Alexander  Philalethes  ;  a  physician  of 
the  1st  century  b.  c.  who  succeeded 
Zeuxis  as  president  of  the  famous 
Herophilean  school  of  medicine.  (9) 
Saint  Alexander  (died  326  a.  d  ) ; 
the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  312  A. 
D.;  an  opponent  of  Arius;  member  of  the 
Council  of  Nice  (325  A.  D.  ) ;  commemo- 
rated in  the  calendar  Feb.  26.  (10) 
Alexander  of  Tralles;  an  eminent  phy- 
sician of  Lydia,  of  the  6th  century  A.  D.; 
author  of  two  extant  Greek  works. 

ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  eight 
Popes  (1)  Alexander  I.,  a  bishop  of 
Rome  about  109  A.  d.,  not  then  having 
the  title  of  Pope,  but  now  reckoned  in 
the  list.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
a  martyr's  death. 

2.  Alexander  II.,  Anselmo  Baggio,  a 
native  of  Milan;  he  lived  for  some  time 
at  the  court  of  Henry  III.,  and  in  1056 
or  1057  became  Bishop  of  Lucca.  In  1059 
he  became  papal  legate  at  Milan,  and, 
on  Oct.  1,  1061,  through  the  zeal  of  Hilde- 
brand,  he  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne. 

3.  Alexander  III.  (died  in  1181),  Ro- 
lando Ranuci;  Pope  1159-1181.  His  ca- 
reer is  historically  important  because  of 
his  vigorous  prosecution,  in  opposition  to 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  of  the  policies  be- 
gun by  Hildebrand.  Three  anti-Popes, 
Victor  IV.,  Pascal  III.  and  Calixtus  III., 
had  been  confirmed  in  succession  by  the 
emperor.  Alexander  succeeded,  and  after 
the  decisive  victory  at  Legnano  compelled 
Frederick's  submission.  The  papal  strug- 
gle was  carried  on  in  England  by  Thomas 
a  Becket,  ending  in  a  victory  for  Alex- 
ander. Important  changes  were  made  by 
Alexander  III.,  increasing  ecclesiastical 
powers  and  privileges. 


ALEXANDER 


106 


ALEXANDER 


4.  Alexander  IV.,  Pope  1254-1261; 
of  weak  character.  In  his  battle  with 
Manfred  of  Sicily,  he  suffered  bitter 
humiliations  and,  deserted  by  his  bish- 
ops, escaped  from  Rome.  He  died  in 
Viterbo,  in  1261.  .      ^ 

5.  Alexander  V.,  Pietro  Philargi,  of 
Candia.  He  was  for  some  time  professor 
in  Paris,  and  in  1402  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Milan,  and  in  1404  cardinal. 
In  1409,  after  the  deposition  of  the  rival 
Popes,  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII., 
he  was  elected  Pope  by  the  Council  of 
Pisa.    He  died  at  the  age  of  70. 

6.  Alexander  VI.,  Rodrigo  Lenzuoli 
Borgia,  a  Spaniard,  of  Valencia,  son  of 
Isabelle  Borgia,  whose  family  name  he 
took,  born  Jan.  1,  1431.  At  first  he 
studied  law,  and  then  was  appointed 
by  his  uncle.  Pope  Calixtus  III.,  a  cardinal 
before  he  was  25  years  old.  In  1458  he 
was  made  Archbishop  of  Valencia,  and 
as  such  he  led  a  dissipated  life.  He  was 
crowned  Aug.  26,  1492,  with  great  pomp 
and  solemnity.  His  daughter,  Lucretia 
Borgia,  was  married  to  Giovanni  Sforza, 
Lord  of  Pesaro,  afterward  to  Alfonso 
di  Biseglia,  then  thirdly  to  Alfonso 
d'Este,  Prince  of  Ferrara.  His  son,  Csesar, 
who  afterward  got  complete  control  pf 
him,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Valencia, 
and,  in  1493,  was  appointed  cardinal. 
Afterward,  in  order  to  create  for  him  a 
secular  principality,  he  made  an  alliance 
with  Louis  XII.  of  France.  Caesar  Borgia, 
therefore,  left  the  Church  and  became 
Duke  of  Valentinois.  In  1501  he  became 
Duke  of  the  Romagna.  On  May  4,  1493, 
Alexander  issued  a  bull  dividing  the  New 
World  between  Spain  and  Portugal;  on 
May  23,  1498,  the  execution  of  Savonarola 
took  place  by  his  order;  and  in  1501  he 
instituted  the  censorship  of  books.  Alex- 
ander died  Aug.   18,  1503,  from  poison. 

7.  Alexander  VII.,  Fabio  Chigi,  of 
Siena,  was,  during  the  treaties  of  peace 
at  Miinster  and  Osnabriick,  papal  nuncio 
in  Germany.  He  was  chosen  Pope  April 
7,  1665,  through  the  influence  of  France. 
During  his  rule  Rome  was  beautified  in 
many  directions,  especially  through  the 
colonnade  before  St.  Peters.  He  was  a 
poet  and  friend  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 

8.  Alexander  VIII.  (1610-1691), 
Pietro  Ottoboni,  of  Venice;  Pope  1689- 
1691;  assisted  Italy  in  wars  against  the 
Turks;  was  a  notable  nepotist. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  King  of  Greece,  born 
on  Aug.  1,  1893,  second  son  of  King 
Constantine  of  Greece.  Upon  the  abdi- 
cation of  the  latter,  which  was  forced 
by  the  Allies,  Alexander  ascended  the 
throne,  June  12,  1917.  He  declared  him- 
self the  guardian  of  the  Constitution  and 
made  it  clear  that  he  would  henceforth 


act  in  co-operation  with  the  Entente, 
Venizelos  was  made  Premier  on  June  27, 
1917.  Alexander  died  Oct.  25,  1920, 
from  the  effects  of  the  bite  of  a  monkey. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia 
was  born  Dec.  23,  1777.  In  1801  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  the  murdered  Emperor 
Paul.  Many  reforms  were  at  once  in- 
itiated as  to  education,  serfdom,  press 
censorship.  In  1805,  joining  the  coali- 
tion against  Napoleon,  he  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  where  the  allied 
armies  of  Austria  and  Russia  were  de- 
feated, and  retired  with  the  remains  of 
his  forces  into  Russia.  Next  year  he 
came  forward  as  the  ally  of  Prussia,  but 
in  1807,  after  the  battles  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland,  he  was  obliged  to  conclude 
the  Peace  of  Tilsit.  In  1808  he  declared 
war  on  England,  and,  attacking  her  ally 
Sweden,  wrested  therefrom  the  province 
of  Finland.  In  the  war  of  France 
against  Austria  in  1809  he  took  only  a 
lukewarm  part;  against  Turkey  he  re- 
newed hostilities,  which  were  continued 
till  the  Peace  of  Bucharest  in  1812.  The 
unnatural  alliance  of  Alexander  with 
France  could  not,  however,  be  main- 
tained; and  though  he  was  not  with  his 
troops  during  the  French  invasion  of 
Russia  (1812),  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  great  struggles  of  1813  and  1814.  At 
the  occupation  of  Paris  after  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon  in  1814,  he  was  the 
central  figure,  and  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  in  London.  At  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  he  laid  claim  to  Poland,  but 
promised  to  confer  on  it  a  constitution. 
On  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  Alex- 
ander urged  the  energetic  renewal  of 
the  war.  The  most  important  political 
outcome  of  this  period  was  the  Holy  Al- 
liance, founded  by  Alexander,  and  ac- 
cepted by  all  the  Christian  powers  of 
Europe,  except  Great  Britain.  Many 
causes  contributed  to  force  him  into  a  re- 
actionary course,  especially  the  influence 
of  Metternich.  He  died  at  Taganrog, 
Dec.  1,  1825. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  Emperor  of  Russia 
(1855-1881),  was  born  April  29,  1818. 
He  was  carefully  educated  by  his  father, 
Nicholas.  At  16  he  was  declared  of  age, 
made  commandant  of  the  lancers  of  the 
guard,  hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  first  aide- 
de-camp  of  the  Emperor,  and  subjected 
daily  to  a  life  of  manoeuvring,  review- 
ing, and  military  parade.  He  then  trav- 
eled through  Germany,  and  in  1841  con- 
cluded a  marriage  with  the  Princess 
Marie  (1824-1880),  daughter  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Hesse.  By  his  dexterous 
and  winning  manners  he  found  his  way 
to  the  hearts  of  the  Finns,  and  Aveak- 
ened  their  ancient  love  of  independence. 


ALEXANDER 


107 


ALEXANDER 


On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  March  2, 
1855,  he  found  himself  in  a  very  critical 
position.  He  had  two  parties  to  con- 
ciliate— the  old  Muscovite  party,  zealous 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  Crimean  War, 
and  the  more  peaceable  portion  of  the 
nation,  with  whom  he  sympathized.  By 
temporizing  he  was  enabled  to  conclude 
a  peace.  Throughout  his  reign  he  had  to 
hold  the  balance  between  conservatives 
and  extreme  radicals,  but  succeeded  in 
guiding  and  promoting  reform.  The 
grand  achievement  of  his  reign,  which 
wa.^  in  great  measure  his  own  deed,  was 
the  emancipation  of  the  serfs — 23,000,- 
000  souls — in  1861.  Reforms  of  the  tri- 
bunals, of  civil  and  criminal  procedure, 
and  of  municipal  institutions  followed. 
He  resisted  strenuously  all  foreign  in- 
terference with  Polish  affairs  during  the 
insurrection  of  1863,  which  was  sup- 
pressed with  great  severity.  During  his 
reign  the  Russian  empire  was  widely  ex- 
tended in  two  important  regions — in  the 
Caucasus  and  in  Central  Asia.  During 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-1871 
Alexander  maintained  a  sympathetic  at- 
titude toward  Germany.  The  Emperor 
shared  the  national  sympathy  with  the 
Slavic  races  under  Turkish  rule,  and 
took  the  field  with  the  army  during  the 
momentous  war  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key in  1877-1878.  But  the  most  remark- 
able feature  of  the  second  half  of  his 
reign  was  the  struggle  of  the  Russian 
autocracy  with  the  revolutionary  party, 
the  so-called  Nihilists.  His  government 
repressed  the  revolutionists  most  se- 
verely, and  they  sought  vengeance  by 
attacking  the  person  of  the  Emperor  and 
his  officers.  Repeated  attempts  were 
made  to  assassinate  Alexander.  On 
March  13,  1881,  he  was  so  severely  in- 
jured by  a  bomb  thrown  at  him  near  his 
palace  that  he  died  a  few  hours  after. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  of  Russia,  son  of 
Alexander  II.,  was  born  March  10,  1845, 
and  married  the  daughter  of  the  King 
of  Denmark  in  1866.  After  his  father's 
death,  through  fear  of  assassination,  he 
shut  himself  up  in  his  palace  at  Gat- 
china.  His  coronation  was  postponed 
till  1883.  Through  the  fall  of  Merv,  the 
subjugation  of  the  Turkomans  in  Central 
Asia  was  completed.  In  European  af- 
fairs, he  broke  away  from  the  triple  alli- 
ance between  Russia,  Germany,  and  Aus- 
tria, and  looked  rather  to  France.  His 
home  policy  was  reactionary,  though 
strong  efforts  were  made  to  prevent  mal- 
versation by  officials,  and  stern  econo- 
mies were  practiced.  The  liberties  of  the 
Baltic  provinces  and  of  Finland  were 
curtailed,  the  Jews  were  oppressed,  and 
old  Russian  orthodoxy  was  favored.    Sev- 


eral Nihilist  attempts  were  made  on  his 
life,  and  he  kept  himself  practically  a 
prisoner  in  his  palace.  He  died  at  Liva- 
dia,  Nov.  1,  1894. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  King  of  Scotland, 
the  fourth  son  of  Malcolm  Canmore, 
was  born  about  1078,  and  in  1107  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Edgar,  only,  however, 
to  that  part  of  the  kingdom  N.  of  the 
Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde.  He  married 
Sibylla,  a  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I. 
of  England,  and  his  reign  was  compara- 
tively untroubled.  His  determined  re- 
sistance to  the  claims  of  York  and  Can- 
terbury to  supremacy  over  the  see  of 
St.  Andrews  did  much  to  secure  the  inde- 
pendence, not  only  of  the  Scottish 
Church,  but  of  Scotland  itself.  He  died 
at  Stirling  in  1124. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  born  at  Hadding- 
ton in  1198,  succeeded  his  father,  William 
the  Lion,  in  1214.  He  early  displayed 
wisdom  and  strength  of  character.  His 
entering  into  a  league  with  the  English 
barons  against  King  John  di'ew  down 
upon  him  and  his  kingdom  the  papal  ex- 
communication;  but  two  years  later  the 
ban  was  removed.  On  Henry  III.'s  ac- 
cession to  the  English  throne,  Alexander 
brought  the  feuds  of  the  two  nations  to 
a  temporary  close  by  a  treaty  of  peace 
(1217),  in  accordance  with  which  he 
married  Henry's  eldest  sister,  the  Prin- 
cess Joan  (1221).  The  alliance  thus  es- 
tablished was  broken  after  her  death 
without  issue  (1238),  and  the  second 
marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  noble  of  France.  In  1244  Henry 
marched  against  Scotland,  to  compel 
Alexander's  homage;  but  a  peace  was 
concluded  without  an  appeal  to  arms. 
In  1249,  while  engaged  in  an  expedition  to 
wrest  the  Hebrides  from  Norway,  Alex- 
ander died  of  fever  on  Kerrera,near  Oban. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  King  of  Scotland, 
born  in  1241,  in  1249  succeeded  his 
father,  Alexander  II.,  and  in  1251  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Margaret  (1240-1275), 
eldest  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  Eng- 
land.' Very  shortly  after  he  had  come 
of  age  he  was  called  to  defend  his  king- 
dom against  the  invasion  of  Haco,  King 
of  Norway  (1263),  whose  utter  rout  at 
Largs  secured  to  Alexander  the  allegi- 
ance both  of  the  Hebrides  and  of  the 
Isle  of  Man.  The  alliance  between  Scot- 
land and  Norway  was  strengthened  in 
1282  by  King  Eric's  marriage  to  Alex- 
ander's only  daughter,  Margaret  (1261- 
1283).  His  only  surviving  son  died  with- 
out issue  in  1284;  and  next  year  Alexan- 
der contracted  a  second  marriage  with 
Joleta,  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Dreux. 
The  hopes  of  the  nation  were  soon  after 
clouded  by  his  untimely  death  in  1286. 


ALEXANDEB 


108 


ALEXANDER  SEVERUS 


ALEXANDER  I.,  King  of  Serbia, 
born  Aug.  14,  1876;  son  of  King  Milan  I. 
In  1899  Milan  abdicated  and  proclaimed 
Alexander  king,  under  a  regency  till  he 
should  attain  his  majority  (18  years). 
On  April  13,  1893,  when  in  his  17th 
year,  Alexander  suddenly  took  the  royal 
authority  into  his  own  hands,  and  sum- 
marily dismissed  the  regent.  On  Aug.  5, 
1900,  he  married  Mme.  Draga  Maschin. 
On  the  night  of  June  10,  1905,  military 
conspirators  invaded  the  royal  palace  and 
the  king  and  queen  were  killed. 

ALEXANDER  ARCHIPELAGO,  or 
ALEXANDER  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
islands  on  the  W.  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, extending  from  54°  40'  N.  to  58°  25' 
N.;  belonging  to  Alaska  Territory.  The 
principal  islands  are  Chichagof  and 
Prince  of  Wales. 

ALEXANDER,  BOYD,  an  English 
naturalist  and  explorer,  born  in  1873. 
He  was  educated  at  Radley  College.  He 
enlisted  in  the  army  and  later  served 
with  the  Gold  Coast  Constabulary.  His 
chief  interest  was  in  exploration,  and 
he  made  many  journeys  to  many  parts 
of  the  world,  especially  to  less  known 
regions  of  Africa.  In  190^  he  explored 
several  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and 
made  a  special  study  of  the  volcanic 
mountains  in  the  Kameroon.  He  studied 
and  described  many  new  species  of  birds. 
He  made  the  first  ascent  of  Mount  St. 
Isabel.  The  Royal  Geographical  Society 
of  Antwerp  awarded  him  a  gold  medal 
in  1907,  and  he  received  also  gold  medals 
from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of 
London  in  1908.  He  was  murdered  by 
natives  in  May,  1910,  while  carrying  on 
explorations  in  the  French  Congo.  He 
wrote  much  on  scientific  subjects  and 
also  "From  the  Najar  to  the  Nile"  (1907). 

ALEXANDER,  MRS.  CECIL  FRAN- 
CES (HUMPHREY),  an  Irish  poet,  born 
in  County  Wicklow  in  1818.  She  is  best 
known  as  a  writer  of  hymns  and  re- 
ligious poems.  Among  the  most  noted 
are  the  hymns  "Roseate  Hue  of  Early 
Dawn"  and  "All  Things  Bright  and  Beau- 
tiful." Her  most  famous  poem  is  "The 
Burial  of  Moses."  She  died  in  London- 
derry, Oct.  12,  1895. 

ALEXANDER,     SIR     GEORGE,     an 

English  actor  and  manager,  born  at 
Reading,  England,  in  1858,  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  public  schools  at  Stirling 
and  Edinburgh.  In  1881  he  joined  Henry 
Irving's  company  at  the  Lyceum  Thea- 
ter, where  he  exhibited  unusual  talent 
and  won  pronounced  success.  He  accom- 
panied Irving  to  the  United  States  in 
1884.     Later  he  managed  several  of  the 


most  important  theaters  in  London,  and 
he  was  said  to  have  produced  more  origi- 
nal plays  by  English  authors  than  any 
other  manager.  He  was  especially  nota- 
ble in  Shakespearean  plays.  He  was 
president  of  the  Royal  General  Theat- 
rical Fund. 

ALEXANDER,     JOHN    WHITE,     an 

American  artist,  born  in  Allegheny  City, 
Pa.,  in  1856.  He  early  showed  great 
talent  in  drawing,  and  at  the  age  of  18 
became  an  apprentice  in  the  art  depart- 
ment of  "Harper's  Weekly."  After  sev- 
eral years  he  went  to  Munich  to  study 
there  as  well  as  in  other  European  cities 
for  several  years.  He  returned  to  New 
York  in  1881,  and  at  once  achieved  great 
success  in  portrait  painting.  He  exhib- 
ited in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1893  and  made 
a  brilliant  success.  He  spent  part  of  his 
time  in  Paris  and  part  in  New  York. 
In  1901  he  was  created  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1902  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, of  which  he  was  president  from 
1909  until  his  death.  A  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters, 
he  was  awarded  honorary  degrees  by 
Princeton  and  other  universities,  and  re- 
ceived gold  medals  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion and  at  the  World's  Fair  in  St.  Louis. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  talented  modern 
painters  and  exercised  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  art  in  the  United 
States.    He  died  in  1915. 

ALEXANDER,  MRS.,  pseudonym  of 
Annie  Hector,  an  Irish  novelist,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1825.  She  was  a  prolific  and 
popular  novelist.  Her  books  include 
"The  Wooing  O't"  (1873)  ;  "Ralph  Wil- 
ton's Weird"  (1875) ;  "Her  Dearest  Foe" 
(1876) ;  "The  Freres"  (1882) ;  "A  Golden 
Autumn"  (1897) ;  "A  Winning  Hazard" 
(1897).     She  died  in  1902. 

ALEXANDER  SEVERUS,  a  Roman 
emperor,  born  in  205  A.  D.;  was  the  cousin 
and  adopted  son  of  Heliogabalus,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  222.  He  sought  the  soci- 
ety of  the  learned;  Paulus  and  Ulpianus 
were  his  counselors;  Plato  and  Cicero 
were,  next  to  Horace  and  Vergil,  his  fa- 
vorite authors.  Although  a  pagan,  he 
reverenced  the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
Beloved  as  he  was  by  the  citizens  on 
account  of  his  equity,  he  soon  became  an 
object  of  hatred  to  the  unruly  praetorian 
guards.  His  first  expedition  (231-233) 
against  Artaxerxes,  King  of  Persia,  was 
terminated  by  a  speedy  overthrow  of  the 
enemy;  but  during  one  which  he  under- 
took in  234  against  the  Germans  on  the 
Rhine  an  insurrection  broke  out  among 
his  troops,  headed  by  Maximus,  in  which 
Alexander  was  murdered  (235). 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 


109 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALEXANDER  THE   GREAT,   son  of 

Philip  of  Macedon  and  Olympias,  daugh- 
ter of  Neoptolemus  of  Epirus,  was  born 
at  Pella,  356  B.  c.  His  mind  was  formed 
chiefly  by  Aristotle,  Alexander  was  16 
years  of  age  when  his  father  marched 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 

against  Byzantium,  and  left  the  govern- 
ment in  his  hands  during  his  absence. 
Two  years  afterward  he  displayed  singu- 
lar courage  at  the  battle  of  Chjeronea 
(338  B.  c.) ,  where  he  overthrew  the 
Sacred  Band  of  the  Thebans.  The  father 
and  son  quarreled,  however,  when  the 
former  divorced  Oljrmpias.  Alexander 
took  part  with  his  mother,  and  fled  to 
Epirus,  to  escape  his  father's  vengeance; 
but,  receiving  his  pardon  soon  afterward, 
he  returned,  and  accompanied  him  in  an 
expedition  against  the  Triballi,  when  he 
saved  his  life  on  the  field.  Philip,  being 
appointed  generalissimo  of  the  Greeks, 
was  preparing  for  a  war  with  Persia 
when  he  was  assassinated  (336  B.  c), 
and  Alexander,  not  yet  20  years  of  age, 
ascended  the  throne.  After  punishing 
his  father's  murderers,  he  marched  to 
Corinth  and  obtained  command  of  the 
forces  against  Persia.  On  his  return  to 
Macedon,  he  found  the  Illyrians  and 
Triballi  up  in  arms,  whereupon  he  forced 
his  way  through  Thrace,  and  was  every- 
where victorious.  But  now  the  Thebans 
had  been  induced,  by  a  report  of  his 
death,  to  take  up  arms,  and  the  Athe- 
nians, stimulated  by  the  eloquence  of 
Demosthenes,  were  preparing  to  join 
them.  To  prevent  this  coalition,  Alex- 
ander rapidly  marched  against   Thebes, 


which,  refusing  to  surrender,  was  con- 
quered and  razed  to  the  ground.  Six 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain, 
and  30,000  sold  into  slavery.  This  sever- 
ity struck  terror  into  all  Greece. 

Alexander  now  prepared  to  prosecute 
the  war  with  Persia.  He  crossed  the 
Hellespont  in  the  spring  of  334  B.  c,  with 
30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse,  attacked  the 
Persian  satraps  at  the  river  Granicus, 
and  gained  a  victory,  overthrowing  the 
son-in-law  of  Darius  with  his  own  lance. 
Halicarnassus  was  vigorously  defended 
by  Memnon,  the  Persian  leader,  but  was 
taken.  He  marched  through  Gor- 
dium,  where  he  cut  the  famous  Gordian 
Knot,  defeated  a  vast  army  of  Persians 
and  Greek  mercenaries  at  Issus,  captur- 
ing the  family  of  Darius;  reduced  the 
cities  of  Phoenicia,  and  pressed  on  into 
Egypt.  Here  he  founded  Alexandria 
(331). 

Such  marvelous  success  dazzled  his 
judgment  and  inflamed  his  passions.  He 
became  a  slave  to  debauchery,  and  at  the 
instigation  of  Thais,  an  Athenian  cour- 
tesan, he  set  fire  to  Persepolis,  the  won- 
der of  the  world,  and  reduced  it  to  a 
heap  of  ashes.  In  329  he  overthrew  the 
Scythians  on  the  banks  of  the  Jaxartes; 
and  next  year  he  subdued  the  whole  of 
Sogdiana,  and  married  Roxana,  whom  he 
had  taken  prisoner.  In  326  B.  c,  pro- 
ceeding to  the  conquest  of  India,  Alex- 
ander crossed  the  Indus  and  pursued  his 
way  to  the  Hydaspes  (Jhelum).  He 
there  was  opposed  by  Porus,  a  native 
prince,  whom  he  overthrew  after  a  bloody 
contest,  and  there  he  lost  his  charger 
Bucephalus.  Thence  he  marched  as  lord 
of  the  country  through  the  Punjab,  es- 
tablishing Greek  colonies.  Of  all  the 
troops  which  had  set  out  with  Alexander, 
little  more  than  a  fourth  part  arrived 
with  him  in  Persia  (325  B.  c).  At  Susa 
he  married  Stateira,  the  daughter  of 
Darius. 

At  Babylon  he  was  busy  with  gigantic 
plans  for  the  future,  both  of  conquest 
and  civilization,  when  he  was  suddenly 
taken  ill  after  a  banquet,  and  died  in 
323  B.  c. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  city  of  Egypt, 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  331 
B.  C.  Before  the  city,  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, lay  an  island,  up  on  the  N.  E. 
point  of  which  stood  the  famous  light- 
house, the  Pharos,  built  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  I.,  in  the  3d  century  B.  c.  and 
said  to  have  been  400  feet  high.  The 
plan  of  Alexandria  was  designed  by  the 
architect  Deinocrates,  and  its  original 
extent  is  said  to  have  been  about  4 
miles  in  length,  with  a  circumference 
of  15  miles.     It  was  intersected  by  two 


ALEZANDBIA 


110 


ALEXANDBIAN   CODEX 


straight  main  streets,  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles  in  a  large  square, 
and  adorned  with  handsome  houses, 
temples,  and  public  buildings.  The  most 
magnificent  quarter  of  the  city  was 
that  called  the  Brucheion,  which  ran 
from  the  center  to  the  eastern  harbor. 
This  quarter  of  the  city  contained  the 
palaces  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  Museum, 
for  centuries  the  focus  of  the  intellec- 
tual life  of  the  world,  and  the  famous 
library;  the  mausoleum  of  Alexander 
the  Great  and  of  the  Ptolemies  the  tem- 
ple of  Poseidon,  and  the  great  theater. 
To  the  S.  was  the  beautiful  gymnasium. 
The  Serapeum,  or  temple  of  Serapis, 
stood  in  the  western  division  of  the  city, 
which  formed  the  Egyptian  quarter,  and 
was  called  Rhacotis;  a  small  town  of 
that  name  had  occupied  the  site  before 
the  foundation  of  Alexandria.  To  the 
W.  of  the  city  lay  the  great  Necropolis, 
and  to  the  E.  the  race-course  and  sub- 
urbs of  Nicopolis.  From  the  time  of  its 
foundation,  Alexandria  was  the  Greek 
capital  of  Egypt.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  Alexandria  be- 
came the  residence  of  the  Ptolemies. 
They  made  it,  next  to  Rome  and  An- 
tioch,  the  most  magnificent  city  of  an- 
tiquity, as  well  as  the  chief  seat  of 
Greek  learning  and  literature. 

Alexandria  had  reached  its  greatest 
splendor  when,  on  the  death  of  Cleo- 
patra, the  last  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  30 
B.  c,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Romans.  In  the  reign  of  Caracalla, 
however,  it  suffered  severely;  and  the 
rise  of  Constantinople  promoted  the 
decay  of  Alexandria.  Christianity  was 
introduced,  according  to  tradition,  by 
St.  Mark.  In  the  2d  century  its  ad- 
herents were  very  numerous.  The 
Serapeum,  the  last  seat  of  heathen  theo- 
logy and  learning,  was  stormed  by  the 
Christians  in  389  A.  D.,  and  converted 
into  a  Christian  church.  Alexandria  was 
a  chief  seat  of  Christian  theology  till  it 
was  taken  by  the  Arabs,  under  Amru, 
in  641,  at  which  time  it  was  much 
injured.  The  choice  of  Cairo  as  capital 
of  the  Egyptian  caliphs  hastened  the 
now  rapid  decay  of  the  city,  and  when, 
in  1517,  the  Turks  took  the  place,  the 
remains  of  its  former  splendor  wholly 
vanished,  walls  and  buildings  being  re- 
duced to  ruins.  Under  Mehemet  Ali, 
however,  the  tide  turned,  and  the  city 
recovered  rapidly.  It  is  now  again  one 
of  the  most  important  commercial 
places  on  the  Mediterranean.  In  1882, 
during  the  rising  of  Arabi  Pasha,  seri- 
ous damage  was  done  to  the  city.  The 
Europeans  were  maltreated;  and  as 
Arabi  would  not  desist  from  strengthen- 
ing the  fortifications,  an  English  fleet. 


in  the  interests  of  the  Khedive,  bom- 
barded the  forts  of  Alexandria,  and 
British  forces  occupied  the  city. 

The  present  city  (called  Skanderieh 
by  the  Arabs)  is  not  situated  exactly  on 
the  site  of  the  old  one,  but  is  chiefly 
built  on  the  mole.  The  ever  increasing 
Frankish  quarters  have  quite  a  Euro- 
pean appearance,  and  swarm  with  cafes 
shops,  theaters,  and  the  like.  The  castle 
stands  near  the  old  Pharos,  and  the 
handsome  new  lighthouse  has  a  revolv- 
ing light,  visible  at  a  distance  of  20 
miles. 

Of  the  few  remaining  objects  of  an- 
tiquity the  most  prominent  is  Pompey's 
Pillar,  as  it  is  erroneously  called.  Pop. 
about  450,000. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  city  of  Louisana, 
the  county-seat  of  Rapides  parish,  about 
192  miles  N.  W.  of  New  Orleans.  It  is 
on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific, 
the  Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern,  and 
other  railroads.  It  is  also  on  the  Red 
river.  The  city  is  the  center  of  impor- 
tant commercial  and  industrial  interests, 
has  manufactures  of  cotton,  cottonseed 
oil,  sugar,  molasses,  and  lumber,  and  is 
also  important  as  an  agricultural  center, 
producing  corn,  rice,  fruit,  and  vege- 
tables. The  city  has  a  handsome  Govern- 
ment building,  public  library.  Elks' 
Home,  and  an  opera  house.  Pop.  (1910) 
11,213;    (1920)   17,510. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Alexandria  co.,  Va. ; 
on  the  Potomac  river,  the  Pennsylvania 
and  Southern  railroads  and  trolley  line 
connecting  with  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
Mt.  Vernon;  6  miles  S.  of  Washington. 
The  river  here  expands  to  the  width  of  a 
mile,  and  gives  the  city  an  excellent  har- 
bor that  will  accommodate  the  largest 
ships.  The  city  is  an  important  trade 
center;  has  manufactures  aggregating 
$20,000,000  in  value  annually;  and  is 
noted  for  its  educational  institutions, 
which  include  Washington  High  School, 
Potomac,  Mt.  Vernon  and  St.  Mary's 
Academies,  and,  near  by,  the  Theological 
Seminary  and  High  School  of  the  Diocese 
of  Virginia  (Protestant  Episcopal). 
There  are  two  National  banks,  public 
school  property  valued  at  $35,000,  and 
daily  and  weekly  periodicals.  General 
Braddock  made  his  headquarters  here  in 
1755,  and  Colonel  Ellsworth  was  shot  in 
the  Marshall  House,  while  removing  a 
Confederate  flag,  in  1861.  Pop.  (1910) 
15,329;    (1920)   18,060. 

ALEXANDRIAN  CODEX,  an  impor- 
tant manuscript  of  the  sacred  Scriptures 
in  Greek,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It 
is  written  on  parchment  in  finely  formed 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY 


111 


ALFIERI 


uncial  letters,  and  is  without  accents, 
marks  of  aspiration,  or  spaces  between 
the  words.  Its  probable  date  is  the  mid- 
dle of  the  5th  century.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  gaps,  it  contains  the  whole 
Bible  in  Greek  (the  Old  Testament  being 
in  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint), 
along  with  the  epistles  of  Clemens  Ro- 
manus,  of  whose  genuine  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  it  is  the  only  manuscript  ex- 
tant. This  celebrated  manuscript  be- 
longed, as  early  as  1098,  to  the  library  of 
the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  In  1628  it 
was  sent  as  a  present  to  Charles  I.  of 
England,  by  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople. 

ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY,  a  re- 
markable collection  of  books,  the  largest 
of  the  ancient  world,  was  founded  by  the 
first  Ptolemy,  and  fostered  by  his  son. 
It  quickly  grew,  and  already  in  the  time 
of  the  first  Ptolemy,  Demetrius  Phale- 
reus  had  50,000  volumes  or  rolls  under 
his  care.  During  its  most  flourishing 
period,  under  the  direction  of  Zenodotus, 
Aristarchus  of  Byzantium,  Callimachus, 
Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  others,  it  is  said 
to  have  contained  490,000,  or,  according 
to  another  authority,  including  all  dupli- 
cates, as  many  as  700,000  volumes.  Dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Alexandria  by  Julius 
Caesar,  this  part  of  the  library  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire;  but  it  was  afterward  re- 
placed by  the  collection  of  Pergamos, 
which  was  presented  to  Cleopatra  by 
Mark  Antony.  When  Theodosius  the 
Great  permitted  all  the  heathen  temples 
in  the  Roman  empire  to  be  destroyed,  a 
mob  of  Christians  wrecked  the  temple 
containing  the  library  (391  A.  D.).  In  641 
Arabs  under  the  Caliph  Omar  completed 
the  destruction  of  the  library  treasures. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL,  the  com- 
mon designation  of  a  series  of  scientific 
endeavors  which  were  founded  and  en- 
couraged through  the  generosity  of  the 
Ptolemies,  and  which  had  their  seat  in 
Alexandria  and  continued  for  more  than 
700  years,  from  300  B.  C.  to  500  A.  D.  The 
basis  of  these  schools  was  the  Museion 
(museum)  where  the  scientists  lived  and 
taught  as  pensioners  at  the  public  cost. 
For  the  use  of  these  learned  men  two 
libraries  were  founded  by  the  Ptolemies. 
See  Alexandrian  Library. 

ALEXANDROPOL  (formerly  Gumri), 
an  important  fortress  and  the  largest 
town  in  the  Erivan  district  of  Russian 
Armenia.  It  lies  on  a  treeless  plateau 
on  the  road  from  Erivan  to  Kara.  The 
stronghold  gives  the  Russians  complete 
command  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  silk  trade  is  actively  car- 
ried on  in  the  town.   Pop.  about  40,000. 


ALEXIUS  COMNENUS,  one  of  the 
ablest  rulers  of  the  Bjrzantine  empire, 
was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1048. 
He  was  the  nephew  of  the  Emperor  Isaac 
Comnenus,  on  whose  abdication,  in  1059, 
his  own  father  refused  the  purple;  and 
Alexius  was,  in  1081,  elevated  by  his  sol- 
diers to  the  throne.  Everywhere  he  was 
encompassed  with  foes.  The  Scythians 
and  Turks  were  pouring  down  from  the 
N.  and  N.  E.;  the  fierce  Normans,  who 
had  effected  a  lodgment  in  Sicily  and 
Italy,  were  menacing  his  western  prov- 
inces; and,  in  1096,  the  myriad  warriors 
of  the  first  crusade  burst  into  his  empire 
on  their  way  to  Palestine,  and  encamped 
around  the  gates  of  his  capital.  Yet  he 
contrived  to  avoid  all  perils  by  the  wis- 
dom of  his  policy,  the  mingled  patience 
and  promptitude  of  his  character,  his 
discipline  in  the  camp,  and  his  humanity 
on  the  throne.    He  died  in  1118. 

ALEY,  ROBERT  JUDSON,  American 
scientist  and  educator,  born  in  Coal  City, 
Ind.,  in  1863.  After  graduating  from  In- 
diana University  in  1888,  he  took  post- 
graduate studies  at  Leland  Stanford  Jr. 
University  and  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, taught  in  the  common  and  high 
schools,  and  was  appointed  director  of 
mathematics  in  Indiana  University  in 
1887.  He  remained  in  this  position  until 
1909,  when  he  was  appointed  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  and  in  the 
following  year  was  appointed  president 
of  the  University  of  Maine.  Editor  of 
several  educational  journals  and  a  mem- 
ber of  many  learned  and  scientific  socie- 
ties, he  was  also  author  of  "The  Geome- 
try of  the  Triangle"  (1897) ;  "The  Es- 
sentials of  Algebra"  (1904);  "Story  of 
Indiana"  (1912). 

ALFALFA,  also  known  as  LUCERNE, 
a  plant  belonging  to  the  legumes,  used 
widely  as  a  forage  and  hay  crop  for 
stock.  It  had  its  origin  in  central  west- 
ern Asia,  where  it  had  been  under  cul- 
tivation for  thousands  of  years.  Spanish 
explorers  introduced  it  into  Mexico  and 
South  America.  It  was  first  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1854,  when  it 
was  brought  to  California  from  Chile.  Its 
use  grew  rapidly,  especially  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Rocky 
Mountain  States.  It  has  come  to  be  one 
of  the  most  important  crops  of  the  irri- 
gated regions  of  the  West.  It  is  also 
extensively  grown  in  other  portions  of 
the  United  States. 

ALFIERI  (alf-ya're),  VITTORIO, 
COUNT,  an  Italian  dramatist,  born  at 
Asti  in  Piedmont,  Jan.  17,  1749.  He  came 
into  his  vast  paternal  inheritance  at  the 
age  of  14;  and  two  or  three  years  after- 


ALFONSO 


112 


ALFONSO 


ward  began  a  series  of  travels  which 
extended  over  nearly  all  the  European 
countries,  returning  to  Turin,  1772.  A  love 
affair  turned  his  mind  toward  literature, 
and  his  tragedy  "Cleopatra"  was  produced 
in  Turin  in  1775.  This  and  his  other 
tragedies,  "Polinice,"  "Antigone,"  "Bru- 
tus" are  on  classic  themes.  "Saul," 
founded  on  Hebrew  sacred  history,  was 
by  far  the  most  popular  of  Alfieri's 
dramas.  The  "Filippo"  presents,  by  the 
hand  of  a  master,  the  somber  character 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  wrote  in  all  21 
tragedies  and  six  comedies,  and  com- 
posed many  sonnets;  among  his  odes  are 
five  on  American  independence.  His  prose 
works  comprise  an  essay  on  "Tyranny," 
a  volume  of  essays  on  "Literature  and 
Government,"  and  "Memoirs  of  his  Life." 
He  died  at  Florence,  Oct.  8,  1803. 

ALFONSO,    or    ALPHONSO,    I.     (El 

Conquistador,  "The  Conqueror") ,  earliest 
King  of  Portugal,  was  the  son  of  Henry 
of  Bui'gundy,  conqueror  and  first  Count 
of  Portugal.  Born  in  1110,  he  was  but 
two  years  of  age  at  his  father's  death, 
so  that  the  management  of  affairs  fell 
into  the  hands  of  his  ambitious  and  dis- 
solute mother,  Theresa  of  Castile.  Wrest- 
ing the  power  from  her  in  1128,  he  turned 
his  sword  against  Castile  and  the  Moors, 
and  defeated  the  latter,  after  a  bloody 
struggle,  at  Ourique,  July  25,  1139, 
proclaiming  himself  King  of  Portugal 
on  the  field  of  battle.  He  took  Lisbon 
(1147),  and,  later,  the  whole  of  Galicia, 
Estremadura,  and  Elvas.  He  died  at 
Coimbra,   Dec.   6,   1185. 

ALFONSO  III.,  sumamed  The  Great, 
King  of  Leon,  Asturias,  and  Galicia,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ordono,  in  866.  After 
reducing  to  obedience  his  jealous  and 
factious  nobles,  he  turned  his  arms 
against  other  enemies,  fought  through 
more  than  30  campaigns  and  gained  nu- 
merous victories  over  the  Moors,  occupied 
Coimbra,  and  extended  his  territory 
as  far  as  Portugal  and  Old  Cas- 
tile. In  888  he  crushed  a  revolution 
headed  by  his  son  Garcia.  A  second 
conspiracy,  instigated  by  the  Queen,  was 
successful  and  he  was  forced  to  abdicate. 
Once  again  the  old  hero  was  called  upon 
to  save  his  country,  and  lead  its  armies 
against  the  invading  Moors.  After  re- 
turning in  triumph,  he  died  at  Zamora, 
910. 

ALFONSO  v.,  King  of  Aragon  and 
Navarre,  but  Alfonso  I.  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  ("the  Magnanimous"),  succeeded 
his  father  in  1416,  when  but  15  years  old. 
Summoned  to  her  help  by  Queen  Joanna 
II.  of  Naples,  he  defeated  her  foes,  Sf orza 
and  Louis  of  Anjou,  but  lost  her  favor 
by  throwing  into  prison  her  minion  Ca- 


raccioli.  The  fickle  queen  now  declared 
his  rival  Louis  her  successor.  At  her 
death  in  1435,  Alfonso  resolved  to  daim 
the  kingdom,  but  found  himself  opposed 
by  Duke  Rene  of  Lorraine,  whom  Joanna 
had  appointed  her  successor  after  the 
death  of  Louis.  Rome  and  Genoa  sided 
with  Rene,  and  the  Genoese  fleet  attacked 
and  defeated  that  of  Alfonso,  the  monarch 
himself  being  taken  prisoner.  He  was 
sent  to  Duke  Philip  of  Milan,  who, 
charmed  by  his  manner  and  talents,  soon 
set  him  at  liberty,  and  even  formed  an 
alliance  with  him.  After  a  five  years' 
warfare,  Alfonso  was  successful,  and 
entering  Naples  in  triumph,  was  recog- 
nized as  its  king  by  the  Pope. 

ALFONSO  VI.,  King  of  Portugal,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  John  IV.,  in  1656,  when 
but  13  years  of  age.  For  some  years 
the  government  was  in  the  hands  of 
his  mother,  Louise  de  Guzman,  a  woman 
of  great  wisdom  and  prudence;  but  in 
1662  the  sickly  and  dissolute  prince  dis- 
missed his  mother  from  her  office.  In 
1666  Alfonso  married  a  princess  of  Savoy, 
but  the  Queen  was  soon  disgusted  with 
her  unworthly  husband,  and  conspired 
with  his  brother  Pedro  against  him. 
He  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  latter 
his  crown.  He  died  (1683),  a  state  pris- 
oner at  Cintra. 

ALFONSO  X.,  sumamed  "the  Astron- 
omer," "the  Philosopher,"  or  "the  Wise," 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born  in  1226; 
succeeded  his  father,  Ferdinand  III.,  in 
1252.  Elected  as  their  king  by  part  of 
the  German  princes  in  1257,  he  had  to 
be  content  with  the  empty  honor.  He 
was  successful  in  his  wars  with  the 
Moors,  and  his  victories  over  them  en- 
abled him  to  unite  Murcia  with  Castile. 
In  1271  he  was  able  to  crush  an  insur- 
rection headed  by  his  son  Philip;  but 
a  second  and  successful  rising,  under 
another  son  Sancho,  in  1282,  deprived  him 
of  his  throne.  Two  years  later,  he  died 
a  fugitive  at  Seville.  Alfonso  was  the 
founder  of  a  Castilian  national  litera- 
ture. He  caused  the  first  general  history 
of  Spain  to  be  composed  in  the  Castilian 
tongue  by  his  historians.  He  completed 
the  well-known  code  of  laws,  "Leyes  de 
las  Partidas,"  and  he  wrote  several  long 
poems,  besides  a  work  on  chemistry,  and 
another  on  philosophy.  His  improved 
planetary  tables,  still  known  as  the  "Al- 
fonsine  Tables,"  were  completed  in  1252. 
The  "Opusculos  Legales"  of  Alfonso  were 
published  by  the  Royal  Academy  of  Ma- 
drid in  1836. 

ALFONSO  XII.,  King  of  Spain,  the 
only  son  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  and  her 
cousin,  Francis  of  Assisi,  was  born  Nov. 


ALFONSO 


113 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


28,  1857.  He  left  Spain  with  his  mother 
when  she  was  driven  from  the  throne  by 
the  revolution  of  1868,  and  till  1874  re- 
sided partly  in  France,  partly  in  Austria. 
In  1874  Alfonso  came  forward  himself 
as  claimant  to  the  Spanish  throne,  and 
in  the  end  of  the  year  was  proclaimed 
by  Gen.  Martinez  Campos  as  king.  He 
was  enthusiastically  received,  most  of 
the  Spaniards  being  by  this  time  tired 
of  the  Republican  Government,  which 
had  failed  to  put  down  the  Carlist  party. 
Alfonso  was  successful  in  bringing  the 
Carlist  struggle  to  an  end  in  1876,  and 
after  an  uneventful  reign  died  in  1885. 

ALFONSO  XIII.,  King  of  Spain,  son 
of  the  late  Alphonso  XII.  and  Maria 
Christina,  daughter  of  the  late  Karl 
Ferdinand,  Archduke  of  Austria,  born 
after  his  father's  death,  May  17,  1886. 


ALFONSO  XIII.,  KING  OF  SPAIN 

His  mother  was  made  Queen  Regent  dur- 
ing his  minority.  In  Spain  the  sovereign 
comes  of  age  at  16,  hence  on  May  17, 
1902,  the  regency  ceased  and  Alfonso 
XIII.  assumed  his  full  powers,  after  be- 
ing crowned  with  the  usual  elaborate 
ceremonies.  He  was  married  to  Princess 
Ena  of  Battenberg  in  1906.  An  anar- 
chist attempt  was  made  to  kill  the  royal 
pair  on  their  wedding  day.  In  the  Euro- 
pean War,  King  Alfonso  favored  the 
Allies,  though,  of  course,  adhering  offi- 
cially to  his  country's  neutrality.  He  de- 
voted his  time  and  efforts  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  conditions  of  prisoners  of 
war  and  of  the  civil  population  of  war- 
stricken  regions. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  King  of  the 
"West    Saxons,    was    born    at    Wantage, 


Berkshire,  in  849,  and  in  853  was  taken 
to  Rome.  The  fifth  and  youngest  son  of 
King  Ethelwulf,  he  succeeded  to  the 
crown  in  871,  on  the  death  of  his  brother 
Ethelred.  By  that  time  the  Danes  had 
overrun  most  of  England  N.  of  the 
Thames.     The  victory  of  Ashdown,  won 


ALFRED   THE   GREAT 

chiefly  by  Alfred's  bravery,  just  before 
his  accession,  gave  only  a  temporary 
check  to  their  incursions  into  Wessex; 
and  in  that  same  year  the  West  Saxons 
fought  eight  other  battles  against  them. 
In  878  Guthrum,  King  of  the  Danes  of 
East  Anglia,  suddenly  burst  into  Wessex. 
Alfred  could  make  no  effectual  resist- 
ance, and,  seeking  refuge  in  the  marshes 


ALFRED  UNIVERSITY 


114 


ALGERIA 


of  Somerset,  raised  a  fort  at  Athelney. 
In  May  he  defeated  the  Danes  at  Eding- 
ton,  Wiltshire;  and  by  the  Peace  of  Wed- 
more,  Guthrum  had  to  receive  baptism, 
and  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of 
Alfred,  who  retained  the  country  S.  of 
the  Thames  and  most  of  Mercia,  while 
ceding  to  the  Danes  East  Anglia  and  the 
rest  of  Mercia.  In  884  Alfred  sent  a 
fleet  against  the  Danes  of  East  Anglia; 
in  886  he  took  and  fortified  London;  and 
about  the  same  time  Northumbria  made 
submission  to  him — thus  he  became  over- 
lord of  all  England.  On  the  whole,  he 
enjoyed  a  much-needed  period  of  peace, 
till  893,  when  a  fresh  swarm  of  Danes, 
under  Hasting,  invaded  the  country. 
They  were  supported  by  their  fellow- 
countrymen  in  East  Anglia  and  North- 
umbria, and  for  four  years  gave  much 
trouble.  Alfred  died  Oct.  27,  901,  and 
was  buried  at  Winchester. 

ALFRED  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeduca- 
tional (non-sectarian)  institution  in 
Alfred,  N.  Y.;  organized  in  1836;  re- 
ported in  1919:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 40;  students,  400.  President,  Booth 
C.  Davis,  Ph.  D. 

ALGiE,  the  general  name  for  the  sea- 
weeds and  similar  plants,  mostly  grow- 
ing in  salt  and  fresh  water.  Vast  masses 
of  gulf-weed  float  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  over  an  area  called  the  Sargasso 
Sea.  Some  kinds  are  used  for  food, 
and  others  for  making  iodine  and  soda. 

ALGEBRA,  that  department  of  math- 
ematics which  enables  one,  by  the  aid  of 
certain  symbols,  to  generalize,  and, 
therefore,  to  abbreviate,  the  methods  of 
solving  questions  relating  to  numbers. 
It  is  now  regarded  as  the  most  exten- 
sive department  of  mathematics.  It  was 
called  by  Isaac  Newton  universal  arith- 
metic, employing  letters  of  the  alphabet 
as  symbols  of  known  or  unknown  quan- 
tities and  signs  (  +  ,  — ,  V~»  etc.),  to 
indicate  addition,  subtraction,  and  simi- 
lar arithmetical  processes.  Of  the  let- 
ters, those  near  the  beginning  of  the 
alphabet  (a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.)  usually  stand 
for  known  quantities,  and  those  toward 
its  end  for  unknown  ones.  The  differ- 
ence between  algebra  and  arithmetic 
consists  in  the  universality  of  the  for- 
mer, its  conclusions  being  true  for  any 
number  of  specific  cases,  while  the  re- 
sults of  an  arithmetical  process  can  be 
applied  to  a  single  case  only.  The 
earliest  extant  treatise  on  algebra  is 
that  of  Diophantus  (4th  century  a.  d.). 
The  Hindus  transmitted  th'?  science  to 
the  Arabs,  whose  writings  on  the  sub- 
ject were  brought  to  Italy  by  Leonardo 
Fibonacci  (1202  a.  d.)  of  Pisa. 


ALGECIRAS,  or  ALG^ZIRAS  (al-he- 
the-ras),  a  seaport  on  Gibraltar  Bay, 
province  of  Cadiz,  Spain;  anciently 
knovm  as  Portus  Albus.  It  was  the 
first  landing  place  of  the  Moors,  who 
held  it  from  713  till  1344,  when  Alfonso 
XI.  of  Castile  obtained  possession  of  it 
after  20  months'  siege.  The  city  was 
entirely  destroyed,  remaining  in  ruins 
till  1760.  In  1801  two  engagements  took 
place  near  Algeciras,  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  allied  French  and  Spanish 
fleets.  Here  the  important  Morocco  con- 
ference met  in  1906.    See  Morocco. 

ALGER,  HORATIO,  an  American 
writer  of  juvenile  books,  born  at  Revere, 
Mass.,  Jan.  13,  1834;  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1852,  settled  in  New  York 
in  1866,  and  became  interested  in  the 
condition  of  self-supporting  boys,  de- 
scribed in  his  series  of  more  than  50 
books,  including  "Ragged  Dick,"  "Tat- 
tered Tom,"  "Luck  and  Pluck,"  which 
became  very  popular.  He  died  in 
Natick,  Mass.,  July  18,  1899. 

ALGER,  RUSSELL  ALEXANDER,  an 

American  merchant,  capitalist,  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Lafayette,  O.,  Feb.  27, 
1836.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War,  rising 
from  a  captaincy  to  the  rank  of  brevet 
Major-General  of  Volunteers.  He  was 
Governor  of  Michigan  from  1885  to 
1887;  a  candidate  for  the  Republican 
presidential  nomination  in  1888;  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  Grand  Army  of 
the  Republic  (1889-1890);  and  became 
Secretary  of  War  in  President  McKin- 
ley's  Cabinet  in  1897.  Almost  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Spanish-American 
War  of  1898  he  was  the  object  of  much 
public  censure  for  shortcomings  in  his 
department,  and  finally  resigned  in 
1899.  He  became  U.  S.  Senator  in  1902. 
He  died  Jan.  4,  1907. 

ALGERIA,  one  of  the  Barbary  states 
of  north  Africa,  belonging  to  France, 
extending  from  20°  W.  to  10"  E.  longi- 
tude. Area,  184,474  square  miles.  It  is 
divided  into  the  three  departments  of 
Oran,  Constantine,  and  Algiers.  It  is 
regarded  as  part  of  France,  but  has  a 
civil  governor-general  and  a  Council.  The 
principal  rivers — none  of  which  are 
navigable — are  the  Shelif,  Wadel-Kebir, 
and  Seybus.  There  are  several  salt- 
water lakes,  some  of  which  are  tem- 
porary; the  largest  of  these  is  Shot  Mel- 
rhirh,  100  feet  below  sea-level.  In  the 
district  of  the  Tell  Atlas,  grain,  sorghum, 
vegetables,  and  tobacco  are  produced; 
on  the  slopes  the  vine  is  cultivated,  the 
wine  being  exported  to  France  for  re- 
export as  French  wine.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts  of   the   country  are   wheat,   barley, 


ALGIERS 


115 


ALGONKIAN 


oats,  wine,  oil,  vegetables,  tobacco,  fruit, 
iron,  lead,  zinc,  and  other  minerals. 
During  the  war  considerable  progress 
was  made  in  the  development  of  coal 
and  lignite.  The  fisheries  are  important. 
The  imports  in  1919  amounted  to  £37,- 
727,000,  and  the  exports  to  £53,760,000. 
The  principal  imports  were  cotton, 
paper,  coal,  sugar,  and  coffee.  The 
chief  exports  were  wine,  fruit,  tobacco, 
oats,  and  barley.  The  customs  receipts 
in  1919  amounted  to  about  £1,300,000. 
There  are  about  2,500  miles  of  railway. 
The  chief  cities  are  Algiers,  Oran,  Con- 
stantino, and  Bone.  There  are  about 
1,300  primary  schools  with  about  4,000 
teachers  and  about  150,000  pupils. 

History. — The  country,  which  was  in- 
habited by  Moors  and  Numidians,  was 
conquered  by  Carthage,  and  after  the 
fall  of  the  latter  came  into  the  hands  of 
Rome,  under  which  it  flourished  until 
its  conquest  by  the  Vandals  (450  A.  D.). 
In  the  7th  century  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Saracens.  In  1516  the  country  was 
seized  by  Horuk  Barbarossa,  a  renegade 
Greek  corsair,  who,  as  well  as  his  suc- 
cessors (until  1710),  recognized  the 
suzerainty  of  Turkey.  For  three  cen- 
turies the  pirates  of  Algeria  terrorized 
the  Mediterranean.  They  became  bolder 
in  the  19th  century,  but  were  checked  by 
Napoleon,  and  in  1815  were  compelled 
by  the  United  States  squadron  to  sue 
for  peace.  In  1827,  the  French,  after 
a  three  years'  blockade  of  the  ports, 
captured  it.  After  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  there  was  a  considerable  immigra- 
tion of  Alsatians  who  preferred  to  re- 
main under  French  rule. 

The  administration  of  the  country  is 
under  a  governor-general,  assisted  by  a 
consultative  council.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  the  governor-general, 
who  has  charge  of  all  services  except 
that  of  the  treasurer,  justice,  public  in- 
struction, and  worship.  The  budget  which 
is  prepared  by  the  governor-general 
is  voted  by  the  Financial  Delegation  and 
the  Superior  Council.  The  delegations 
♦"epresent  the  French  colonists,  the 
i<'rench  taxpayers  who  are  not  colonists, 
and  native  Moslems.  The  Superior  Coun- 
cil consists  of  elected  members  and  the 
higher  officials.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  the  French  Parliament  to 
which  each  department  sends  one  sen- 
ator and  two  deputies.  Algerian  troops 
fought  bravely  for  France  in  the  World 
War.     Pop.  about   5,600,000. 

ALGIERS,  city  and  capital  of  Algeria. 
It  consists  of  a  lower  European  town 
and  an  upper  Moorish  town.  The  first 
has  a  cathedral  and  an  exchange.  The 
latter  contains  several  mosques  and  the 
Kasbah,  the  ancient  fortress  of  the  deys. 

9— Vol.  I — Cyc 


The  town  is  a  favorite  winter  health  re- 
sort. It  has  considerable  trade;  exports 
wme,  wheat,  coral,  and  olive  oil.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  the  chief  rendezvous  of 
the  Algerian  pirates ;  was  bombarded  by 
the  British  under  Lord  Exmouth,  in  1816, 
and  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1830. 
Pop.   about  200,000. 

ALGIN,  a  jellylike  substance  found 
m  marine  alga.  It  was  discovered  in 
1881  by  E.  C.  C.  Stanford,  of  Glasgow. 
If  the  leaflike  thalli  of  a  laminaria  are 
immersed  in  water  containing  a  little 
carbonate  of  soda,  the  whole  cellular 
fabric  of  the  plant  becomes  broken  up  in 
the  course  of  24  hours,  forming  a  thick 
gelatinous  mass  containing  about  2  per 
cent,  of  algin.  This  mass,  after  being 
cautiously  heated,  is  filtered  through 
coarse  linen.  The  properties  of  algin  in 
the  soluble  form  are  those  of  a  very 
viscous  gum,  drying  up  to  a  transparent 
elastic  film.  As  a  size  or  dressing  for 
textile  fabrics,  algin  goes  further  and 
does  more  work  than  starch  or  any  of 
the  ordinary  gums,  and  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  easily  rendered  insoluble 
in  water.  Algin  makes  an  excellent 
thickening  for  soups,  and,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  gelatine  or  isinglass, 
is  serviceable  for  jellies.  The  insoluble 
form  of  algin,  in  the  dry  state, 
resembles  horn,  and  can  be  turned  and 
polished.  It  is  a  by-product  of  the 
manufacture  of  iodine  and  is  used  in  the 
preparation   of  photographic  paper. 

ALGOL,  a  fixed  star  in  Medusa's  head, 
in  the  constellation  Perseus.  Techni- 
cally of  2'h^  magnitude,  it  really  varies 
from  the  2d  to  the  4th  magnitude  in 
3y2  hours,  remaining  thus  for  about 
20  minutes.  In  BVz  hours  more  it  is 
again  of  the  2d  magnitude,  at  which 
it  continues  for  2  days  and  13  hours, 
after  which  the  same  series  of  changes 
takes  place  again. 

ALGONKIAN,  or  ALGONQTJIAN,  an 

Indian  linguistic  stock,  originally  the 
most  extensive  in  North  America.  It 
extends  southward  from  Labrador  to 
Pamlico  Sound,  N.  C.,  and  westward 
from  Newfoundland  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, comprising  about  40  tribes,  each 
with  a  separate  language  and  numerous 
dialects. 

Constant  wars  with  the  English, 
French,  and  Dutch  colonists  depleted 
their  numbers.  Filled  at  first  with  the 
idea  of  freeing  the  soil  from  the  whites, 
they  afterward  degenerated  into  mere 
mercenaries,  fighting  on  either  side  for 
revenge  or  gain.  After  the  War  of 
1812,  in  which  they  took  the  side  of  the 
British,  the  United  States  Government 
resolved   to    send    them   as   far    W.    as 


ALHAMBBA 


116 


ALIAS 


possible.  After  1840,  few  of  them  re- 
mained E.  of  the  Mississippi.  War  and 
disease  have  thinned  their  number,  until 
only  37,000  remain  in  the  United  States, 
and  63,000  in  Canada.  The  chief  oc- 
cupations of  the  Algonkians  were  hunt- 
ing, fishing  and  corn  raising. 

ALHAMBRA,  the  famous  palace  of 
the  Moorish  kings  of  Granada,  situated 
on  a  hill   N.   of  the  town  of  Granada. 


pavements  and  walls  are  covered  with 
colored  tiles;  and  in  its  center  is  the 
Fountain  of  the  Lions,  an  alabaster 
basin  supported  by  12  lions  of  white 
marble,  out  of  whose  mouths  spouted  the 
water  from  the  basin.  The  Hall  of  the 
Abencerrages,  the  most  beautiful  one  in 
the  palace,  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade 
with  marble  arches.  This  hall  was  the 
scene  about  1480  of  the  massacre  of  the 
family    of    the    Abencerrages,    by    King 


THE   RED   CASTLE,    ALHAMBRA 


It  is  inclosed  in  a  walled  area  of  35 
acres.  The  chief  entrance  to  the  in- 
closure  is  by  a  horseshoe  arch,  called 
the  Gate  of  Judgment,  28  feet  high,  sur- 
mounted by  a  square  tower.  From  this 
a  narrow  passage  leads  to  the  Plaza  de 
los  Algibes,  where,  on  the  left,  is  the 
ruined  Alcazaba,  the  fortress  of  the 
Alhambra,  and  on  the  right  is  an  un- 
finished palace  of  Charles  V.  Behind 
the  latter  is  the  Alhambra.  Outside, 
the  palace  is  cold  and  plain  looking,  but 
within,  in  the  most  ornate  style  of  the 
East,  are  many  halls,  porticoes,  courts, 
chambers,  gardens,  and  mosaic  pave- 
ments in  red,  blue,  and  yellow  colors. 
The  stone  lacework  is  covered  with  in- 
scriptions from  the  Koran  and  Arabic 
poetry.  The  Court  of  the  Myrtles  con- 
tains a  large  fish  pond,  and  the  famous 
Alhambra  vase,  discovered  in  the  16th 
century  and  dating  from  1320.  It  is 
nearly  5  feet  high,  and  is  enameled  in 
white,  blue,  and  gold. 

The  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  the 
largest  in  the  Alhambra,  is  contained 
vrithin  the  tower  of  Comares,  on  the  N. 
wall.  The  Court  of  the  Lions  is  one  of 
the  most  notable  of  the  courti^,  having 
a  length  of  116  and  a  breadth  of  66 
feet.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  gallery 
supported  by  white  marble  pillars.     Its 


Boabdil.  Opposite  is  the  Hall  of  the 
Two  Sisters,  which  takes  its  name  from 
two  large  slabs  of  marble,  each  15  feet 
long,  which  are  embedded  in  the  floor. 
The  ceiling  is  made  of  about  5,000 
stalactites,  giving  a  curious  and  beau- 
tiful effect.  The  palace  was  begun  by 
Ibn^l-Ahmar  in  1248,  and  was  completed 
by  Mohammed  III.  in  1314.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1491,  and  was 
entered  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in 
1492.  It  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
Charles  V.,  and  the  French  blew  up 
several  of  its  towers.  The  Alhambra  is 
the  most  remarkable  and  most  perfect 
specimen  of  Moorish  art  to  be  found  in 
Europe. 

ALHAMBRA,  a  city  of  California,  in 
Los  Angeles  co.  It  is  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Pacific 
Electric  Interurban  railroads.  It  has  sev- 
eral private  schools  and  the  San  Gabriel 
Mission  church,  founded  in  1771.  The 
city  is  residential,  but  has  some  indus- 
tries.    Pop.    (1910)   5,021;    (1920)   9,096. 

ALIAS,  in  law,  a  term  used  to  indicate 
the  various  names  under  which  a  person 
who  attempts  to  conceal  his  true  name 
and  pass  under  a  fictitious  one  is  ascer- 
tained to  have  passed  during  the  suc- 
cessive stages  of  his  career. 


ALIBI 


117 


ALKAHEST 


ALIBI,  in  law,  a  plea  that  the  person 
accused  of  having  committed  a  crime 
was  elsewhere  at  the  time  when  the 
breach  of  the  law  occurred.  If  he  sub- 
stantiate this,  he  is  said  to  prove  an 
alibi. 

ALICANTE,  a  seaport  of  Spain;  cap- 
ital of  the  province  of  Alicante;  the  an- 
cient Lucentum.  It  is  situated  at  the 
foot  of  a  cliff  850  feet  high,  which  is 
crowned  by  the  Fort  of  Santa  Barbara. 
It  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade,  exporting  wine,  fruit, 
esparto  grass,  etc.  It  was  bombarded  in 
1873  by  two  vessels  sent  out  by  Carta- 
gena insurgents.  Pop.  (1917),  province, 
502,607;  city,  53,088. 

ALIEN,  any  person  not  legally  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  country  as  one  of 
its  citizens.  By  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  the  children  of  male  citizens, 
whether  born  within  the  country  or 
abroad,  are  held  to  be  citizens;  but  all 
other  foreign  born  individuals  are  aliens 
until  made  citizens  by  naturalization. 
In  the  United  States  aliens  are  nom- 
inally prohibited  from  acquiring  title  to 
real  estate,  but  in  practice  they  may 
own  lands  subject  to  proceedings  by  the 
State  to  determine  the  fact  of  alienage; 
and,  moreover,  in  nearly  all  the  States 
there  are  special  provisions  removing 
such  restrictions  from  resident  aliens 
who  are  in  the  course  of  naturalization. 
The  rights  of  aliens  to  hold  personal 
property  and  carry  on  trade  are  the 
same  as  those  of  citizens.  Naturalized 
aliens  are  permanently  disqualified  for 
election  as  President  or  Vice-President, 
and  they  cannot  become  members  of  the 
National  Senate  or  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives until  they  have  been  citizens 
for  nine  or  seven  years  respectively.  In 
Great  Britain  there  is  no  discrimination 
whatever  between  aliens  and  subjects  as 
far  as  property  rights  are  concerned. 
It  is  held  by  British  law  that  the  chil- 
dren of  aliens  born  in  Britain  are  natu- 
ral born  subjects.  The  U.  S.  Supreme 
Court  in  1915  decided  that  a  State  had 
the  right  to  prohibit  alien  labor  in  public 
and  private  works.  In  the  European 
War  of  1914-1918  the  U.  S.  Government 
interned  dangerous  enemy  aliens,  and 
forbade  trading  with  the  enemy. 

ALIEN  PROPERTY  CUSTODIAN. 
See  United  States,  Section  United 
States  in  the  World  War. 

ALIGHIERI.     See  Dante. 

ALIMENTARY  CANAL,  the  alimen- 
tary tube;  the  great  tube  or  duct  by 
which  food  is  conveyed  into  the  stomach, 
and   from   which   the   waste    and   undi- 


gested food  is  excreted.  It  consists  of 
the  mouth,  the  pharynx  (throat),  the 
oesophagus  (gullet),  the  stomach,  the 
small  intestine,  the  large  intestine,  and 
the  rectum,  and   is  about  25  feet  long. 

ALIMONY,  in  law,  the  allowance, 
awarded  out  of  her  husband's  estate,  to 
which  a  wife  is  entitled  on  separation 
or  divorce.  Jurisdiction  in  this  matter 
in  England  is  conferred  upon  a  court 
of  divorce.  In  the  United  States  it  is 
vested  in  the  courts  of  equity.  Alimony 
may  be  granted  by  the  court  during 
litigation,  or  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
suit,  when  it  is  called  permanent.  The 
former  enables  the  wife  to  pursue  the 
litigation,  whether  proceedings  have 
been  brought  by  or  against  her.  The 
amount  granted  lies  within  the  discre- 
tion of  the  court.  Permanent  alimony 
is  a  periodical  allowance,  awarded  to 
the  wife  if  the  termination  of  the  suit 
is  favorable  to  her.  By  a  writ  of  ne 
exeat  (let  him  not  depart) ,  the  court 
can  prevent  the  husband  from  leaving 
the  State  without  leaving  sufficient  se- 
curity for  payment.  If  the  husband 
should  remove  to  another  State  the  wife 
can  enforce  her  claim  in  the  Federal 
courts. 

ALIN,  OSCAR  JOSEF,  a  Swedish 
historian,  born  in  1846;  professor  in  the 
University  of  Upsala.  He  instructed  the 
Princess  Victoria  of  Baden,  afterward 
Crown  Princess  of  Sweden,  in  Swedish 
history  and  literature.  In  1888  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Upper  Chamber 
of  the  Parliament.  He  has  written  many 
monographs  on  the  history  of  Sweden. 
Died  Dec.  31,  1900,  in  Stockholm. 

ALISON,  SIR  ARCHIBALD,  a  Scot- 
tish historian,  born  at  Kenley,  Shrop- 
shire, Dec.  29,  1792.  He  studied  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1814.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  a  "History  of  Europe,"  cov- 
ering the  period  from  1789  to  1815,  was 
translated  into  the  leading  languages  of 
Europe.  He  died  at  Glasgow,  May  23, 
1867. 

ALIZARIN,  the  coloring  matter  used 
in  the  dyeing  of  Turkey  red,  exists  in 
the  madder  root  as  a  glucoside,  which, 
when  boiled  with  acids  or  alkalies,  gives 
glucose  and  alizarin.  But  in  1869 
Graebe  and  Liebermann  discovered  a 
method  of  manufacturing  it  from  the 
coal-tar  product  anthracene.  The  man- 
ufacture of  alizarin  is  now  one  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  the  coal- 
tar  coloring  industry. 

ALKAHEST,      or     ALCAHEST,     the 

universal  solvent  of  the  alchemists.  See 
Alchemy. 


ALKALI 


118 


ALLEGHENY 


ALKALI,  a  strong  base,  capable  of 
neutralizing  acids,  so  that  the  salts 
formed  are  either  completely  neutral,  or, 
if  the  acid  is  weak,  give  alkaline  re- 
actions. It  was  formerly  restricted  to 
the  hydrates  of  potassium,  sodium, 
lithium,  and  ammonium,  but  now  in- 
cludes the  hydrates  of  alkaline  earths 
(baryta,  strontia,  and  lime)  and  many 
organic  substances.  The  term  alkali  usu- 
ally means,  in  commerce,  caustic  soda 
or  potash,  impure,  NaHO  or  KHO;  both 
are  used  in  the  arts  for  the  manufacture 
of  glass  and  soap,  and  for  many  other 
purposes.  Caustic  potash  is  used  in 
surgery  as  a  cautery. 

ALKALIMETRY,  the  process  of  de- 
termining the  purity  of  alkalies.  Com- 
mercial potash  and  soda  contain  foreign 
substances,  which  diminish  the  per- 
centage of  real  alkali.  The  alkalimeter 
furnishes  a  simple  and  ready  means  of 
determining  the  proportion  of  pure 
carbonate  of  potash  or  soda  contained 
in  any  sample.  It  consists  of  a  grad- 
uated glass  tube,  filled  with  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  containing  as  much 
absolute  sulphuric  acid  as  would  neu- 
tralize a  given  weight,  say  100  grains, 
of  carbonate  of  potash.  One  hundred 
grains  of  the  article  to  be  judged  of  is 
then  dissolved  in  water,  and  as  much 
acid  is  gradually  added  to  it  from  the 
tube  as  to  neutralize  the  solution,  that 
is,  take  up  all  the  alkali.  The  point 
at  which  neutralization  is  complete  is 
determined  by  means  of  colored  tests. 
Formerly,  the  two  vegetable  colors, 
litmus  and  turmeric,  were  alone  used 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  not,  however, 
always  easy  to  recognize  the  neutral 
point,  and  other  indicators  (as  these 
coloring  matters  are  called)  have  come 
into  use.  The  chief  of  these  are  methyl- 
orange  and  phenolphthalein.  A  mixture 
of  the  alcoholic  solutions  of  these  sub- 
stances imparts  a  pale  yellow  color  to 
strictly  neutral  liquids,  which  is  changed 
to  deep  red  by  the  least  trace  of  alkali, 
and  to  pink  by  a  trace  of  acid. 

This  method  of  determining  the 
strength  of  alkalies  is  called  the  alkali- 
metric  process. 

ALKALOID,  a  substance  resembling 
an  alkali  in  properties.  Alkaloids  are 
natural  organic  bases  containing  nitro- 
gen, and  having  high  molecular  weights. 
They  occur  in  many  plants,  and  some  in 
animal  tissues;  they  have  not,  except 
Conine,  been  formed  by  synthesis.  They 
are  substitution  compounds  of  ammonia; 
most  are  tertiary  amines.  They  have 
mostly  a  bitter  taste,  act  powerfully  on 
the  animal  system,  and  are  used  in 
medicine     as     quinine,    morphine,     and 


strychnine;   they  are  frequently  violent 
poisons. 

ALLAH  (compounded  of  the  article 
al  and  ildh — i.  e.,  "the  god,"  a  word  cog- 
nate with  the  Hebrew  Eloah) ,  the  Arabic 
name  of  the  supreme  god  among  the 
heathen  Arabs,  adopted  by  Mohammed 
for  the  one  true  God.  See  Mohammed 
and  Mohammedanism. 

ALLAHABAD.  (1)  A  division  of 
British  India;  has  an  area  of  17,264 
square  miles,  is  one  of  the  most  fertile 
and  populous  portions  of  India.  (2)  A 
district  of  the  above  division,  lying 
around  the  junction  of  the  Jumna  and 
Ganges.  Area  2,852  square  miles.  (3) 
The  capital  of  the  division  of  Allahabad; 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna;  seat  of  government  of  the 
Northwestern  provinces;  72  miles  W. 
of  Benares.  It  carries  on  a  large  trade, 
especially  in  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  gold 
and  silver  ornaments,  and  furniture.  It 
is  a  resort  of  Hindu  pilgrims  and  the 
seat  of  an  annual  fair,  usually  attended 
by  about  250,000  persons.  Among  the 
principal  buildings  are  the  fort  founded 
by  Akbar  Khan  in  1575,  the  Juma  Mas- 
jid  mosque.  Sultan  Khusru's  caravan- 
sary, and  the  Muir  Central  College 
(1874).  The  town  was  taken  by  the 
British  in  1765,  and  assigned  by  them 
to  the  titular  Emperor  of  Delhi,  but 
transferred  to  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  in 
1771,  who  restored  it  to  the  British  in 
1801.  It  suffered  severely  during  the 
mutiny  of  1857.     Pop.  about  170,000. 

ALLAN,  DAVID,  an  eminent  painter 
known  as  "the  Scotch  Hogarth,"  bom  in 
1744.  He  studied  art  for  16  years  in 
Rome,  gaining  a  gold  medal  for  his- 
torical composition  in  1773.  In  1777  he 
began  to  paint  portraits  in  London. 
Among  his  most  celebrated  pictures  are 
"The  Origin  of  Portraiture"  and  the 
illustrations  for  Allan  Ramsay's  "Gentle 
Shepherd."    He  died  in  1796. 

ALLEGHENIES,  a  word  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  (q.  v.),  sometimes  applied 
only  to  that  portion  of  the  system  which 
extends  from  Pennsylvania  to  North 
Carolina,  and  which  forms  the  water- 
shed between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi. The  ridges,  2,000  to  2,400  feet 
high,  are  remarkable  for  their  paral- 
lelism and  regularity,  all  the  main  val- 
leys being  longitudinal.  They  are  rich 
in  coal,  iron,  and  limestone,  and  their 
forests  supply  valuable  timber. 

ALLEGHENY,  a  former  city  in  Alle- 
gheny CO.,  Pa.,  now  consolidated  with 
Pittsburgh  (q.  v.). 


ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE  119  ALLEN- 
ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE,  a  coeduca-  land;  skillful  diplomacy  in  behalf  of 
tional  (Methodist  Episcopal)  institution  Vermont,  etc.,  are  well  known  He 
in  Meadville,  Pa.;  organized  in  1815;  wrote  an  account  of  his  captivity 
reported  at  the  end  of  1919:  Profes-  (1779),  "A  Vindication  of  Vermont" 
sors,  26;  students,  601;  president,  Wil-  (1784),  and  "Allen's  Theology,  or  the 
liam  H.  Crawford,  D.  D.  Oracles    of    Reason"    (1784),    in    which 

AT  r  ■pn■^TV■ST^r    -rtvrt?      o    v,-.rci.    r.f  ^?  declared  reason  to  be  the  only  oracle 

ALLEGHENY    RIVEK^    a    river    of  of  man.     He  died  near  Burlington.  Vt., 

Pennsylvania    and    New   York;,  a    head-  peb.  12    1789 
stream  of  the  Ohio.     It  rises  in  Potter 

county,  Pa.,  and  joins  the  Monongahela  ALLEN,    GBANT     (Charles    Grant 

at    Pittsburgh.      Among    its    tributaries  Blairfindie    Allen),    an    English    nat^ 

are    French    creek.    Clarion,    and    Cone-  uralist,   essayist,   and   novelist,   born   in 

maugh  rivers.     Its  length  is  about  400  Kingston,    Canada,    Feb.    24.    1848.     He 

miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  about  150  graduated  from  Oxford,  and  was  profes- 

miles  above  Pittsburgh.  sor   at    Queen's    College,    Jamaica.      He 

became    a   follower   of    Charles    Darwin 

ALLEGORY,    a    figurative    pcresenta-  and  Herbert  Spencer,  and  was  author  of 

tion  of  a  subject,  which  carries  with  it  scientific    essays    in    a    light,    attractive 

another  meaning  besides  the  literal  one.  style.     After  1883  he  produced  a  large 

It   is   as   often   used   in   painting,   sculp-  number    of    novels.      Among    them    are 

ture.    and    other    imitative    arts    as    in  "Babylon"     (1885);    "The    Devil's    Die" 

language,    although    it    is    usually    con-  (1888);  "Under  Sealed  Orders"    (1896). 

sidered   rhetorical.     Like  the  fable   and  He  died  Oct.  25,  1899. 

the  parable,  it  has  an  underlying  moral.  att-c-nt     xttti-nt-o-o-    t               a 

T<-  ,-c%v,o+o,,i,^>.  «xrf«v,^«^  +«  +1,^  ^;>,„+^c4-  ALLEN,    HENRY    J.,    an    American 

It  IS  metaphor  extended  to  the  minutest    o+o+qc»v,o>^    k^^>,   i^   wt^J^ „«     r» 

Hptaik    a<!   in   "Pilp-rim'<?   Proeress  "  statesman,  born   in   Warren  co..   Pa.,  in 

details,  as  in     f  ilgrim  s  Progress.  jggg      ^^  ^^^  educated  at  Baker  Uni- 

ALLEN,    CHARLES    HERBERT,    an  versity    and    Washington    College.      In 

American   diplomatist,   born    in   Lowell,  1894  he  began  newspaper  work  and  soon 

Mass.,    April    15.    1848;    was    graduated  became    owner    of    several    daily    news- 

at  Amherst   College   in   1869;   served  in  papers  m  Kansas,  the  most  important  of 

both  branches  of  the  State   Legislature,  these  being  the  Wichita  "Daily  Beacon." 

and  in  Congress  in   1885-1889;   was  de-  He  was   president  of  the   Kansas  State 

feated  as  the  Republican   candidate  for  Board  of  Chanties  for  five  years.     Dur- 

governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1891;  and  mg  the  World  War  he  went  to  France 

succeeded  Theodore  Roosevelt  as  Assist-  under   the    auspices    of    the    Red    Cross 

ant    Secretary    of    the    Navy,    in    May,  a"d  during  his  absence  was   nominated 

1898.     On   the   passage   by  Congress   of  and   elected    Governor   of   Kansas.     His 

the  Porto  Rico  Tariff  and  Civil  Govern-  prompt    action    during    the    coal-minmg 

ment  bill,  in  April,   1900,  the  President  strike  _  in   the   winter   of   1919   attracted 

appointed   him   the   first   civil    governor  attention    throughout    the    country.    In 

of  the  island.     He  became  president  of  response  to  his  call  volunteers  from  all 

the    American    Sugar    Refining    Co.    in  classes    undertook    to    man    the    mines 

19X3,  abandoned    by    the    miners.      Following 

this  there  was  passed  a  measure  provid- 

ALLEN,    ELIZABETH    AKERS,    an  ing  for  an  industrial  court  lor  the  pre- 

American  poet,  born  (Elizabeth  Chase)  vention   of  strikes.     He  was  mentioned 

at  Strong,  Me.,  Oct.   9,   1832.     She  was  as  a  candidate  for  the  Republican  nom- 

married    in    1860    to    Paul    Akers,    the  ination  for  the  presidency  in   1920.     In 

sculptor,  who  died  in  1861,  and  in  1865  the  same  year  he  was  re-elected  Governor, 

to  E.  M.  Allen,  of  New  York.     Her  first  .,.,..,„    ., ,  ,,^„  .r  « ■^TT.          a 

volume,  "Forest  Buds,"  appeared  under  ALLEN,  JAMES  LANE,  an  American 

the  pen  name  of  "Florence  Percy"  (1855).  novelist,    born   near   Lexington,   Ky.,   in 

Other  works:      "The   Silver   Bridge  and  1850.      He    graduated    at    Transylvania 

Other     Poems"     (1866);     a     volume     of  University,  taught  there  for  a  time,  and 

"Poems"    (1866),   which  contains   "Rock  became  subsequently  Professor  of  Latin 

Me  to   Sleep,   Mother";   "The   High  Top  and    English    in   Bethany   College.      His 

Sweeting    and     Other    Poems"     (1891);  fame    rests    mainly   upon   his    powerful 

"The  Sunset  Song"   (1902).  and  popular  novels  of  manners  and  peo- 
ple   in    the    "blue    grass"    region    and 

ALLEN,  ETHAN,  an  American  Rev-  elsewhere,  the  best  known  being  "Sum- 
olutionary  hero,  bom  at  Litchfield,  mer  in  Arcady"  (1896);  "The  Choir 
Conn.,  Jan.  10,  1737.  His  services  in  Invisible"  (1897)  ;  "A  Kentucky  Cardi- 
the  War  of  Independence,  as  Colonel  of  nal";  "Aftermath";  "The  Cathedral 
the  "Green  Mountain  Boys,"  capturing  Singer"  (1916)  ;  "The  Kentucky  War- 
Fort  Ticonderoga;  his  attack  on  Mont-  bier"  (1917);  "The  Emblem  of  Fidelity" 
real;    sufferings   as  a   prisoner   in   Eng-  (1918). 


ALLEN 


120 


ALLIANCE 


ALLEN,  VIOLA,  an  American  actress. 
She  was  educated  in  New  York  and  at 
the  age  of  15  began  her  stage  career. 
She  became  one  of  the  most  prominent 
players  on  the  American  stage,  appear- 
ing in  Shakespearean  roles  and  in  many 
of  the  most  successful  modem  plays. 
In  1906  she  married   Peter  Duryea. 

ALLEN,  WILLIAM  HENRY,  an 
American  educator,  bom  March  27, 
1808;  educated  at  Bowdoin  College; 
served  several  colleges  as  Professor  of 
Latin,  Greek,  Chemistry,  Natural  Phi- 
losophy, and  English  Literature;  Presi- 
dent of  Girard  College,  Philadelphia 
(1850-1862  and  1867-1882);  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  American  Bible  Society  from 
1872  till  his  death.  Aug.  29,  1882. 

ALLENBY,      LORD     EDMUND,      1st 

Viscount,  a  British  commander,  born 
April  23,  1861;  chose  army  as  profession 
and   served   in   the  campaigns   in   Bech- 


FIELD-MARSHAL  LORD  EDMUND  ALLENBY 

uanaland,  1884-1885;  Zululand,  1888; 
South  African  War,  1899-1902.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War,  commanded 
the  cavalry  of  the  expeditionary  forces. 
He  did  brilliant  work  on  the  western 
front,  and  later  was  given  the  chief 
command  of  the  Palestinian  forces.  As 
the  outcome  of  a  vigorous  campaign, 
Jerusalem  was  captured  Dec.  10,  1917. 
After  a  rest  and  refitting  of  his  army, 
he  inaugurated  a  campaign  of  dazzling 
brilliancy  on  Sept.  19,  1918.  Within 
two  days  he  captured  80,000  prisoners 
and  500  guns,  and  put  to  rout  three 
Turkish  armies.  On  Oct.  1  Damas- 
cus fell,  Beirut  was  captured  on  the 
8th,    and    on    October    26    the    British 


armies  entered  Aleppo.  The  Turkish 
power  was  utterly  crushed,  and  shortly 
afterward  made  overtures  for  an  armi- 
stice. In  the  following  year  Allenby  was 
sent  to  Egypt  to  take  charge  of  the 
military  forces  then  engaged  in  sup- 
pressing the  Egyptian  Nationalist  up- 
rising. In  this  he  was  successful.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  was  rendered 
an  ovation  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
Field-Marshal  in  recognition  of  his  dis- 
tinguished  services. 

ALLENSTEIN  (al'en-stin),  a  city  in 
the  district  of  Allenstein,  province  of 
East  Prussia,  on  the  river  Alle;  founded 
in  1353;  has  iron  foundries,  machine 
works,  match  factory,  breweries,  trade 
and  agricultural  schools,  cattle,  and 
horse  markets,  and  an  insane  asylum; 
trade  in  linen,  hops,  and  wood.  On  Feb. 
4,  1807,  Soult  defeated  the  rear  guard  of 
the  Russian  and  Prussian  army  near 
the  bridge  over  the  Alle,  between  Allen- 
stein and  Gutstadt.  Pop.  about  35,000. 
The  city  was  the  center  of  important 
military  operations.  It  was  captured  in 
the  Russian  advance  in  August,  1914, 
but  was  soon  retaken  by  the  Germans. 
Near  by  occurred  the  famous  battle  of 
Tannenberg,  in  the  last  week  of  August, 
1914.    See  World  War. 

ALLENTOWN,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Lehigh  co..  Pa.;  on  the  Lehigh  river 
and  canal  and  several  railroads;  60 
miles  N.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  built  on 
high  ground  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  country.  The  city 
is  noted  for  its  manufactories,  which  in- 
clude blast  furnaces,  iron  and  steel  roll- 
ing mills,  wire  works,  hosiery  and 
thread  factories,  silk  works,  and  furni- 
ture and  shoe  factories.  Allentown  is 
the  seat  of  Muhlenberg  College  (Lu- 
theran). It  has  gas  and  electric  light 
plants,  several  National  banks,  and  daily, 
weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals.  Pop. 
(1910)   51,913;   (1920)   73,502. 

ALL-HALLOWS'  EVE,  the  31st  of 
October,  the  evening  before  All-Hallows. 
Till  recently  it  was  kept  up  (especially 
in  Scotland)  with  ceremonies  which 
have  apparently  come  down  from  druid- 
ical  times.  Though  connected  with  All- 
Saints'  Day  (1st  of  November),  yet  it 
seems  to  have  been  formerly  a  merry 
making  to  celebrate  the  end  of  autumn, 
and  help  to  fortify  the  mind  against  the 
advent  of  winter. 

ALLIANCE,  a  city  in  Stark  co.,  O.; 
on  the  Mahoning  river  and  the  Alliance 
and  Northern  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Co.'s  railroads;  56  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleve- 
land. It  is  in  an  agricultural  region; 
is    the    seat    of    Mount    Union    College 


ALLIANCE  FRANCAISE 


121 


ALLODIUM 


(Methodist  Episcopal);  and  has  a  Na- 
tional bank,  manufactories  cf  drop  forc- 
ings, steam  hammers,  boilers,  white 
lead,  terra  cotta  ware,  and  agricultural 
implements,  and  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1900)  8,974; 
(1920)   21,603. 

ALLIANCE  FRANCAISE,  FEDERA- 
TION DE  L',  an  association  of  societies 
organized  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada in  1902.  Its  purpose  is  to  promote 
the  study  of  the  French  language,  litera- 
ture, arts,  and  history.  A  council  com- 
posed of  twenty  directors  meets  five  times 
yearly  to  supervise  the  affairs  of  the 
Federation.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  over  50  groups  or 
circles  which  send  delegates  to  the  an- 
nual convention  held  in  various  cities. 

ALLIANCE  ISRAELITE  UNIVER- 
SELLE,  an  organization  established  in 
1860  in  Paris  for  the  general  benefit  of 
the  Jews  throughout  the  world.  Its 
original  program  included  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  Jews  under  oppressive  laws 
and  political  disabilities.  The  movement 
spread  until  it  became  a  great  power. 
Schools  were  established  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Farm 
schools  were  also  established  in  Pales- 
tine. Normal  schools  for  teachers  are 
maintained  in  Paris.  There  are  com- 
mittees of  the  Alliance  in  New  York 
and  Philadelphia.  It  publishes  monthly 
bulletins  and  semi-annual  reports,  to- 
gether with  reports  on  special  studies 
on  subjects  related  to  its  work. 

ALLIBONE,  SAMUEL  AUSTIN,  an 
American  bibliographer,  bom  at  Phila- 
delphia. April  17,  1816.  He  was  at  one 
time  librarian  of  the  Lenox  Library, 
New  York.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
"Dictionary  of  English  Literature,  and 
British  and  American  Authors";  "Poeti- 
cal Quotations,"  "Prose  Quotations,"  etc. 
It  took  20  years  to  write  the  Dictionary. 
He  died  at  Lucerne,  Switzerland,  Sept. 
2,  1889. 

ALLIGATOR,  a  genus  of  reptiles  be- 
longing to  the  family  alligatoridas  and 
order  crocodilia.  The  alligator  is  known 
from  its  nearest  allies,  the  crocodiles 
and  gavials,  by  having  the  head  de- 
pressed and  the  canine  teeth  of  the 
lower  jaw  received  in  a  pit  in  the  upper. 
The  hind  feet  are  never  completely 
webbed,  and  sometimes  there  is  scarcely 
any  membrane.  The  best  known  species 
is  alligatoridx  missis sippiensis,  the  alli- 
gator of  the  Mississippi  river.  It  is  15 
or  18  feet,  or  even  more,  in  length. 

ALLINGHAM,  WILLIAM,  an  Irish 
poet,  born  at  Ballyshannon,  March  19, 
1828.     Having  for  some  years  been  an 


officer  in  the  customs,  he  became  assist- 
ant editor  of  "Eraser's  Magazine,"  in 
1872,  and  succeeded  Froude  as  editor  in 
1874,  when  he  also  married  Helen  Pater- 


ALLIGATOR 

son,  the  illustrator  and  water  color 
artist.  Prominent  among  his  works  is 
"Lawrence  Bloomfield  in  Ireland" 
(1864),  a  narrative  poem  on  contem- 
porary Irish  life.  He  died  near  London, 
Nov.  18,  1889. 

ALLISON,      WILLIAM     BOYD,      an 

American  legislator,  born  in  Perry,  O., 
March  2,  1829;  was  brought  up  on  a 
farm;  and  subsequently  educated  at  Al- 
legheny College,  Pa.,  and  Western  Re- 
serve College,  O.  He  practiced  law  and 
in  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War  served 
on  the  governor's  staff.  In  1863-1871 
he  was  a  representative  in  Congress; 
and  on  March  4,  1873,  entered  the 
United  States  Senate  as  a  Republican, 
to  which  he  was  re-elected  in  1878,  1884, 
1890,  and  1896.  He  was  a  delegate  to  tho 
Republican  National  Convention  in  Chi- 
cago, in  1860.  In  the  session  of  the 
Senate,  beginning  Dec.  4,  1899,  he  was 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Appro- 
priations and  a  member  of  that  on 
Finance.     He  died  Aug.  4,  1908. 

ALLITERATION,  the  succession  or 
frequent  occurrence  of  words  beginning 
with  the  same  letter.  In  the  older 
Scandinavian,  German,  and  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry  it  served  instead  of  rhyme.  It 
is  found  in  early  English  poetry  with 
the  same  function. 

ALLOBROGES,  in  ancient  history,  a 
warlike  people  of  Gaul,  who  inhabited 
the  territory  between  the  Rhone  and  the 
Isere,  extending  to  Lake  Geneva.  They 
appear  in  the  annals  of  Hannibal's  ex- 
pedition to  Gaul  (218  B.  C). 

ALLODIUM,  or  ALLODIAL  TENURE, 

the  absolute  ownership  of  landed  property 
unburdened  by  any  rent  or  service  duo 


ALLOPATHY 


122 


ALLOY 


a  superior.  In  most  European  countries 
■where  feudal  tenure  arose,  it  grew  up 
by  individual  surrender  of  allodial  ten- 
ure; consequently  allodial  tenure  con- 
tinued in  some  measure  to  exist  along 
with  the  other.  In  the  United  States 
and  in  the  British  colonies  the  land  ten- 
ure is  allodial. 

ALLOPATHY,  a  system  of  medicine — 
that  ordinarily  practiced — the  object  of 
which  is  to  produce  in  the  bodily  frame 
another  condition  of  things  than  that  in 
or  from  which  the  disease  has  orig- 
inated. If  this  can  be  done  the  disease, 
it  is  inferred,  will  cease.  Allopathy  is 
opposed  to  homoeopathy,  which  aims  at 
curing  diseases  by  producing  in  antag- 
onism to  them  symptoms  similar  to 
those  which  they  produce;  the  homoeo- 
pathic doctrine  being  that  "like  is  cured 
by  like." 

ALLOPHYLIAN,  in  ethnology,  a 
term  introduced  by  Pritchard  to  char- 
acterize the  nations  or  races  of 
Europe  and  Asia  not  belonging  to 
the  Indo-European,  the  Sjrro-Arabian, 
or  the  Egyptian  races.  It  has  been  gen- 
erally superseded  by  Turanian. 

ALLOWAY,  Burns'  birthplace,  and  the 
scene  of  his  "Tarn  o'  Shanter,"  lies  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  "bonny  Doon"  2 
miles  S.  of  the  town  of  Ayr.  The  "auld 
clay  biggin,"  in  which  the  poet  was  bom 
on  Jan.  25.  1759,  was  in  1880  converted 
into  a  Bums  Museum.  The  "haunted 
kirk"  still  stands,  a  roofless  ruin,  near 
the  "auld  brig";  and  close  by  is  the 
Burns  monument    (1820). 

ALLOY,  a  compound  or  mixture  of 
two  or  more  metals.  When  mercury  is 
mixed  with  another  metal,  the  compound 
is  termed  an  amalgam.  Alloys  are  di- 
vided into  three  groups:  (1)  Those 
formed  by  the  metals  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and 
cadmium,  which  impart  to  their  alloys 
their  own  physical  properties  in  the  pro- 
portions in  which  they  themselves  are 
contained  in  the  alloy.  (2)  Those 
formed  by  almost  all  other  metals.  (3) 
Those  which  contain  metals  found  in 
both  these  groups  of  alloys. 

In  every  alloy  the  specific  heat  and 
the  coefficient  of  expansion  are  always 
the  means  of  those  of  its  component 
metals.  But  in  other  physical  proper- 
ties a  variation  takes  place.  This  is 
the  case  with  specific  gravity,  which,  in 
alloys  of  the  first  group,  is  the  mean 
of  their  constituent  metals;  but  in  those 
of  the  second  group  it  is  always  greater 
or  less  than  the  mean  specific  gravity 
of  their  constituents. 

In  some  instances,  when  two  melted 
metals  are  mixed  together  to  form  an 


alloy,  an  evolution  of  heat  occurs  which 
is  believed  to  indicate  that  a  chemical 
compound  has  been  formed.  This  is  the 
case  with  copper  and  zinc,  copper  and 
aluminum,  platinum  and  tin.  etc.  The 
strength  or  cohesion  of  an  alloy  is  gen- 
erally greater  than  that  of  the  mean 
cohesion  of  the  metals  contained  therein 
or  even  of  that  of  the  most  cohesive  of 
its   constituents. 

The  most  useful  alloy  in  the  arts  is 
brass.  This  compound  metal  is  next  to 
iron  in  importance. 

There  are  some  important  alloys  of 
copper  and  tin,  among  them  bronze,  gun 
metal,  bell  metal  and  speculum  metal. 
In  these  the  proportions  vary  from 
equal  parts  of  copper  and  tin  to  10 
parts  of  copper  with  1  of  tin.  The  most 
cohesive,  that  is,  the  strongest  of  them, 
is  a  bronze  consisting  of  6  parts  of  cop- 
per to  1  of  tin.  Phosphor  bronze  is 
an  invention  of  recent  years.  The  addi- 
tion of  from  0.25  to  2.5  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus  to  a  bronze  containing  from 
7  to  8  per  cent,  of  tin  gives  it  greater 
hardness,  elasticity,  and  toughness.  This 
alloy  is  now  much  used  for  parts  of 
machinery. 

Pewter  is  a  tin  alloy  which  was  more 
used  formerly  than  now.  Type  metal  is 
a  compound  of  50  parts  of  lead,  25  of 
antimony,  and  25  of  tin,  but  it  varies 
slightly.  Fusible  metal  melts  at  low 
temperatures;  one  kind  is  composed  of 
3  parts  of  tin,  5  of  lead,  and  8  of  bis- 
muth, and  melts  in  hot  water.  This  al- 
loy is  now  a  good  deal  employed  in 
stereotyping,  and  in  obtaining  copies  of 
woodcuts. 

Aluminum  bronze,  very  closely  re- 
sembling gold  in  appearance,  is  much 
used  for  pencil-cases,  chains,  and  some 
larger  objects.  A  compound  of  siJver 
and  aluminum  is  sometimes  used  for 
watch-springs,  and  for  spoons  and  forks. 
Dentists  use  a  very  ductile  alloy  com- 
posed of  2  parts  by  weight  of  silver  and 
1  of  platinum. 

When  gold  is  to  be  used  for  coins,  jew- 
elry, or  plate,  it  requires  to  be  alloyed 
with  copper  or  silver  or  with  both,  in 
order  to  harden  it.  Like  silver,  it  is  too 
soft  when  pure.  There  are  five  legal 
standards  for  articles  made  of  gold  — 
i.  e.,  alloyed  gold  apart  from  coin.  These 
are  called  22,  18,  15,  12,  and  9  carat  gold. 
That  is  to  say,  these  figures  represent 
the  number  of  parts  of  pure  gold  in 
every  24  parts  of  the  alloy  used  by  the 
goldsmith  or  jeweler.  English  sover- 
eigns are  made  of  a  mixture  of  22  parts 
of  gold  to  2  of  copper,  and  this  is  called 
22-carat  or  standard  gold.  In  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States,  standard 
gold  for  the  coinage  is  21.6  carats. 


ALL-SAINTS'  BAY 


123 


ALLUVIUM 


In  the  United  States,  it  is  declared  by 
law  that  the  standard  for  both  gold  and 
silver  coins  shall  be  such,  that  of  1,000 
parts,  by  weight,  900  shall  be  of  pure 
metal  and  100  of  alloy. 

ALL-SAINTS'  BAY,  in  the  state  of 
Bahia,  coast  of  Brazil,  forms  a  natural 
harbor,  in  which  the  navies  of  the  whole 
world  might  ride  at  anchor.  Its  length 
from  N.  to  S.  is  35  miles;  its  breadth  27. 
The  town   of  Bahia  lies  just  within   it. 

ALL-SAINTS'  DAY,  a  festival  insti- 
tuted by  Pope  Boniface  IV.,  early  in 
the  7th  century,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
transfonning  the  Roman  heathen  Pan- 
theon into  a  Christian  temple  or  church, 
and  consecrating  it  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  all  the  martyrs.  It  is  kept  by  the 
Churches  of  England,  Rome,  etc.,  on  the 
1st  of  November  and  is  designed  to 
honor  all  saints.  It  was  formerly 
called  All-hallows.  In  many  American 
Churches  a  custom  has  grown  up  of 
making  the  Sunday  nearest  the  1st  of 
November  the  occasion  of  a  service  in 
memory  of  those  who  have  died  during 
the  year. 

ALL  SOULS  COLLEGE,  one  of  the  col- 
leges of  the  University  of  Oxford.  Eng- 
land, founded  by  Archbishop  Chichele  in 
1437.  The  college  is  especially  notable 
for  the  number  of  eminent  theologians 
who  have  been  graduates.  Among  them 
are  Jeremy  Taylor  and  Reginald  Heber. 
Many  eminent  lawyers  and  statesmen 
have  also  been  members  of  this  college. 
These  include  Gladstone,  Blackstone, 
Lord  Salisbury,  and  Earl  Curzon.  The 
Codrington  Library  belonging  to  the 
college  contains  over  70,000   volumes. 

ALL-SOULS'  DAY,  the  day  on  which 
the  Church  of  Rome  commemorates 
all  the  faithful  deceased.  It  was  first 
enjoined  in  the  11th  century  by  Odilon, 
Abbot  of  Cluny,  on  his  monastic  order, 
and  soon  afterward  came  to  be  adopted 
by  the  Church  generally.  It  is  held  on 
the  2d  of  November. 

ALLSPICE,  a  kind  of  pepper,  consist- 
ing of  the  dried  berries  of  pimenta  offi- 
cinalis (myrtus  pimenta  of  Linnaeus,  eu- 
genia  phneyxta  of  De  Candolle) ,  a  tree 
belonging  to  the  order  Ttiyrtacex  (myrtle 
blooms).  It  is  imported  almost  entirely 
from  Jamaica,  and  is  hence  called  Ja- 
maica pepper.  It  is  termed  also  pi- 
mento, from  Spanish  7mniewtac=pepper ; 
its  berries  in  shape  and  flavor  resem- 
bling peppercorns.  The  trees  are  culti- 
vated in  Jamaica  in  plantations  called 
pimento  walks.  Their  unripe  fruits,  and, 
to  a  lesser  extent,  all  parts  of  them, 
abound   in  an   essential   oil,  which   has 


the  same  composition  as  oil  of  cloves; 
of  this  the  berries  yield  from  3  to  5  per 
cent.  It  is  a  powerful  irritant,  and  is 
often  used  to  allay  toothache.  The  all- 
spice imported  into  this  country  is  derived 
from  pimenta  officinalis,  and  not  from 
pimenta  acris. 

The  word  is  also  the  English  name 
of  the  genus  calycanthus,  and  especially 
of  C.  floi-idus,  which  has  a  scent  like 
the  pimento  tree,  grows  in  Carolina,  and 
is  often  called  the  Carolina  allspice. 
Japan  allspice  is  the  English  name  of 
the  genus  chimonanthus,  which  belongs 
to  the  calycanthacese;  wild  allspice  is 
benzoin  odoriferum,  a  species  of  the 
laurel  order. 

ALLSTON,  WASHINGTON,  an  emi- 
nent American  painter,  poet,  and  ro- 
mancer, born  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C,  Nov. 
5,  1779;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1800; 
studied  at  the  Royal  Academy,  London, 
and  in  Rome,  and  returned  to  Boston  in 
1809.  He  is  the  author  of  "The  Sylph 
of  the  Seasons,  and  Other  Poems" 
(1813);  "Monaldi,"  a  romance  (1841), 
and  "Lectures  on  Art  and  Poems" 
(1850).  He  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
July  9,  1843. 

ALLUVIUM,  the  act  or  process  of 
washing  away  soil,  gravel,  rocks,  etc., 
and  depositing  the  debris  in  other 
places;  also,  the  materials  thus  deposited. 

In  geology  the  form  of  the  word  is 
alluvium,  or,  rarely,  alluvion. 

Alluvium  is  especially  employed  to 
designate  the  transported  matter  laid 
down  by  fresh  water  during  the  Pleisto- 
cene and  recent  periods.  The  most  typi- 
cal example  of  alluvium  may  be  seen  in 
the  deltas  of  the  Nile,  Ganges,  Missis- 
sippi, and  many  other  rivers.  Some 
rivers  have  alluviums  of  different  ages 
on  the  slopes  down  into  their  valleys. 
The  more  modern  of  these  belong  to  the 
recent  period,  as  do  the  organic  and 
other  remains  which  they  contain,  while 
the  older  (as  those  of  the  Somme, 
Thames,  Ouse,  etc.),  which  are  of  the 
Pleistocene  age,  inclose  more  or  less 
rudely  chipped  flint  implements,  with  the 
remains  of  mammals  either  locally  or 
everywhere  extinct. 

Volcanic  alluvium  is  sand,  ashes,  etc., 
which,  after  being  emitted  from  a  v(^- 
cano,  come  under  the  action  of  water, 
and  are  by  it  redeposited,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  materials  which  entered 
and  filled  the  interior  of  houses  of  Pom- 
peii. 

Marine  alluvium  is  alluvium  produced 
by  inundations  of  the  sea,  such  as  those 
which  have  from  time  to  time  overflowed 
the  eastern  coast  of  India. 

In  English  law,  the  form  of  the  word 


ALMA 


124 


ALMANAC 


generally  used  is  alluvion,  and  in  Scotch 
law  alluvio.  In  both  of  these  the  enact- 
ment is,  that  if  an  "eyott,"  or  little 
island,  arise  in  a  river  midway  between 
the  two  banks,  it  belongs  in  common  to 
the  proprietors  on  the  opposite  banks; 
but  if  it  arise  nearer  one  side,  then  it 
belongs  to  the  proprietor  whose  land  it 
there  adjoins. 

ALMA,  a  city  of  Michigan  in  Gratiot 
CO.  It  is  90  miles  N.  E.  of  Grand  Rapids, 
and  is  on  the  Pere  Marquette  and  Ann 
Arbor  railroads,  and  on  the  Pine  river. 
It  has  important  manufactures  of  auto- 
mobiles, gas  engines,  furnaces,  flour,  and 
lumber  products.  It  is  the  center  of  a 
fertile  agricultural  region.  It  produces 
large  quantities  of  beet  sugar.  The  city 
is  the  seat  of  Alma  College  (q.  v.)  and 
has  excellent  schools  and  a  Masonic 
Home.     Pop.  (1910)  2,757;  (1920)  7,542. 

ALMA,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  rising 
at  the  foot  of  the  Tchadir  Dagh,  and 
flowing  westward  into  the  Bay  of  Kala- 
mita,  about  halfway  between  Eupatoria 
and  Sebastopol.  On  the  steep  banks  of 
the  stream,  through  the  channel  of  which 
the  British  troops  waded  amid  a  shower 
of  bullets,  a  brilliant  victory  was  won 
on  Sept.  20,  1854,  by  the  allied  armies 
of  England  and  France,  under  Lord  Rag- 
lan and  Marshal  St.  Amaud,  over  the 
Russian  army  commanded  by  Prince 
Menschikoff.  It  was  the  first  battle  of 
the  Crimean  War. 

ALMA  COLLEGE,  a  coeducatif^nal  in- 
stitution in  Alma,  Mich.,  organized  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Church; 
reported  in  1919:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 22;  students,  200;  president, 
H.  M.  Crooks,  LL.  D. 

ALMADEN  (al-ma-dan'),  a  town  in 
Spain,  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Ciudad  Real, 
situated  in  the  chain  of  the  Sierra  Mo- 
rena.  Pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  famous 
for  its  rich  quicksilver  mines,  dating 
from  the  17th  century,  but  worked  by 
the  Romans.  Crown  property,  they 
were  rented  by  the  Fuggers  of  Augs- 
burg (1525-1645),  and  by  the  firm  of 
Rothschild  (1836-1863),  but  are  now 
again  carried  on  by  the  government. 

ALMAGRO,  DIEGO  D'  (al-ma-gro),  a 
Spanish  conquistador,  born  in  1464  or 
1475,  a  foundling  who  derived  his  name 
from  the  town  near  which  he  was  found. 
^  After  serving  in  the  army,  he  sailed  for 
'  the  New  World,  where  he  amassed  con- 
siderable wealth  by  plunder,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  leading  members  of  the 
young  colony  of  Darien.  In  1522  he 
formed,  with  Pizarro,  the  design  of  con- 
quering Peru — an  undertaking  crowned 
10   years   afterward  with  success.     Re- 


ceiving permission  from  the  Spanish 
court  to  conquer  for  himself  a  special 
province,  he  marched  on  Chile  in  1536, 
penetrated  as  far  as  the  Coquimbo,  and 
returned  in  1537,  just  when  the  Peru- 
vians had  flown  to  arms  and  shut  up  the 
Spaniards  in  Cuzco  and  Lima.  As  these 
towns  lay  S.  of  Pizarro's  district,  they 
were  claimed  by  Almagro.  He  dispersed 
the  Peruvian  army  before  Cuzco,  and  ad- 
vanced against  Lima.  _  But  on  April  6, 
1538,  he  was  defeated  in  a  desperate  en- 
gagement with  the  Spaniards  under  Pi- 
zarro near  Cuzco;  and  on  the  26th  he 
was  strangled  in  prison.  His  half-caste 
son,  Diego,  collecting  some  hundreds  of 
his  father's  followers,  stormed  Pizarro's 
palace,  and  slew  him  (1541)  ;  then  pro« 
claimed  himself  captain-general  of  Peru; 
but,  defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  of 
Chupas,  Sept.  16,  1542,  he  was  executed 
along  with  40  of  his  companions. 

ALMANAC,  an  annual  compilation, 
based  on  the  calendar,  embracing  infor- 
mation pertinent  to  the  various  days  of 
the  year,  the  seasons,  etc.,  with  astro- 
nomical calculations  and  miscellaneous  in- 
telligence. Before  the  invention  of  print- 
ing there  was  no  satisfactory  method  of 
distributing  to  the  public  systematically 
arranged  information  about  the  calendar 
for  the  year  and  the  forthcoming  astro- 
nomical phenomena;  but  different  in- 
genious devices  were  employed  by  the 
people.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
these  was  the  so-called  clog  almanac,  a 
four-sided  stick  of  wood,  upon  which  the 
Sundays  and  other  fixed  days  were 
notched,  and  the  characters  were  in- 
scribed to  distinguish  them. 

The  oldest  printed  almanac  is  attrib- 
uted to  George  von  Purbach,  of  Vienna, 
in  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  and 
entitled  "Pro  Annis  Pluribus."  King 
Matthias  Corvinus  employed  Johann  Re- 
giomontanus,  in  1474,  to  compile  an  al- 
manac, which  was  printed  in  Latin  and 
in  German.  Almanacs  were  issued  by  a 
printer  named  Engel  beginning  with  the 
year  1491.  Stofler,  Tubingen,  published 
almanacs  at  irregular  intervals.  Yearly 
almanacs  were  printed  somewhere  in  the 
course  of  the  16th  century.  In  the  17th 
century  all  sorts  of  astrological  and  me- 
teorological information  and  other  kinds 
of  news  were  published  in  the  almanacs 
and  took  the  place,  in  a  measure,  of  the 
newspaper  of  to-day.  The  "Almanach 
Royal,"  which  began  to  be  published  in 
1679  in  Paris,  contained  notices  in  regard 
to  posts,  court  festivals,  masses,  markets, 
etc.  In  1699  the  genealogy  of  the  royal 
house  and  enumeration  of  the  higher 
clergy  were_  added.  _  This  form  of  al- 
manac was  imitated  in  Prussia  in  1700, 
in  Saxony  in  1728.  and,  under  the  title  of 


ALHIANSUR 


125 


ALMEIDA-GARRETT 


"Royal  Almanac,"  in  England  in  1730. 
Shortly  afterward  almanacs  prepared  for 
the  people  began  to  appear,  containing, 
instead  of  official  information,  short 
stories,  anecdotes,  poems,  and  all  sorts 
of  information. 

In  England,  King  James  I.  gave  the 
monopoly  of  almanac  printing  to  the 
Universities  and  the  Stationers'  Com- 
pany, but  the  former  were  no  more  than 
sleeping  partners  in  the  concern. 

The  first  American  almanac  was  that 
of  William  Pierce,  of  Cambridge,  pub- 
lished in  1639.  The  most  famous  of 
American  almanacs  was  "Poor  Rich- 
ard's," published  in  Philadelphia  by  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Richard  Saunders. 

Some  of  the  almanacs  that  are  regu- 
larly published  every  year  are  extremely 
useful,  and  are  indeed  almost  indispen- 
sable to  men  engaged  in  official,  mercan- 
tile, literary,  or  professional  business. 
Such  in  Great  Britain  are  Thom's  "Offi- 
cial Directory  of  the  United  Kingdom," 
the  "British  Almanac"  with  its  "Com- 
panion," Oliver  &  Boyd's  "Edinburgh 
Almanac,"  and  Whitaker's  "Almanac." 
In  the  United  States  "The  American  Al- 
manac" appeared  between  1830-1861,  and 
a  second  publication  under  the  same 
name  was  edited  for  several  years  by 
Ainsworth  R.  SpofFord.  Several  of  the 
largest  newspapers  in  the  United  States 
now  issue  almanacs  which  are  marvels  of 
condensed  information. 

The  "Almanach  de  Gotha,"  which  has 
appeared  at  Gotha  since  1764,  contains 
in  small  bulk  a  wonderful  quantity  of 
information  regarding  the  reigning  fam- 
ilies and  governments,  the  finances,  com- 
merce, populations,  etc.,  of  the  different 
states  throughout  the  world.  It  is  pub- 
lished both  in  a  French  and  in  a  German 
edition.  "The  Nautical  Almanac"  is  an 
important  work  published  annually  by 
the  British  Government,  two  or  three 
years  in  advance,  in  which  is  contained 
much  useful  astronomical  matter.  This 
almanac  was  commenced  in  1767  by  Dr. 
Nevil  Maskelyne,  astronomer  royal.  The 
French  "Connaissance  des  Temps"  is  pub- 
lished with  the  same  views  as  the  Eng- 
lish "Nautical  Almanac,"  and  nearly  on 
the  same  plan.  It  commenced  in  1679. 
Of  a  similar  character  is  the  "Astrono- 
misches  Jahrbuch,"  published  at  Berlin. 
The  "American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical 
Almanac"  is  issued  annually  since  1855 
by  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  of  the 
United  States. 

ALMANSUR  ("the  Victorious"),  the 
title  assumed  by  Abu-Jafar,  the  second 
caliph  of  the  house  of  the  Abbassides, 
w'-^  succeeded  his  brother  in  754.  War- 
fare, treachery,  murder  were  his  steps 


to  the  throne,  and  his  whole  rule  was  as 
cruel  as  its  beginning.  He  especially 
persecuted  the  Christians  in  Syria  and 
Egypt.  In  war  against  external  foes  he 
had  but  little  success,  Spain  and  Africa 
falling  away  from  the  Eastern  caliphate. 
The  best  feature  in  his  character  was 
his  patronage  of  learning.  He  caused 
the  "Elements"  of  Euclid  to  be  trans- 
lated from  the  Syriac,  and  the  famous 
fables  of  Bidpai  from  the  Persian.  Al- 
mansur  died  in  1775  during  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  at  the  age  of  almost  70. 

ALMA-TADEMA,  LAURENCE,  a  dis- 
tinguished  figure  painter,  born  in  Fries- 
land,  Jan.  8,  1836;  elected  to  the  Royal 
Academy,  London,  in  1879;  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  1878;  and  member  of 
the  leading  academies  of  Europe;  studio 
in  London.  His  paintings  show  a  fond- 
ness for  Greek  and  Roman  subjects,  and 
have  won  many  honors  for  him.  Among 
the  best  known  are  "Roman  Dance," 
"Bacchante,"  "In  the  Terpidarium," 
"Antony  and  Cleopatra,"  and  "An  Audi- 
ence at  Agrippa's."    He  died  in  1912. 

ALMA-TADEMA,  LAURENCE 
(Miss),  an  English  writer,  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Laurence  Alma-Tadema,  Her  pop- 
ular writings  include  "Love's  Martyr," 
"The  Wings  of  Icarus,"  "The  Fate  of 
Spinner,"  "Tales  from  Our  Garden." 
She  made  a  reading  tour  of  the  United 
States  in  1907-1908. 

ALMEIDA  (al-ma'e-da),  one  of  the 
strongest  fortified  places  in  Portugal,  is 
situated  on  the  river  Coa,  on  the  Spanish 
frontier,  in  the  province  of  Beira.  In 
1762  it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards, 
but  soon  restored.  In  1810  it  was  de- 
fended against  Marshal  Massena  by  an 
English  officer  until  the  explosion  of  a 
powder  magazine  compelled  him  to  capit- 
ulate.    Pop.  about  2,500. 

ALMEIDA-GARRETT,^  JO  AO  BAP- 
TISTA  DE  SILVA  LEITAO  DE,  a  dis- 
tinguished Portuguese  poet,  dramatist, 
and  politician,  bom  in  Oporto.  Feb.  4, 
1799;  studied  law  at  Coimbra,  and,  join- 
ing the  democratic  movement  in  1820, 
became  Minister  of  Public  Instruction 
when  scarcely  21,  but,  on  the  restoration 
in  1823,  was  banished  and  went  to  Eng- 
land. He  subsequently  returned,  and  ex- 
perienced many  vicissitudes  owing  to  his 
political  activity.  As  a  man  of  letters 
he  endeavored  to  free  Portuguese  poetry 
from  the  shackles  of  pseudo-classicism, 
and  to  create  a  national  form.  His 
principal  works  are  "Catao,"  a  tragedy 
(1820),  among  the  best  in  Portuguese 
literature;  "Camoes"  (1825);  "Dona 
Branca"  (1826)  ;  "Adozinda"  (1828)  ; 
"Bemal  Francez"  (1829) ;  "Auto  de  Gil 


ALMEBIA 


126 


ALOE 


Vicente"  (1838) ;  "0  Arco  de  Sant'  Anna" 
(1846);  "Romancerio"  (3  vols.,  1851- 
1853).    He  died  in  Lisbon,  Dec.  10.  1854. 

ALMERIA  (al-ma-re'a),  a  fortified 
seaport  of  southern  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Almeria,  near  the  mouth  of 
a  river  and  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
with  no  buildings  of  consequence  except 
a  Gothic  cathedral,  but  with  an  impor- 
tant trade,  exporting  lead,  esparto,  ba- 
rilla, etc.  The  province,  which  has  an 
area  of  3,300  square  miles,  is  generally- 
mountainous.  Pop.  (1917),  province, 
393,680;  town,  48,614. 

ALMOND,  the  fruit  of  the  almond  tree. 
It  is  a  slight  ovate  drupe,  externally 
downy.  There  are  two  varieties  of  it, 
the  one  sweet  and  the  other  bitter. 
Sweet  almonds  are  eaten.  Bitter  almonds 
contain  prussic  acid,  and,  eaten  in  large 
quantities,  are  poisonous. 

Also,  the  tree  on  which  the  fruit  de- 
scribed grows,  the  uTnygdalus  coTnmunis, 
of  which  there  are  two  varieties,  the 
amygdalus  communis,  simply  so  termed, 
and  the  amygdalus  communa,  variety 
amara,  or  bitter  almond.  The  former  has 
pink  and  the  latter  white  flowers.  Both 
varieties  are  found  in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, the  sweet  one  being  the  more  com- 
mon. They  seem  to  have  come  originally 
from  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  the 
north  of  Africa. 

In  anatomy,  the  almonds  of  the  throat, 
or  tonsils,  are  two  round  glands  placed 
at  the  base  of  the  tongue  on  either  side. 

ALMOND-OIL,  BITTER  ALMOND- 
OIL,     or     BENZOIC     ALDEHYDE,     in 

chemistry,  an  oil  obtained  by  pressing 
almonds.  The  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  at 
least  when  impure,  is  very  poisonous.  \t 
has,  however,  been  used  as  a  cure  in  in- 
termittent fever. 

ALMONTE,  JUAN  NEPOMUCENO 
(al-mon'te),  a  Mexican  general,  born  in 
1804.  As  a  boy  he  took  part  in  the  war 
for  independence.  In  1824,  he  went  to 
London  as  attache  to  the  Mexican  em- 
bassy, and,  after  his  return,  became  a 
member  of  Congress.  In  1832  he  was 
appointed  charge  d'affaires  at  London, 
then  in  Peru.  He  entered  the  army  and 
served  under  Santa  Anna  in  Texas  in 
1836.  After  that  he  became  Minister  of 
War  under  Bustamente,  and,  in  1841, 
was  sent  to  Washington.  In  1845  he  be- 
came Minister  of  War,  and  was  a  second 
time  sent  as  minister  to  the  United 
States,  soon  afterward.  He  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  Buena  Vista  and  Cerro 
Gordo  in  1847.  In  1853  he  was  again 
sent  to  Washington,  and,  in  1857,  to 
Paris.  In  1861,  when  Juarez  attamed 
power,  he  deposed  Almonte,  who.  led  by 


ambition,  invited  the  French  expedition 
to  Mexico.  In  1862  he  joined  the  French 
troops  of  occupation  at  Vera  Cruz;  but, 
as  the  Mexicans  saw  in  him  only  a  tool 
of  the  French  plans,  they  renounced  the 
idea  of  making  him  French  dictator. 
The  French  general,  himself,  deprived 
him  of  power,  but  when,  on  the  10th  of 
June,  1863,  he  reached  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico with  the  French,  he  was  placed  by 
the  conquerors  at  the  head  of  the  Re- 
gency of  the  Mexican  Empire.  The  Em- 
peror Maximilian  appointed  him  field- 
marshal,  but,  after  Maximilian's  death, 
he  fled  to  Europe,  and  died  in  Paris, 
March  22,  1869. 

ALMS,  pity,  mercy;  charity,  from 
eleeo,  to  have  pity;  eleos,  pity.  Thus, 
alms  in  English,  when  traced  to  its 
origin,  is  really  the  Greek  word  elee- 
mosyne  corrupted. 

In  ordinary  language,  money,  food, 
clothing,  or  anything  else  given  as  a 
gratuity  to  relieve  the  poor. 

In  law,  reasonable  alms  are  a  certain 
portion  of  the  estates  of  intestate  per- 
sons allotted  to  the  poor. 

A  tenure  by  free  alms,  or  frank  al- 
moyne,  is  a  tenure  of  property  which  is 
liable  to  no  rent  or  service.  The  term 
is  especially  applied  to  lands  or  other 
property  left  to  churches  or  religious 
houses  on  condition  of  praying  for  the 
soul  of  the  donor.  In  the  United  States 
churches,  schools  and  charitable  institu- 
tions are  free  from  taxation. 

ALMTJCANTAR,  ALMrCANTER, 
ALMACANTER,   or  ALMOCANTAR,  a 

circle  drawn  parallel  to  the  horizon;  gen- 
erally used  in  the  plural  for  a  series  of 
parallel  circles  drawn  through  the  sev- 
eral degrees  of  the  meridian.  They  are 
the  same  as  what  are  now  called  paral- 
lels of  altitude. 

ALNUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  hetulacex  (birch -worts). 
The  flowers  are  monoeceous  and  amen- 
taceous. In  the  barren  ones  the  scale 
of  the  catkin  is  three-lobed,  with  three 
flowers;  the  perianth  is  four  partite; 
the  stamina,  four.  In  those  which  are 
fertile  the  scale  of  the  catkin  is  subtrifid 
with  three  flowers,  and  there  is  no  pe- 
rianth. The  ovary  is  two-celled,  two- 
ovuled,  but  only  one  ovule  reaches  per- 
fection. 

ALOE,  any  species  of  the  genus  de- 
scribed under  botany  (below),  or  even  of 
one,  such  as  agave,  with  a  close  analogfy 
to  it.  The  American  aloe  is  the  agave 
americana,    an    amaryllid. 

In  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  liliacese,  or  lily-worts,  and 
constituting  the  typical  genus  of  the  sec- 


ALOES 


127 


ALPENA 


tion  called  aloinse.  The  species  are  suc- 
culent herbs,  shrubs,  or  even  trees,  with 
erect  spikes  or  clusters  of  flowers.  They 


ALOE 

are  used  in  the  West  Indies  for  hedges; 
the  juice  is  purgative,  and  the  fibers  are 
made  into  cordage  or  coarse  cloth. 

ALOES,  the  inspissated  juice  of  .the 
aloe.  There  are  four  principal  kinds, 
two  officinal.  (1)  Barbadoes  aloes  {aloe 
barbaden^is) ,  formed  from  the  juice  of 
the  cut-leaf  of  aloe  vulgaris.  It  is  im- 
ported in  gourds,  and  has  a  dull  yellow- 
ish brown,  opaque  color,  breaks  with  a 
dull  conchoidal  fracture,  shows  crystals 
under  the  microscope,  has  a  nauseous 
odor,  and  is  soluble  in  proof  spirit.  (2) 
Socotrine  aloes  {aloe  socofrma), the  prod- 
uce of  several  species  of  aloes;  it  oc- 
curs in  reddish  brown  masses,  and 
breaks  with  a  vitreous  fracture.  Its 
powder  is  a  bright  orange  color.  It  has 
a  fruity  smell.  It  comes  from  Bombay. 
(3)  Hepatic  aloes,  or  East  India  aloes, 
non-officinal,  is  liver  colored;  its  powder 
is  yellow.  (4)  Cape  aloes,  the  produce 
of  aloe  spicata  and  other  non-officinal 
species,  is  a  greenish  brown  color;  this 
is  given  to  horses.  An  inferior  variety 
is  called  caballine  aloes.  Aloes  acts  as 
a  purgative. 

ALOES  WOOD  (sometimes  called  also 
eagle  wood,  calambac,  paradise  wood,  or 
agallochum),  the  heart  wood  of  aquilai-m 
ovata  and  aloes  agallochum,  trees  of  the 
order  aquilariaceie,  natives  of  the  tropi- 
cal parts  of  Asia,  and  supposed  to  be  the 
aloes  of  lign-aloes  of  the  Bible.  They 
are  large,  spreading  trees.  Aloes  wood 
contains  a  dark-colored,  fragrant,  resin- 
ous substance,  and  is  much  prized  in  the 


East  as  a  medicine,  and  for  the  pleasant 
odor  which  it  diffuses  in  burning.  A 
similar  substance,  still  more  esteemed, 
is  obtained  in  the  southeastern  parts  of 
Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands,  from  the 
central  part  of  the  trunk  of  aloe xy Ion 
agallochum,  of  the  natural  order  legu- 
minosas,  sub-order  caesalpinese.  This  tree 
is  found  in  Cochin-China  and  the  Moluc- 
cas, where  a  character  of  sacredness  is 
attached  to  it.  Its  fragrant  wood  is  not 
only  much  prized  in  the  East  as  a  per- 
fume, but  many  medicinal  virtues  are 
ascribed  to  it.  Napoleon  I.  used  it  as  a 
perfume  in  his  palaces.  The  fragrance 
continues  undiminished  for  years.  Lign- 
aloes  is  a  corruption  of  lignum  aloes 
(aloes  wood). 

ALOPECIA,  a  variety  of  baldness  in 
which  the  hair  falls  off  from  the  beard 
and  eyebrows,  as  well  as  the  scalp. 

ALOSA,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 
family  chipeidse.  It  contains  two  British 
species,  the  A.  finta,  or  Twaite  shad,  and 
the  A.  communis,  or  allice  shad.  The 
shad  resemble  herrings  in  their  form 
and  structure,  but  are  so  much  larger 
that  they  have  been  popularly  called 
the  mother  of  herrings.  The  allice  shad 
is  rare  in  the  Thames.  The  American 
species,  clupea  sapidissima,  is  abundant 
on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

ALOST,  or  AALST,  a  city  of  Belgium, 
the  capital  of  the  former  province  ol 
East  Flanders.  It  is  on  the  Dender,  a 
tributary  of  the  Scheldt.  The  city  suf- 
fered severely  in  the  German  invasion 
of  Belgium  in  1914.  It  contained  many 
historical  edifices  including  the  Church 
of  St.  Martin,  one  of  the  finest  in  Bel- 
gium. This  church  contained  a  famous 
painting  by  Rubens.  There  was  a  town 
hall,  a  college,  hospital,  and  several 
other  important  public  buildings.  The 
industries  included  weaving,  lace-making, 
and  flax  spinning.    Pop.  about  35,000. 

ALPACA,  the  name  given  to  a  species 
of  llama,  which  has  for  a  long  time  back 
been  domesticated  in  Peru.  It  was  first 
found  by  Pizarro.  Its  modern  zoologi- 
cal name  is  auchenia  paco.  It  has  a 
long,  fine  fleece,  valuable  in  the  woolen 
manufacture.  There  is  a  second  species 
of  llama  in  Peru,  but  its  fleece  is  short, 
and,  therefore,  much  less  valuable.  Also 
a  cloth  woven  from  the  wool  of  the  al- 
paca. 

ALPENA,  a  city  of  Michigan,  the 
county-seat  of  Alpena  co.  It  is  on 
Thunder  Bay  and  on  the  Detroit  and 
Mackinac  railroad.  It  is  situated  near 
numerous  lakes,  making  it  a  popular 
summer  resort.  There  is  a  fish  hatchery, 
public  library  and  parks.     The  city  has 


ALPES,  BASSES 


128 


ALPHABET 


important  lumbering  interests.  There 
are  also  fisheries,  tanneries,  and  manu- 
factories of  paper,  cement,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910),  12,706;   (1920),  11,101. 

ALPES,  BASSES  (bas-alp),  a  depart- 
ment in  the  S.  E.  of  France,  one  of  the 
five  formed  out  of  the  old  Provence;  di- 
vided into  five  arrandissetnents,  Barce- 
lonnette,  Castellane,  Digne,  Forcalquier, 
and  Sisteron;  capital,  Digne.  It  is  a 
mountainous  region,  the  E.  portion  be- 
longing to  the  crystalline  Alps,  with 
summits  rising  to  upM^ard  of  11,000  feet; 
the  W.  portion  to  the  limestone  Alps. 
This  latter  portion  is  one  of  the  most 
arid  and  desolate  in  France.  West  of  the 
Durance,  the  principal  river  of  the  de- 
partment, a  chain  of  the  limestone  Alps 
runs  westward  under  the  name  of  the 
Montague  de  Lure.  The  Durance  parcly 
bounds  the  department  of  the  N.  Its 
principal  tributaries,  all  on  the  left 
bank,  are  the  Ubaye  in  the  N.,  leading 
up  to  the  Col  d'Argentiere,  the  Bleonne, 
the  Asse,  and  the  Verdon,  which  partly 
separates  Basses  Alpes  from  Var.  None 
of  these  rivers  is  navigable.  The  prin- 
cipal wealth  of  the  higher  parts  of  the 
department  consists  in  its  mountain  pas- 
tures, to  which  every  spring  large  num- 
bers of  sheep  from  the  lower  Rhone  are 
led.  Cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  asses  are 
also  reared.  Cereals  are  grown  in  many 
places,  and  in  the  southern  districts 
olives  and  great  quantities  of  almonds 
are  produced,  and  the  silkworm  is 
reared.  Area,  2,697  square  miles.  Pop., 
about  110,000. 

ALPES,  HAUTES  (hot-alp),  a  depart- 
ment in  the  S.  E.  of  France,  adjoining 
the  Italian  frontier,  formed  almost  en- 
tirely from  the  Dauphine,  but  including  a 
small  part  of  the  old  Provence  in  the  S. ; 
divided  into  three  arrondissements,  Gap, 
Brian^on,  and  Embrun;  capital.  Gap.  In 
physical  features  it  corresponds  closely 
with  Basses  Alpes.  In  the  N.,  on  the 
borders  of  the  department  of  Isere,  the 
granite  mass  of  Pelvoux  rises  to  the 
height  of  13,460  feet  out  of  the  limestone 
Alps.  At  its  northern  base  runs  the 
road  from  Grenoble  by  the  Col  du  Lau- 
taret^  (6,800  feet)  to  Briangon.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Durance,  which 
partly  separates  it  from  Basses  Alpes, 
and,  among  itr  tributaries  are  the  Buech, 
which  flows  from  N.  to  S.  in  the  W.,  and 
the  Guil.^  The  department  is  the  poorest  in 
France  in  natural  resources.  Its  principal 
wealth  consists  of  its  mountain  pastures, 
on  which  fine  merino  sheep  are  reared. 
Marble  of  all  shades  is  abundant,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  extent  of  anthra- 
cite near  Briangon.  Area,  2,178  square 
miles.     Pop.  about  110,000. 


ALPES -MARITIMES  (alp  mar-e- 
tern'),  a  department  in  the  extreme 
S.  E.  of  France  formed  mainly  from  the 
province  of  Nice,  ceded  by  Italy  in  1860, 
but  containing  also  the  arroTidissement 
of  Grasse,  detached  from  Var;  divided 
into  three  arrondissements ,  Nice,  Grasse, 
and  Puget-Theniers ;  capital,  Nice.  The 
physical  features  are  similar  to  those  of 
Basses  and  Hautes  Alpes.  The  lime- 
stone region  in  the  S.  W.  is  specially 
remarkable  for  its  magnificent  scenery, 
its  deep  and  dark  defiles  or  clus,  and  its 
numerous  swallow-holes,  in  which  streams 
disappear  to  reappear  in  fine  springs. 
The  mildness  of  the  climate  has  caused 
several  places  on  the  coast  to  become 
favorable  health  resorts,  especially 
Cannes,  Antibes,  Nice,  and  Mentone. 
The  department  surrounds  on  the  land 
side  the  principality  of  Monaco.  Among 
the  products  are  vines,  mulberries,  olives, 
oranges,  and  citrons.  Flowers  are  culti- 
vated on  a  large  scale  for  the  making  of 
perfumes,  which  forms  the  principal  in- 
dustry of  the  department.  Area,  1,443 
square  miles.  Pop.,  about  375,000. 

ALPHA  and  OMEGA,  the  first  and  last 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  sometimes 
used  to  signify  the  beginning  and  the 
end,  or  the  first  and  the  last  of  any- 
thing; also  as  a  symbol  of  the  Divine 
Being.  They  were  also  formerly  the 
symbol  of  Christianity,  and  engraved  ac- 
cordingly on  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
Christians. 

ALPHABET,  so  called  from  alpha  and 
beta,  the  first  two  Greek  letters,  is  the 
name  given  to  a  set  of  graphic  signs, 
called  letters,  denoting  elementary 
sounds,  by  the  combination  of  which 
words  can  be  visibly  represented.  Near- 
ly 200  alphabets,  ancient  and  modem, 
are  known,  of  which  about  50  are  now 
in  use.  Most  of ^  them  are  developments 
from  the  primitive  Phoenician  alphabet, 
which  was  itself  ultimately  derived  from 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  picture-writ- 
ing. 

All  writing  was  in  its  origin  pictorial. 
It  began  with  ideograms,  which  devel- 
oped into  phonograms.  Ideograms  are 
pictures  or  synibols  intended  to  repre- 
sent either  things  or  abstract  ideas. 
Phonograms  are  the  graphic  symbols  of 
sounds. 

Five  independent  systems  of  ideo- 
graphic writing  have  been  invented:  (1) 
The  Cuneiform,  which  arose  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Euphrates,  and  developed  into 
the  Achaemenian  syllabaries.  (2)  The 
Chinese,  out  of  which  the  Japanese  syl- 
labaries have  arisen.  (3)  The  Hittite, 
which  was  the  probable  source  of  the 
Cypriote    syllabary.      (4)    The   Mexican 


ALPHABET 


129 


ALPHABET 


HEBREW 
NAMES 

GREEK 
NAMES 

HEBREW 

1 
GREEK 

LATIN 

ARABIC 

IRISH 

UNCICAL5 
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RU53IAN 

ALEPH 

ALPHA 

K 

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A 

1 

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A 

BETH 

BETA 

ij 

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B 

B 

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i) 

eiMEL 

6AMMA 

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1 

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C 

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DALETH 

DELTA 

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D 

Ok 

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WAW 

DI6AMM/ 

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F 

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ZAYIN 

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S 

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CHETH 

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N 

H 

H 

z 

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9 

TETH 

THETA 

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0 

\a 

C|D 

lOD 

IOTA 

^ 

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1 

1 

J' 

I 

luu 

CAPH 

KAPPA 

:: 

i 

K 

K 

■\JJ 

K 

LAMED 

LAMDA 

> 

L 

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s\ 

MEM 

MU 

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7 

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NUN 

NU 

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SAMECH 

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JD 

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0 

0 

PE 

PI 

S3 

■3 

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P 

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p 

rr 

ZADE 

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r 

v..^/^- 

KOPH 

(koppa) 

p 

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J 

9 

RESH 

RHO 

"1 

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p 

P 

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p 

SHIN 

SIGMA 

ti; 

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, 

ALPHABET   CHARACTERS 


ALPHEUS 


130 


ALPS 


picture  writing.  (5)  The  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  from  which  the  Phoenician 
alphabet  was  derived. 

The  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  picture 
writing  may  be  traced  back,  by  means 
of  inscriptions,  for  more  than  6,000 
years,  to  the  time  of  the  second  Egyp- 
tian dynasty.  Of  the  400  Egyptian 
phonograms,  about  45  attained  an  al- 
phabetic character — that  is,  they  either 
denoted  vowels,  or  could  be  associated 
with  more  than  one  vowel  sound.  Out 
of  these  alphabetic  signs  our  own  letters 
have  grown.  The  transition  to  a  pure 
alphabetic  writing  was  made  when  the 
Phoenicians  rejected  the  unnecessary 
portions  of  the  complicated  Egyptian 
system,  the  ideograms,  the  verbal  phono- 
grams, and  the  syllabic  signs,  and  se- 
lected from  the  45  variant  symbols  of 
elementary  sounds  a  single  sign  for  each 
of  the  22  consonants  found  in  Semitic 
speech. 

A  knowledge  of  alphabetical  writing 
must  have  been  obtained  by  the  Greeks 
from  the  Phoenician  trading  settlements 
in  the  ^gean  as  early  as  the  10th  cen- 
tury B.  c. 

By  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  the 
Greek  alphabet  had  in  all  essential  re- 
spects attained  its  final  development. 
About  the  3d  century  B.  c,  the  lapidary 
characters,  corresponding  to  the  capitals 
in  Greek  printed  books,  began  to  be  re- 
placed by  more  rounded  forms,  called 
uncials,  while  cursive  forms  were  used 
for  correspondence.  Finally,  between 
the  7th  and  9th  centuries  A.  D.,  the 
minuscules,  which  are  the  small  letters 
of  our  printed  Greek  books,  were  evolved 
from  a  combination  of  uncials  and  cur- 
sives. 

The  Greek  alphabet  was  the  source, 
not  only  of  the  Latin,  but  of  the  other 
national  alphabets  of  Europe.  The 
Runes,  which  formed  the  alphabet  of 
the  Scandinavian  nations,  were  based  on 
early  forms  of  the  Greek  letters,  which, 
as  Dr.  Isaac  Taylor  has  shown,  were 
obtained  about  the  6th  century  B.  C. 
from  Greek  colonies  on  the  Black  Sea, 
by  Gothic  tribes  who  then  inhabited  the 
region.  In  our  own  alphabet,  the  order 
of  the  letters  does  not  differ  very  great- 
ly from  the  Phoenician  arrangement. 

Our  letters  are  named  on  the  same 
principle  as  in  the  Latin  alphabet.  The 
vowels  are  called  by  their  sounds;  the 
consonants,  by  the  sound  of  the  letter 
combined  with  the  easiest  vowels,  which, 
for  convenience  of  utterance,  precedes 
the  continuants  and  follows  the  ex- 
plosives. 

ALPHEUS  (al-fe'us),  the  principal 
river  of  Peloponnesus  (Morea),  rising 
in  the  S.  E.  of  Arcadia,  and  flowing  past 


the  famous  Olympia  westward  into  the 
Ionic  Sea.  In  its  passage  through  Ar- 
cadia, a  country  consisting  of  cavernous 
limestone,  it  repeatedly  disappears  un- 
derground and  rises  again.  With  this  fact 
was  connected  a  remarkable  myth.  The 
river  god  Alpheus  was  said  to  have  be- 
come enamored  of  the  nymph  Arethusa 
while  bathing  in  his  stream.  To  escape 
him,  she  prayed  to  Artemis,  who 
changed  her  into  a  fountain,  and  opened 
up  an  underground  passage  for  her  to 
Ortygia,  a  small  Sicilian  island  in  the 
harbor  of  Syracuse.  The  river  still  pxir- 
sued  the  nymph,  passing  from  Greece  to 
Sicily  below  the  sea,  without  mingling 
his  waters  with  it,  and  appearing  in  the 
spring  that  bubbles  up  by  the  shore, 
close  by  the  fountain  of  Arethusa. 

ALPHONSO.    See  Alfonso. 

ALPINE  PLANTS,  the  name  given  to 
those  plants  whose  habitat  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  snow,  on  mountains 
partly  covered  with  it  all  the  year 
round.  The  mean  height  for  the  alpine 
plants  of  central  Europe  is  about  6,000 
feet;  but  it  rises  in  parts  of  the  Alps 
and  in  the  Pyrenees  to  9,000,  or  even 
more.  The  high  grounds  clear  of  snow 
among  these  mountains  present  a  very 
well  marked  flora,  the  general  char- 
acters of  the  plants  being  a  low,  dwarf- 
ish habit,  a  tendency  to  form  thick  turfs, 
stems  partly  or  wholly  woody,  and  large, 
brilliantly  colored  and  often  very  sweet- 
smelling  flowers.  In  the  Alps  of  middle 
Europe  the  eye  is  at  once  attracted  by 
gentians,  saxifrages,  rhododendrons, 
primroses  of  different  kinds,  etc. 

ALPS,  the  highest  and  most  extensive 
system  of  mountains  in  Europe,  included 
between  iat.  44°  and  48°  N.,  and  long. 
5°  and  18°  E.,  covering  the  greater  part 
of  northern  Italy,  several  departments 
of  PYance,  nearly  the  whole  of  Switzer- 
land, and  a  large  part  of  Austria.  The 
culminating  peak  is  Mont  Blanc,  15,781 
feet  high,  though  the  true  center  is  the 
St.  Gothard. 

The  Alps  in  their  various  great  divi- 
sions receive  different  names.  The 
Maritime  Alps,  so  called  from  their 
proximity  to  the  Mediterranean,  extend 
westward  from  their  junction  with  the 
Apennines  for  a  distance  of  about  100 
miles;  culminating  points.  Aiguille  de 
Chambeyron,  11,155  feet,  and  Grand 
Rioburent,  11,142  feet;  principal  pass 
the  Col  di  Tende,  6,158  feet,  which  was 
made  practicable  for  carriages  by  Napo- 
leon I.  Proceeding  northward  the  next 
group  consists  of  the  Cottian  Alps, 
length  about  60  miles;  principal  peaks: 
Monte  Visco,  12,605  feet;  Pic  des  Ecrins, 


ALPS 


131 


ALSACE-LORBAINE 


13,462;     Pelvoux,    12,973.      Next    come  to  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Danube.    In  the 

the    Graian    Alps,    50    miles    long,    with  lower    valleys     the    mean    temperature 

extensive    ramifications    in    Savoy    and  ranges  from  50°  to  60°.     Half  way  up 

Piedmont;  principal  peaks:     Aiguille  de  the  Alps  it  averages  about  32° — a  height 

la  Sassiere,  12,326  feet;  Grand  Paradis,  which,   in   the    snowy   regions,    it   never 

13,300;   Grande   Casse,    12,780.     To  this  reaches.      In   respect   to   vegetation   the 

group   belongs    Mont    Cenis,    6,765    feet.  Alps  have  been  divided  into  six  zones: 


HEI6HT 

Feh- 

IS.OOO. 


S  /  ti 


I 


-4- 


1000 


PROFILE     MAP    SHOWING    MAIN     PEAKS    OF    THE    ALPS 


The  Pennine  Alps  form  the  loftiest  por- 
tion of  the  whole  system,  having  Mont 
Blanc  (in  France)  at  one  extremity, 
and  Mont  Rosa  at  the  other  (60  miles), 
and  including  the  Alps  of  Savoy  and  the 
Valais.  In  the  E.  the  valley  of  the 
upper  Rhone  separates  the  Pennine  Alps 
from  the  great  chasm  of  the  Bernese 
Alps.  The  principal  heights  of  the 
Pennine  Alps  are  Mont  Blanc,  15,781 
feet;  Monte  Rosa,  15,217;  Mischabel- 
horner  (Dom),  14,935;  Weisshom, 
14,804;  Matterhorn,  14,780.  In  the  Ber- 
nese Alps,  the  Finsteraarhorn,  14,026; 
Aletschhom,  13,803;  Jungfrau,  13,671. 
The  pass  of  Great  St.  Bernard  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  hospice.  The  eastern- 
most pass  is  the  Simplon,  6,595  feet, 
with  a  carriage  road  made  by  Napoleon 
I.  Further  E.  are  the  Lepontine  Alps, 
divided  into  several  groups.  The  prin- 
cipal pass  is  the  St.  Gothard  (6,936  feet). 
Highest  peaks:  Todi,  11,887  feet;  Monte 
Leone,  11,696.  The  Rhaetian  Alps,  ex- 
tending E.  to  about  lat.  12°  30'  N.,  are 
the  most  easterly  of  the  central  Alps; 
principal  peaks:  Piz  Bernina,  13,294 
feet;  Ortlerspitze,  12,814;  Monte  Ada- 
mello,  11,832.  The  Brenner  Pass,  4,588 
feet,  from  Verona  to  Innsbruck.  The 
eastern  Alps  form  the  broadest  and  low- 
est portion  of  the  system,  and  embrace 
the  Noric  Alps,  the  Camic  Alps,  the 
Julian  Alps,  etc.;  highest  peak,  the 
Grossglockner,  12,045  feet. 

The  Alps  are  very  rich  in  lakes  and 
streams.  Among  the  chief  of  the  for- 
mer are  Geneva,  Constance,  Ziirich, 
Thun,  Brienz,  on  the  N.  side;  on  the  S. 
Maggiore,  Gomo,  Lugano,  Garda,  etc. 
The  drainage  is  carried  to  the  North 
Sea  by  the  Rhine,  to  the  Mediterranean 
by  the  Rhone,  to  the  Adriatic  by  the  Po, 

10 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


The  first  is  the  olive;  the  second,  the  vine; 
the  third,  the  mountainous;  the  fourth, 
the  sub- Alpine  or  coniferous:  the 
fifth,  the  pasture;  and  the  sixth,  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow.  Among  the 
minerals  that  are  obtained  are  iron  and 
lead,  gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  alum,  and 
coal. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE  (al-sas-lo-ran') 
A  naturally  rich  and  historically  inter- 
esting region,  with  fertile  soil  and  ac- 
tive industries.  It  was  ceded  by  France 
to  Germany  in  1871,  and  awarded  to 
France  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  1919. 
Its  utmost  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  123 
miles;  its  breadth  varies  between  22  and 
105  miles;  and  its  area  is  5,580  square 
miles,  of  which  1,353  belong  to  Upper 
Alsace  (in  the  S.),  1,844  to  Lower  Al- 
sace (N.  E.),  and  2,383  to  Lorraine 
(N.  W.).  Pop.  about  2,000,000.  The 
French  speaking  population  is  mainly  in 
the  larger  towns  and  in  Lorraine.  The 
Rhine  flows  115  miles  north-by-eastward 
along  all  the  eastern  boundary,  and  re- 
ceives, below  Strasbourg,  the  111  from 
Alsace,  127  miles  long.  Other  rivers  are 
the  Moselle,  flowing  through  Lorraine 
past  Metz,  and  its  affluent,  the  Saar. 
About  48.5  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area 
is  arable,  11.6  meadow  and  pasture,  and 
30.8  under  wood.  Alsace-Lorraine  pro- 
duces much  wine,  grain,  and  tobacco;  it 
is  rich  in  mines,  iron  and  coal;  and 
manufactures  iron,  cotton,  wool,  silks, 
chemicals,  glass,  and  paper.  It  contains 
the  important  cities  of  Strasbourg  (pop. 
about  200,000);  Mulhouse  (pop.  about 
115,000);  Metz  (pop.  about  85,000).  As 
a  French  province,  Alsace  was  divided 
into  the  departments  of  Haut-Rhin  and 
Bas-Rhin.    Lorraine  fell  into  the  depart- 


ALSBERG 


132 


ALTAB 


ments  of  Meuse,  Moselle,  Meurthe,  and 

In  Caesar's  time  Alsace-Lorraine  was 
occupied  by  Celtic  tribes,  and  formed 
part  of  ancient  Gaul;  but  during  the 
decline  of  the  empire  the  Alemanni  and 
other  tribes  from  beyond  the  Rhine  oc- 
cupied and  largely  Germanized  it.  From 
the  10th  century  it  formed  part  of  the 
German  empire,  under  various  sover- 
eign dukes  and  princes,  latterly  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg;  till  a  part  of  it  was 
ceded  to  France  at  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648),  and  the  rest  fell  a  prey 
to  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
seized  Strasbourg  (1681)  by  surprise  in 
time  of  peace.  By  the  Peace  of  Ryswick 
(1697),  the  cession  of  the  whole  was 
ratified.  In  1814-1815  Russia  would  not 
hear  of  the  restitution  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine to  Germany;  and  not  till  1871, 
after  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  were  Al- 
sace and  German  Lorraine,  by  the  treaty 
of  Frankfort,  incorporated  in  the  new 
German  Empire.  The  great  mass  of  the 
population  were  strongly  against  the 
change,  and  160,000  elected  to  be 
French,  though  only  50,000  went  into 
actual  exile,  refusing  to  become  German 
subjects.  For,  at  least  since  the  era  of 
the  Revolution,  Alsace  in  sentiment  was 
wholly  French,  To  France  she  gave  the 
bravest  of  her  sons — Kellermann,  Kleber, 
and  many  another  hero.  Strasbourg 
first  heard  the  "Marseillaise";  and  MM. 
Erckmann-Chatrian,  Lorrainers  both, 
have  faithfully  represented  their  coun- 
trymen's love  of  La  Patrie  in  the  days 
of  the  third  as  of  the  first  Napoleon. 

France  long  cherished  the  hope  of  re- 
gaining the  lost  territories,  but  had  re- 
signed herself  to  the  inevitable  when  the 
war  of  1914-1918  suddenly  thrust  on  her 
by  Germany  enabled  her,  through  the 
victory  of  the  Allies,  to  realize  her  dream. 
See  France;  World  War. 

ALSBEBG,  CARL  LTJCAS,  an  Ameri- 
can biochemist,  born  in  New  York  In 
1877.  He  graduated  from  Columbia 
University  in  1896  and  later  studied  in 
Germany,  He  was  in  the  chemical  de- 
partment of  Harvard  University  from 
1905  to  1908.  In  the  latter  year  he 
became  chemical  biologist  for  the  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  serving  until 
1912,  when  he  became  Chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Chemistry  in  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  chemical  societies. 

ALSTRCEMERIA  (al-stra-me're-a),  a 
genus  of  South  American  plants,  order 
amaryllidese,  some  of  them  cultivated  in 
European  greenhouses  and  gardens.  A. 
ftalsilla  and  A.  avata  are  cultivated  for 
their  edible  tubers. 


ALTAI  MOUNTAINS  (al'ti),  an  im- 
portant  Asiatic  system  on  the  borders 
of  Siberia  and  Mongolia,  partly  in  Rus- 
sian and  partly  in  Chinese  territory, 
lying  between  lat.  46°  and  53°  N.,  long. 
83°  and  91°  E.,  but  having  great  eastern 
extensions.  The  Russian  portion  is  com- 
prised in  the  governments  of  Tomsk  and 
Semipalatinsk,  the  Chinese  in  Dsungaria. 
The  rivers  of  this  region  are  mostly 
headwaters  of  the  Obi  and  Irtish.  The 
highest  summit  is  Byeluka,  height 
11,000  feet.  The  vegetation  is  varied 
and  abundant.  The  mountain  forests 
are  composed  of  birch,  alder,  aspen,  fir, 
larch,  stone  pine,  etc.  The  wild  sheep 
has  here  its  native  home  and  several 
kinds  of  deer  occur.  The  Altai  are  ex- 
ceedingly rich  in  minerals,  including 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron.  The  in- 
habitants consist  chiefly  of  Russians 
and  Kalmuks. 

ALTAR,  an  erection  made  for  the 
offering  of  sacrifices  for  memorial  pur- 
poses, or  for  some  other  object.  An 
altar  designed  for  sacrifice  is  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Noah   (Genesis  viii:  20). 

At  Sinai  directions  were  given  that 
altars  should  be  of  earth  or  of  stone 
unhewn,  and  that  the  ascent  to  them 
should  not  be  by  steps  (Exod.  xx:  24- 
26),  When  the  tabernacle  worship  was 
established,  there  was  an  altar  of  wood 
covered  with  brass,  designed  for  sacri- 
fice, and  one  overlaid  with  gold,  on 
which  incense  was  burned  (Exod.  xxvii: 
1-8;  xxxi:  1-10).  Both  had  projections 
at  the  four  corners  of  the  upper  surface. 
To  those  of  the  brazen  altar  victims 
were  bound,  and  a  fugitive  from  death 
seizing  hold  of  one  of  these  could  not 
legally  be  dragged  away  to  meet  his 
doom. 

In  the  early  Christian  centuries  altars 
were  generally  of  wood.  During  the  6th 
century  stone  was  employed  in  the  con- 
struction, and  this  continued  to  the  time 
of  the  Reformation. 

In  the  Church  of  Rome  an  altar  is 
essential,  it  being  believed  that  in  the 
mass  an  actual  though  bloodless  sacri- 
fice is  offered  for  sin.  Formerly,  also, 
there  was  an  upper  altar  (superaltare), 
which  was  a  small  portable  one  for  the 
consecration  of  the  communion  elements. 

The  stone  altars,  which  were  in  the 
churches  of  the  Church  of  England  when 
the  Reformation  began,  were  removed 
about  1550,  and  tables  substituted  for 
them. 

Many  of  the  old  ethnic  nations  built 
altars  for  idolatrous  worship  on  the  tops 
of  hills  or  in  groves.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  built  high  altars  to  the  heavenly 


ALTENBUBG 


133 


ALTRANSTADT 


gods,  and  some  of  lower  elevation  to  the 
demigods  and  heroes,  while  they  wor- 
shipped the  infernal  gods  in  trenches 
scooped  out  of  the  ground. 

ALTENBURG  (-borg),  the  capital  of 

the  former  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg, 
situated  on  the  Pleisse,  30  miles  S,  of 
Leipsic.  Standing  on  an  almost  perpen- 
dicular rock  of  porphyry,  the  old  castle 
of  Altenburg  forms  a  striking  feature  in 
the  landscape.  It  is  memorable  as  the 
place  whence,  in  1455,  a  neighboring 
knight,  Kunz  von  Kaufungen,  carried  off 
the  young  Saxon  princes,  Ernest  and 
Albert.  Before  he  could  reach  the  Bohe- 
mian frontier,  he  was  apprehended  by  a 
charcoal  burner,  and  handed  over  to  the 
executioner.  Brushes,  woolen  goods, 
gloves,  and  cigars  are  among  the  manu- 
factures. Pop.  about  45,000.  The 
Duchy  became  a  republic  in  1918. 

ALTERATIVE,  a  kind  of  medicine 
which,  when  given,  appears  for  a  time 
to  have  little  or  no  effect,  but  which 
ultimately  changes,  or  tends  to  change, 
a  morbid  state  into  one  of  health. 

ALTGELD,  JOHN  PETER,  author, 
lawyer,  and  judge,  born  in  Germany,  in 
December,  1847.  He  was  Judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  at  Chicago  in  1886-1901, 
and  Governor  of  Illinois  in  1893.  His 
pardon  of  the  Anarchists  caused  much 
controversy.  He  wrote  "Our  Penal  Ma- 
chinery and  Its  Victims,"  "Live  Ques- 
tions," and  other  books.  He  died  in 
1902. 

ALTISCOPE,  an  instrument  consisting 
of  an  arrangement  of  mirrors  in  a  verti- 
cal framework,  by  means  of  which  a 
person  is  enabled  to  overlook  an  object 
(a  parapet,  for  instance)  intervening  be- 
tween himself  and  whatever  he  desires 
to  see,  the  picture  of  the  latter  being 
reflected  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  mir- 
ror, where  it  is  seen  by  the  observer. 

ALTITUDE,  in  mathematics  the  per- 
pendicular height  of  the  vertex  or  apex 
of  a  plane  figure  or  solid  above  the  base. 
In  astronomy  it  is  the  vertical  height  of 
any  point  of  body  above  the  horizon. 

ALTO,  in  music,  the  highest  singing 
voice  of  a  male  adult,  the  lowest  of  a 
boy  or  a  woman,  being  in  the  latter 
almost  the  same  as  contralto.  The  alto, 
or  counter-tenor,  is  not  a  natural  voice, 
but  a  development  of  the  falsetto. 

ALTON,  a  city  in  Madison  co.,  111., 
on  the  Mississippi  river,  5  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and  on  sev- 
eral trunk  line  railroads;  21  miles  N. 
of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  It  is  built  on  a  high 
limestone  bluff,  and  has  very  pictur- 
esque surroundings.     The  Mississippi   is 


here  spanned  by  a  costly  railroad  bridge, 
and  the  city  is  connected  with  Upper 
Alton,  2  miles  distant,  by  a  trolley  line. 
Alton  has  important  manufactures,  ajid 
a  large  river  trade.  Here  are  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  St. 
Joseph's  Hospital,  Ursuline  Convent  (all 
Roman  Catholic),  Hayner  Memorial 
Public  Library,  Monticello  Seminary, 
Old  Women's  Home,  several  National 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspa- 
pers. Upper  Alton  is  the  seat  of  Shurt- 
leff  College  (Baptist),  and  Wjrman  In- 
stitute. Elijah  P.  Lovejoy,  the  aboli- 
tionist, was  murdered  at  Alton  by  a  mob 
in  1837.  A  monument  to  his  memory 
was  erected  in  1897.  Pop.  (1910) 
17,528;    (1920)    24,682. 

ALTONA,  a  city  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe  river.  Its 
boundary  joins  Hamburg  on  the  east  and 
it  practically  forms  one  city  with  Ham- 
burg. It  is  an  important  trade  center 
and  has  many  important  industrial 
works,  including  cotton  and  woolen  mills, 
iron  foundries,  glass  works,  breweries, 
etc.     Pop.  about  200,000. 

ALTOONA,  a  city  in  Blair  co..  Pa.; 
on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Altoona, 
Clearfield  and  Northern  railroads;  117 
miles  E.  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is  at  the  E. 
base  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  at 
an  elevation  of  1,180  feet  above  sea- 
level,  where  the  railroad  begins  to  as- 
cend the  mountains  at  a  grade  of  90 
feet  to  the  mile.  The  city  contains  ex- 
tensive machine  shops  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad,  large  individual  car 
works,  rolling  and  planing  mills,  a  hos- 
pital, two  convents,  a  public  library, 
general  offices  of  the  Pennsylvania  rail- 
road, and  several  National  banks.  Al- 
toona is  a  mining,  manufacturing,  lum- 
bering, and  farming  trade  center  for 
central  Pennsylvania,  and  has  had  a 
rapid  development.  Pop.  (1910)  52,127; 
(1920)   60,331. 

ALTORF,  or  ALTDORF,  a  town  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  near 
Lake  Lucerne.  A  tower  marks  the  spot 
where  William  Tell  is  said  to  have  shot 
the  apple  from  his  son's  head.  The  ad- 
jacent village  of  Burglen  is  Tell's  tradi- 
tional birthplace.     Pop.  about  4,000. 

ALTO-RILIEVO,  or  ALTO-RELIEVO, 

sculptured  work  of  which  the  figures 
project  more  than  half  their  true  propor- 
tions. When  they  project  just  one-half, 
the  term  used  is  mezzo-relievo;  and 
when  less  than  half,  basso-relievo,  or  in 
English,  bas-relief. 

ALTRANSTADT  (alt'ran-stedt),  an 
important  village  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Saxony,  near  Liitzen.     It  is  fa- 


ALTSHELER 


134 


ALUMINUM 


mous  for  its  castle,  where,  on  Sept,  24, 
1706,  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  signed  the 
peace  with  August  II.,  King  of  Poland. 
By  this  treaty,  August  II.  agreed  to  va- 
cate the  Polish  throne,  not  to  enter  any 
alliances  against  Sweden,  especially  any 
with  the  Czar,  and  to  give  up  the  Liv- 
lander  Patkul,  to  grant  the  Swedish  win- 
ter quarters  in  Saxony,  and  pledge  him- 
self not  to  persecute  the  Evangelical 
Church.  This  treaty  did  not  go  into 
effect  until  Nov.  26,  because  August  felt 
that,  by  reason  of  a  previous  peace,  he 
was  obliged  to  support  the  Russians  in 
their  attack  upon  the  Swedish  General 
Mardefeld.  After  the  defeat  of  Charles 
XII.  at  Poltava,  August  II.,  on  Aug.  8, 
1709,  declared  the  Peace  of  Altranstadt 
to  be  void  under  the  pretext  that  his 
representatives  had  exceeded  their  au- 
thority. Through  the  Treaty  of  Altran- 
stadt of  Aug.  30,  1707,  Charles  XII. 
obtained  from  the  Emperor  Joseph  I. 
religious  liberty  and  toleration  of  the 
Protestants  of  Silesia. 

ALTSHELER,  JOSEPH  ALEXAN- 
DER, an  American  writer,  born  in  Three 
Springs,  Ky.,  in  1862.  He  studied  at  Lib- 
erty College,  Ky.,  and  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity. After  newspaper  work  on  the  staff 
of  the  Louisville  "Courier-Journal,"  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
"World"  in  1892,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  novels  and  stories.  Among  these 
are  "A  Soldier  of  Manhattan"  (1897); 
"The  Horsemen  of  the  Plains"  (1901); 
"The  Border  Watch"  (1912);  "The  For- 
est of  Swords"  (1915);  "The  Hunters  of 
the  Hills"  (1916);  "The  Rulers  of  the 
Lakes"   (1917).    He  died  in  1919. 

ALUM,  the  name  given  to  double  salts 
of  sulphate  of  aluminum  with  sulphates 
of  potassium,  sodium,  ammonium,  or  of 
other  monatomic  metals,  as  silver,  thal- 
lium caesium,  rubidium.  They  crystallize 
in  octohedra.  Potash  alum,  Al2K2(  864)4 
+24H2O,  is  prepared  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  a  shale  containing  iron  pyrites. 
Alum  has  a  sweet  astringent  taste,  red- 
dens litmus  paper,  and  dissolves  in  its 
own  weight  of  boiling  water.  Sodium 
alum  is  very  soluble.  Ammonia  alum  is 
often  prepared  by  adding  the  ammonia 
liquor  of  gas-works  instead  of  potash. 
Alum  is  used  in  dyeing  and  in  preparing 
skins,  etc.  Alum  is  used  in  medicine  as 
an  astringent  in  doses  of  10  to  20  grains. 
Ammonia  alum,  a  mineral,  called  also 
tschermigite.  Feather  alum,  a  mineral, 
called  also  halotrichite.  Iron  alum,  a 
mineral,  called  also  halotrichite.  Mag- 
nesia alum,  a  mineral,  called  also  picker- 
ingite.  Manganese  alum,  a  mineral, 
called   also  apjohnite.     Native   alum,  a 


mineral,  called  also  kalinite.  Soda  alum, 
a  mineral,  called  also  mendozite.  Sac- 
charine alum,  a  composition  made  of 
common  alum,  with  rose-water  and  the 
white  of  eggs  boiled  together  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  paste,  and  thus  capable  of 
being  molded  at  pleasure.  As  it  cools  it 
grows  as  hard  as  an  ordinary  stone. 

ALUMINO-THERMICS,  that  branch 
of  metallurgy  which  has  to  do  with  the 
utilization  of  heat  developed  by  burning 
metallic  aluminum.  Its  chief  uses  are 
to  separate  oxides,  chlorides,  and  sul- 
phides from  other  metals;  to  increase 
the  temperature  of  other  metals  so  that 
they  may  be  welded  by  force  of  pres- 
sure; to  obtain  molten  iron  to  be  used 
in  preparing  broken  iron  and  steel.  It 
was  first  employed  by  Frederick  Wohler, 
the  discoverer  of  aluminum.  The  proc- 
ess was  perfected  by  other  German 
scientists,  especially  by  Hans  Gold- 
schmidt.  He  was  the  first  to  succeed  in 
employing  it  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  now 
used  widely  in  mechanical  engineering. 

ALUMINUM,  a  metal  discovered  by 
Wohler  in  1827,  as  a  gray  powder,  but 
in  1847  in  the  form  of  small,  glittering 
metallic  globules.  In  1854,  H.  St.  Clair 
Deville  isolated  aluminum  into  a  state 
of  almost  perfect  purity.  He  found  that 
aluminum  could  be  prepared  in  a  com- 
pact form  at  a  comparatively  small  ex- 
pense. It  is  a  white  metal,  somewhat 
resembling  silver,  but  possessing  a 
bluish  hue,  which  reminds  one  of  zinc. 
Exposed  to  dry  or  moist  air,  it  is  unal- 
terable, and  does  not  oxidize  or  tarnish 
like  most  common  metals.  Salt  water 
affects  it  less  than  it  does  silver,  tin,  or 
copper.  Neither  cold  nor  hot  water  has 
any  action  upon  it.  When  cast  into 
molds,  it  is  a  soft  metal  like  pure  silver, 
and  has  a  density  of  2.56;  but  when  ham- 
mered or  rolled,  it  becomes  as  hard  as 
iron,  and  its  density  increases  to  2.67. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  very  light  metal,  be- 
ing lighter  than  glass,  and  only  one- 
fourth  as  heavy  as  silver. 

Aluminum  has,  in  recent  years,  come 
into  common  use  for  culinary  utensils 
and  other  domestic  uses,  and  in  manu- 
factured articles  where  strength  and 
lightness  are  requisites.  It  is  espe- 
cially valuable  in  the  making  of  aero- 
planes and  automobiles.  Not  being  acted 
upon  by  organic  secretions,  it  is  used 
for  optical,  surgical,  and  chemical  in- 
struments and  apparatus.  Aluminum 
leaf  and  wire  may  be  employed  with 
great  advantage  in  place  of  silver  leaf 
for  decoration,  or  silver  wire  for  em- 
broidery. Of  late  it  has  come  to  be  used 
in  shipbuilding,  especially  for  torpedo- 
boats.     And  as  it  is  especially  suitable 


ALUNITE 


135 


ALVOBD 


for  cooking-vessels,  efforts  to  cast  it  for 
pots  and  pans  have  often  been  made,  but 
unsuccessfully  till  1895  when  aluminum 
was,  weight  for  weight,  three  times  the 
price  of  copper,  but,  bulk  for  bulk,  the 
cheaper  metal.  In  1855  Napoleon  III,  paid 
the  expense  for  making  industrial  use  of 
aluminum  at  Javel,  Many  other  manu- 
factories of  aluminum  were  also  started 
about  the  same  time  in  France.  In  1856, 
Alfred  Mounier  produced  aluminum  at 
Camden.  In  1857,  the  price  of  alumi- 
num was  from  $28  to  $32  a  pound.  Be- 
tween 1862  and  1877  it  ranged  from  $12 
upwai'd,  and  when  in  1888  electrical 
methods  of  production  were  used,  the 
price  of  aluminum  was  reduced  to  less 
than  $1,  In  recent  years  it  has  dropped 
to  a  quarter  and  even  a  fifth  of  that  price. 

The  sources  most  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  aluminum  are  bauxite,  a  mineral 
first  found  near  Baux,  but  since  then 
found  in  Styria  in  Austria,  in  Ireland, 
and  in  many  places  in  the  United  States; 
and  cryolite,  found  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Greenland.  There  is  no  other  useful 
metal,  iron  not  excepted,  which  is  widely 
scattered  over  the  earth  and  which  oc- 
curs in  such  abundance.  The  value  of 
the  aluminum  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1918  was  $41,159,000.  The  pro- 
duction of  bauxite  was  569,000  long  tons, 
valued  at  $3,244,000.  For  occurrence 
and  production  in  the  United  States,  see 
Bauxite. 

AluTninum  Alloys. — The  aluminum 
bronzes,  now  becoming  so  generally  in- 
troduced, are  the  alloys  of  aluminum 
and  copper,  in  which  the  amount  of  cop- 
per considerably  exceeds  that  of  alumi- 
num. The  value  of  these  aluminum 
bronzes  consists  in  their  non-corrosive 
properties  and  in  their  strength. 

ALUNITE,  a  chemical  compound  of 
aluminum  and  potassium  sulphate.  It  is 
used  as  a  source  of  alum.  It  is  found 
chiefly  in  Europe  and  also  in  several 
parts  of  the  United  States,  especially 
in  Colorado. 

ALVA,  or  ALBA,  FERDINAND  AL- 
VAREZ DE  TOLEDO,  DUKE  OF,  prime 
minister  and  general  of  the  Spanish 
armies  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
was  bom  in  1508.  He  fought  in  the 
wars  of  Charles  V.  in  France,  Italy, 
Africa,  Hungary,  and  Germany.  He  is 
more  especially  remembered  for  his 
bloody  and  tyrannical  government  of  the 
Netherlands  (1567-1573),  which  had  re- 
volted, and  which  he  was  commissioned  by 
Philip  II.  to  reduce  to  entire  subjection 
to  Spain.  Among  his  first  proceedings 
was  to  establish  the  "Council  of  Blood," 
a  tribunal  which  condemned,  without 
discrimination,  all  whose  opinions  were 


suspected,  and  whose  riches  were  cov- 
eted. People  by  hundreds  of  thousands 
abandoned  their  country.  The  most  op- 
pressive taxes  were  imposed,  and  trade 
was  brought  completely  to  a  standstill. 
Resistance  was  only  quelled  for  a  time, 
and  soon  the  provinces  of  Holland  and 
Zealand  revolted  against  his  tyranny.  A 
fleet  which  was  fitted  out  at  his  com- 
mand was  annihilated.  Hopeless  of 
finally  subduing  the  country,  he  asked  to 
be  recalled,  and,  accordingly,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1573,  Alva  left  the  country,  in 
which,  as  he  himself  boasted,  he  had 
executed  18,000  men.  He  was  received 
with  distinction  in  Madrid.  He  had  the 
honor,  before  his  death,  of  reducing  all 
Portugal  to  subjection  to  his  sovereign. 
He  died  Jan.  12,  1582. 

ALVARADO,  PEDRO  DE  (al-va- 
ra'do),  a  famous  comrade  of  Cortes,  was 
bom  at  Badajoz,  toward  the  close  of 
the  15th  century.  In  1518  he  sailed  for 
the  New  World,  and  accompanied  Gri- 
jalva  in  his  exploring  voyage  along  the 
shores  of  the  American  continent.  It 
was  now  that  the  Spaniards  heard  of  the 
riches  of  Montezuma,  and  of  his  vast 
empire.  Alvarado  was  soon  sent  back 
to  Cuba  to  inform  the  Governor,  Velas- 
quez, of  the  result  of  the  expedition. 
In  February,  1519,  he  sailed  with  Cortes 
from  Havana,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  conquest  of  Mexico.  He  died  in 
1541. 

ALVAREZ,  DON  JOSE  (al-va-'rath), 
the  greatest  of  modern  Spanish  sculp- 
tors, was  bom  in  1768,  in  the  province 
of  Cordova.  During  youth  he  labored 
with  his  father,  a  stone-mason ;  and  when 
20  years  old,  began  to  study  drawing 
and  sculpture  in  the  academy  at  Gra- 
nada. In  1794  he  was  received  into  the 
Academy  at  San  Fernando,  where,  in 
1799,  he  gained  the  first  prize  and  a 
grant  to  enable  him  to  study  at  Paris 
and  Rome.  In  Rome,  he  executed  a  fa- 
mous group,  now  in  the  Royal  Museum 
at  Madrid,  representing  a  scene  in  the 
defense  of  Saragossa.  He  died  at  Ma- 
drid in  1827. 

ALVORD,  CLARENCE  WALWORTH, 
an  American  educator,  born  in  Green- 
field, Mass.,  in  1868.  He  graduated  from 
Williams  College  in  1891,  and  afterward 
took  post-graduate  studies  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin  and  the  University  of 
Chicago.  After  having  taught  in  several 
schools  in  Massachusetts,  he  was  ap- 
pointed instructor  in  history  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  in  1897,  and  became, 
successively,  associate  professor,  assist- 
ant professor,  and  full  professor,  the  lat- 
ter in  1913.     He  devoted  special  atten- 


AXWAR 


136 


AMALIA 


tion  to  the  study  of  the  history  of  the 
Middle  West,  was  editor  of  the  "Missis- 
sippi Valley  Historical  Review,"  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  "Illinois  Centennial  His- 
tory," edited  many  volumes  dealing  with 
the  early  history  of  the  Middle  Western 
States,  and  was  the  author  of  "Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  British  Policy"  (1917). 

ALWAB,  a  city  of  India,  about  100 
miles  from  Delhi.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Alwar.  The  tovra  has  several 
important  public  buildings,  including  the 
Royal  Palace  and  several  churches.  Pop. 
about  45,000. 

ALWOOD,  WILLIAM  BRADFORD, 
an  American  horticulturist,  born  in 
Delta,  0.,  in  1859.  He  studied  at  Ohio  State 
University  and  George  Washington  Uni- 
versity and  carried  on  post-graduate 
studies  in  Germany  and  France.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  from  1882  to  1886. 
From  1886  to  1888  he  was  special  agent 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture. From  1888  to  1904  he  was 
vice-director  of  the  Virginia  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.  He  carried  on 
important  researches  in  horticulture  and 
mycology,  was  appointed  enological 
chemist  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  in  1906,  wrote  much  on  horti- 
cultural subjects,  and  was  a  member  of 
many  American  and  foreign  horticultural 
and  other  scientific  societies. 

ALYPIN,  a  drug  used  often  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  cocaine.  It  occurs  as  a  white 
crystalline  powder  having  a  bitter  taste 
and  is  usually  soluble  in  water  and  alco- 
hol. 

AMADETJS,  a  common  name  in  the 
house  of  Savoy.  The  first  who  bore  it 
was  Count  Amadeus,  who  lived  in  the 
11th  century,  but  the  first  to  make  an 
important  figure  in  history  was  Amadeus 
V.  (1249-1323).  Amadeus  VIII.,  born  in 
1383,  secured  the  elevation  of  Savoy  into 
a  duchy.  He  was  elected  Pope  in  1439, 
as  Felix  V.,  but  resigned  later.  Amadeus 
I.,  of  Spain,  bom  in  1845,  son  of  King 
Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  was  elected 
King  of  Spain  in  1870,  abdicated  in  1873, 
and  died  in  1890. 

AMADIS,  a  much  used  name  in  the 
chivalric  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Of 
the  numerous  romances  that  may  be 
grouped  under  it,  that  which  narrates 
the  adventures  of  Amadis  of  Gaul  is  at 
once  the  most  ancient  and"  the  best.  Cas- 
tilian  and  Portuguese  versions  of  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  were  lost.  In- 
stead of  these,  we  have  a  Spanish  ver- 
sion of  almost  100  years  later,  written 
by   Garcia    Ordonez    de   Montalvo    about 


1465,  but  first  printed  in  1508.  This  prose 
romance  is  one  of  the  three  spared  by 
the  licentiate  and  the  barber  at  the  burn- 
ing of  Don  Quixote's  books.  Its  hero  is 
Amadis,  the  model  of  every  knightly  vir- 
tue, son  of  King  Perion  of  Gaul  and  Eli- 
sena.  Princess  of  Brittany.  The  work  is 
wearisome  from  its  length,  but  it  con- 
tains many  pathetic  and  striking  pas- 
sages, and  has  great  value  as  a  mirror 
of  the  manners  of  the  age  of  chivalry. 

The  Spanish  Amadis  romances  consist 
of  12  books,  of  which  the  first  four  con- 
tain the  history  of  Amadis  of  Gaul.  The 
earliest  edition  now  in  existence  bears 
the  date  of  1508.  A  French  trans- 
lation appeared  in  1540,  an  Italian 
in  1546,  and  an  English  in  1588, 
while  a  version  of  German  was  pub- 
lished in  1583.  Lastly,  a  Frenchman, 
Gilbert  Saunier  Duverdier,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17th  century,  arranged  all 
these  romances  into  a  harmonious  and 
consecutive  series,  and  with  his  compila- 
tion in  seven  volumes,  the  "Roman  des 
Romans,"  brought  the  history  of  Amadis 
and  the  series  of  about  50  volumes  to  a 
close.  A  version  of  the  old  romance  in 
French  was  published  by  Creuze  de  Les- 
ser, in  1813;  in  English,  by  William 
Stewart  Rose,  in  1803;  while  the  literary 
skill  of  Southey  produced,  in  1803,  an 
abridgment  that  is  still  readable. 

AMALFI  (am-al'fe),  a  city  and  sea- 
port, in  the  province  of  Salerno,  Italy; 
on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno;  22  miles  S.  E. 
of  Naples.  It  was  founded  in  the  4th 
century;  was  the  birthplace  of  Flavio 
Gioja,  the  inventor  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass; became  the  capital  of  the  republic; 
and  attained  very  large  commercial  im- 
portance. It  contained  a  cathedral  with 
bronze  doors  cast  in  Constantinople  in 
1066,  and  a  Capuchin  monastery.  On  Dec. 
24,  1899,  a  portion  of  the  rocks  and  land 
facing  the  Gulf  suddenly  slid  into  the 
water,  carrying  down  the  ancient  mon- 
astery building  and  other  structures. 
Pop.  about  7,000. 

AMALGAM,  the  union  or  alloy  of  any 
metal  with  quicksilver  (mercury). 

In  mineralogy,  a  mineral  classed  by 
Dana  under  his  "Native  Elements."  It 
occurs  in  Hungary,  the  Palatinate, 
Sweden,  Spain,  Chile,  and  elsewhere. 

Gold  amalgam  is  a  mineral  occurring 
in  white,  crumbling  grains  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  or  in  yellowish-white  four-sided 
prisms.  It  consists  of  gold  39.02,  and 
mercury  60.98.  It  is  found  in  Colombia 
and  in  California. 

AMALIA,  ANNA,  Duchess  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  was  born  in  1739,  and,  left  a 
widow  in  the  second  year  of  her  mar- 


AMANA 


137 


AMATO 


riage  (1758),  by  her  judicious  rule  as 
guardian  of  her  infant  son,  she  enabled 
the  country  to  recover  from  the  effects 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  She  attracted 
to  Weimar  such  men  as  Herder,  Goethe, 
Musaeus,  Schillei-.  The  battle  of  Jena  is 
said  to  have  broken  her  heart;  she  died 
(1807)  six  months  after  that  event. 

AMANA  and  AMANUS,  a  chain  of 
lofty  mountains  separating  Cilicia  from 
Syria.  This  name  was  given  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  geographers,  and  is 
also  sometimes  applied  by  modern  geog- 
raphers to  the  branch  of  Mount  Taurus, 
which,  beginning  at  the  mountain  of  Cape 
Hynzyr,  on  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon,  runs 
in  a  N.  E.  direction  into  the  interior. 

AMANITA,  a  genus  of  hyme7iomycete 
fungi,  nearly  allied  to  the  mushrooms 
agaricus.  Several  of  the  species  are 
edible,  notably  the  delicious  orange  {A. 
csesarea) ,  but  the  majority  are  poison- 
ous. A.  Tmiscaria,  which  is  quite  com- 
mon in  woods,  especially  of  fir  and  beech, 
in  Great  Britain,  is  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  fungi.  It  is  sometimes  called 
fly  agaric,  being  used  in  Sweden  and 
other  countries  to  kill  flies  and  bugs,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  steeped  in  milk.  The 
pileus  or  cap  is  of  an  orange-red  color, 
with  white  warts,  the  gills  white,  and  the 
stem  bulbous.  It  is  used  by  the  Kam- 
chadales  to  produce  intoxication. 

AMARANTACE^,  or  AMARAN- 
THACE.ffi,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  "chenopodal  exogens,  with 
separate  sepals  opposite  the  stamens, 
usually  one-celled  anthers,  a  single  ovary 
often  containing  several  seeds,  and  scari- 
ous  flowers  buried  in  imbricated  bracts." 
The  order  is  divided  into  three  sub-orders 
r—gomphreneae,  achyranthese,  and  celo- 
seae.  About  500  species  are  known.  They 
occur  chiefly  in  the  tropics  of  America 
and  Asia;  a  number  also  are  Australian. 
The  cockscomb,  the  globe  amaranth,  the 
prince's  feather,  and  love-lies-bleeding 
are  found  in  gardens.  Many  amarantha- 
ceas  are  used  as  pot  herbs. 

AMARANTUS,  or  AMARANTHUS, 
a  genus  of  plants,  the  typical  one  of  the 
order  amarantacex.  It  is  placed  under 
the  sub-order  achyranthese.  It  has  green, 
purplish  or  crimson  flowers  in  large 
spiked  clusters,  which  are  very  ornamen- 
tal. A.  melancholicus  and  tri-color  are 
tender  annuals,  and  A.  sangumeus  and 
caudatus  common  border  flowers.  The 
leaves  of  A.  viridis  are  employed  exter- 
nally as  an  emollient  poultice.  A.  obtusi- 
folius  is  said  to  be  diuretic.  A.  debilis 
is  used  in  Madagascar  as  a  cure  for 
syphilis.  The  seeds  of  A.  frumentaceus 
and  A.  anardana  are  used  as  corn  in  India. 


AMARILLO,  a  city  of  Texas,  in  Potter 
CO.  It  is  on  the  Fort  Worth  and  Denver 
City,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Gulf, 
the  Pecos  and  Northern  Texas,  and  the 
Southern  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads. 
It  has  important  agricultural  and  manu- 
facturing interests.  Pop.  (1910)  9,957; 
(1920)    15,494. 

AMARNA  LETTERS,  a  series  of  let- 
ters written  on  clay  tablets  discovered 
in  1887  in  the  village  of  Telel-Amama 
in  Egypt.  The  letters  when  deciphered 
were  found  to  include  the  correspondence 
carried  on  between  the  Egyptian  sov- 
ereign and  his  officers  in  other  countries, 
about  1400  B.  c.  With  three  exceptions 
they  are  written  in  the  cuneiform  char- 
acter. The  letters  throw  invaluable  light 
on  conditions  in  Babylon,  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, and  other  countries  at  that  time. 

AMARYLLIDACE^,  an  order  of 
plants  in  the  narcissal  alliance  of  the 
class  endogens.  The  representatives  of 
the  order  in  the  English  flora  are  narcis- 
sus, gelanthus,  and  leucojum.  Beautiful 
as  they  are,  most  of  them  have  poison- 
ous bulbs.  The  Hottentots  are  said  to 
dip  the  heads  of  their  arrows  in  the 
viscid  juice  of  the  bulbs  of  lisemianthus 
toxicarius  and  some  allied  species.  Sev- 
eral are  emetic,  having  a  principle  in 
their  composition  like  that  of  the  squill. 
Oporanthus  luteus  is  purgative,  ahtro- 
meria  salsilla  diaphoretic  and  diuretic, 
and  amaryllis  omata  astringent.  A  kind 
of  arrowroot  is  prepared  in  Chile  from 
alstromeria  pallida  and  other  species.  A 
liquor  called  pulque  is  made  from  the 
wild  agave  of  Mexico. 

AMATI  (am-a'te),  a  family  of  Cre- 
mona, in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries, 
famous  for  their  violins,  which  are  at 
the  present  time  valued  very  highly  on 
account  of  their  tone.  The  founder  of  the 
violin  works  at  Cremona  was  Andrea 
Amati,  who  died  1577.  His  sons,  An- 
tonio, born  about  1555,  and  Girolamo 
(1556-1630),  brought  to  the  business 
still  greater  fame.  In  1595,  the  famous 
violin  which  was  designed  for  Henry  IV, 
and  is  still  in  existence,  was  made  by 
them.  Girolamo's  son,  NiccoLO,  born  in 
1596,  brought  the  brilliancy  of  the  Cre- 
mona violin  to  the  highest  perfection. 
He  was  the  teacher  of  Stradivarius  and 
Andrea  Guarnerius.  He  died  April  12, 
1684. 

AMATO,  PASQUALE,  an  Italian  bari- 
tone  singer,  bom  in  Naples  in  1878.  He 
studied  music  in  Naples  Conservatory 
and  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Bellini  Theater.  He  made  an  instant 
success  and  within  a  few  years  had  be- 


AMAUROSIS 


138 


AMBASSADOR 


come  one  of  the  leading  baritone  singers. 
He  sang  in  German  and  South  American 
theaters  and  in  1909  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Company 
in  New  York,  appearing  in  each  succes- 
sive season  from  that  date.  He  also 
toured  the  country  as  a  concert  singer 
and  became  widely  and  favorably  known. 

AMAUROSIS,  a  disease  of  the  eye, 
arising  from  impaired  sensibility  of  the 
retina.  Amaurosis  arises  from  inflam- 
mation or  turgescence  of  the  retina, 
from  derangement  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans, from  exercise  of  the  eye  on  min- 
ute objects,  and  from  injury  or  disease 
of  the  fifth  nerve  or  its  branches,  or 
from  injury  of  the  eye  itself. 

AMAZON,  a  river  of  South  America, 
the  largest  in  the  world,  formed  by  a 
great  number  of  sources  which  rise  in 
the  Andes;  the  two  head  branches  being 
the  Tunguragua  or  Maraiion  and  the 
Ucayale,  both  rising  in  Peru,  the  former 
from  Lake  Lauricocha,  in  lat.  10°  29' 
S.,  the  latter  formed  by  the  Apurimac 
and  Urubamba,  the  headwaters  of  which 
are  between  lat.  14°  and  16°  S.;  general 
course  N.  of  E.;  length,  including  wind- 
ings, between  3,000  and  4,000  miles;  area 
of  drainage  basin,  2,300,000  square  miles. 
It  enters  the  Atlantic  under  the  equator 
by  a  mouth  200  miles  wide  divided  into 
two  principal  and  several  smaller  arms 
by  the  large  island  of  Marajo,  and  a 
number  of  smaller  islands.  In  its  upper 
course,  navigation  is  interrupted  by 
rapids,  but  from  its  mouth  upward  for 
a  distance  of  3,300  miles  (mostly  in 
Brazil)  there  is  no  obstruction.  It  re- 
ceives the  water  of  about  200  tributaries. 
Northern  tributaries:  Santiago,  Morona, 
Pastaca,  Tigre,  Napo,  Putumayo,  Ja- 
pura,  Ria  Negro  (the  Cassiquiare  con- 
nects this  stream  with  the  Orinoco),  etc. 
Southern:  Huallaga,  Ucayale,  Javari, 
Jutay,  Jurua,  Coary,  Purus,  Madeira, 
Tapajos,  Xingu,  etc. 

At  Tabatinga,  where  it  enters  Brazil- 
ian territory,  the  breadth  is  1^/4  miles; 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Madeira,  it  is 
3  miles  wide,  and  where  there  are  islands 
often  as  much  as  7;  from  the  sea  to  the 
Rio  Negro,  750  miles  in  a  straight  line, 
the  depth  is  nowhere  less  than  30  fath- 
oms; up  to  the  junction  of  the  Ucayale 
there  is  depth  sufficient  for  the  largest 
vessels.  The  Amazonian  water  system 
affords  some  50,000  miles  of  river  suit- 
able for  navigation.  The  singular  phe- 
nomenon of  the  bore,  or,  as  it  is  called 
on  the  Amazon,  the  pororoca,  occurs  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  at  spring-tides 
on  a  grand  scale.  The  river  swarms 
with  alligators,  turtles,  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  fish.     It  is  a  great  highway  of 


commerce.  The  Amazon  was  discovered 
by  Yanez  Pingon  in  1500,  but  the  stream 
was  not  navigated  by  any  European  till 
1540,  when  Francis  Orellana  descended 
it.  He  stated  that  he  found  on  its  banks 
a  nation  of  armed  women,  and  this  cir- 
cumstance gave  the  name  to  the  river. 

AMAZON,  or  AMAZONE  (from  a  = 
without,  and  -wiazos^the  breast,  from  the 
story  that  the  Amazons  cut  off  their 
right  breast  to  prevent  its  interfering 
with  the  use  of  the  bow),  a  nation  on 
the  river  Thermodon,  the  modern  Ter- 
meh  in  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  said  to 
consist  entirely  of  women  renowned  for 
their  love  of  manly  sports,  and  as  war- 
riors. Men  were  excluded  from  their 
territory,  and  commerce  was  held  only 
with  strangers,  while  all  male  children 
born  among  them  were  killed.  They  are 
mentioned  by  Homer. 

Also  the  females  of  an  Indian  tribe 
on  the  banks  of  the  great  river  Maranon, 
in  South  America,  who  assisted  their 
husbands  when  fighting  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  caused  the  Maranon  to 
receive  the  new  name  of  the  Amazon, 
and  any  female  soldiers,  such  as  the 
band  of  female  warriors  kept  by  the 
King  of  Dahomey  in  Africa. 

In  entomology,  Huber's  name  for  the 
neuters  of  a  red  ant  (polyergus),  which 
are  accustomed  to  sally  forth  in  large 
numbers  from  their  nests,  in  military 
array,  and,  proceeding  to  some  neigh- 
boring anthill  belonging  to  another  spe- 
cies, plunder  it  of  the  larva  of  its  neu- 
ters. These,  when  hatched,  become  a 
kind  of  pariah  caste  in  the  habitation 
of  the  Amazons. 

AMBALA  or  UMBALLA,  a  city  of 
India,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Punjab.  It  is  a  well 
built  town  and  contains  a  handsome 
Gothic  church,  several  hospitals  and  asy- 
lums. It  is  also  an  important  military 
station.     Pop.  about  90,000. 

AMBASSADOR,  a  diplomatic  officer 
of  the  highest  rank,  sent  by  a  sover- 
eign or  nation  to  another  power  to  treat 
on  affairs  of  state,  representing  not  only 
the  affairs,  but  also  the  person,  of  his 
sovereign  or  executive  and  entitled  to  al- 
most equal  respect.  Anciently  ambas- 
sadors were  sent  only  on  special  mis- 
sions, after  the  performance  of  which 
they  returned,  their  functions  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  the  modem  ambas- 
sador extraordinary;  only  in  modern 
times  did  there  originate  the  employment 
of  an  ambassador  residing  permanently 
at  the  seat  of  a  foreign  government,  who 
is  expected  to  familiarize  himself  with 
its   politics   and   to   exert   his    influence 


AMBER 


139 


AMBOYNA 


for  the  advantage  of  his  own  nation. 
At  the  outbreak  of  war  between  his 
own  government  and  that  to  which  he 
has  been  sent,  the  ambassador  is  dis- 
missed or  summoned  to  return.  If  the 
ambassador  appointed  by  one  govern- 
ment be  considered  by  the  state  to  which 
he  is  assigned  personally  disagreeable  or 
not  calculated  to  produce  friendly  rela- 
tions between  the  two  countries,  he  may 
be  objected  to  as  a  persona  non  grata, 
and  his  reception  refused;  but  if  he  is 
actually  received  he  is  entitled  to  each 
and  every  privilege  of  his  office.  These 
privileges  have  never  been  closely  de- 
fined, but  include  the  inviolability  of  the 
person  of  the  ambassador  from  public 
and  private  violence;  immunity  from  all 
jurisdiction,  both  civil  and  criminal,  of 
the  country  in  which  he  is  a  resident; 
and  similar  exemption  from  local  juris- 
diction for  his  family,  household,  and 
retinue.  His  house  is  sacred,  but  he 
cannot  harbor  malefactors.  He  must  re- 
gard the  laws  and  customs  of  the  country 
in  which  he  is  a  resident,  or  complaint 
may  be  made  to  the  government  he  rep- 
resents, and  his  recall  demanded,  or  if 
his  offense  be  serious,  he  may  be  sent 
beyond  its  borders  by  the  offended 
power  and  a  trial  in  his  own  country 
exacted.  In  the  United  States,  jurisdic- 
tion in  all  diplomatic  cases  is  by  the 
Constitution  delegated  to  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  term  ambassador  was  not 
formerly  applied  to  American  diplomatic 
agents,  the  highest  rank  being  envojr  ex- 
traordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary, 
until  1893. 

AMBER,  as  a  mineral,  called  also  suc- 
cinite, from  Latin  succinum=^Sirabev.  Its 
color  is  generally  yellow,  but  sometimes 
reddish,  brownish,  or  whitish  and  clouded. 
It  is  resinous  in  luster,  always  translu- 
cent, and  sometimes  transparent.  It  is 
brittle,  and  yields  easily  to  the  knife.  It 
fuses  at  287°  C.  It  is  also  combustible, 
burning  readily  with  a  yellow  flame,  and 
emitting  an  agreeable  odor.  It  is  also 
highly  electrical,  so  much  so  that  elec- 
tricity is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
elektron,  or  e/e/cfros=amber.  It  is 
found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  It 
is  valued  as  a  gem. 

Pliny  was  correct  when  he  considered 
it  to  be  an  exudation  from  trees  of  the 
pine  family,  like  gum  from  the  cherry, 
and  resin  from  the  ordinary  pine.  Its 
exact  age  is  as  yet  undetermined.  Of 
163  species  of  plants  found  in  it,  30  still 
exist.  Eight  hundred  species  of  insects 
have  also  been  met  with  in  it,  with  re- 
mains of  animals  of  other  classes. 

In  Scripture,  the  word  amber,  Hebrew 
chasmal   (Ezek.  i:  4,  27;  vii:  2),  is  not 


what  is  now  called  by  the  name,  but  a 
mixed  metal. 

AMBERGRIS,  a  substance  derived 
from  the  intestines  of  the  sperm  whale, 
and  found  floating  or  on  the  shore;  yel- 
lowish or  blackish  white;  very  light; 
chiefly  composed  of  a  peculiar  fatty  sub- 
stance. Its  odor  is  very  agreeable,  and 
hence  it  is  used  as  a  perfume. 

AMBLYOPSIS,  a  North  American 
bony  fish,  found  in  the  Mammoth  Cave 
of  Kentucky,  and  interesting  as  illustrat- 
ing in  the  rudimentary  condition  of  its 
eyes  the  effects  of  darkness  and  conse- 
quent disuse.  It  only  measures  a  few 
inches  in  length,  is  colorless,  and  has  its 
small  eyes  covered  by  the  skin.  It  seems 
able,  however,  to  hear  acutely,  and  the 
wrinkles  of  skin  on  its  head  are  regarded 
as  special  feeling  organs.  Wholly  blind 
fishes  are  found  only  in  the  unsunned 
ocean  depths. 

AMBOISE  (amb-waz'),  a  French  town 
in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire, 
on  the  Loire,  15  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Tours.  It  lies  in  a  region  rich  in  vine- 
yards. The  town  is  memorable  for  the 
Huguenot  conspiracy  (1560),  which  cost 
the  lives  of  1,200  Protestants,  and  as 
the  place  whence  was  issued  the  Edict  of 
Amboise  (1563),  conceding  certain  priv- 
ileges to  the  Huguenots.  The  castle  of 
Amboise,  from  1431,  was  a  frequent  resi- 
dence of  the  Valois  kings;  the  birth  and 
death  place  of  Charles  VIII.  Pop.  about 
5,000. 

AMBOISE,  GEORGE  D',  a  French 
Cardinal,  and  Minister  of  State,  born  in 
1460.  He  became  successively  Bishop  of 
Montauban,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne, 
and  of  Rouen.  Louis  XII.  made  him 
Prime  Minister.  He  reformed  the 
Church,  remitted  the  people's  burdens, 
and  conscientiously  labored  to  promote 
the  public  happiness.    Died  in  1510. 

AMBOYNA,  AMBOINA,  APON,  or 
THAU,  the  most  important  of 
the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands  belonging 
to  the  Dutch,  lies  S.  W.  of  Ceram,  and 
N.  W.  of  Banda.  Area,  265  square 
miles.  Population  about  40,000,  near- 
ly a  third  Mohammedans.  A  bay  runs 
into  the  island  lengthwise,  forming  two 
peninsulas,  the  noi'thern  called  Hitu,  and 
the  southern  Leitimor.  Amboyna  is 
mountainous,  well  watered,  fertile,  and 
healthy.  Clove,  sago,  mango,  and  cocoa- 
nut  trees  are  abundant,  also  fine  timber 
for  cabinet  work.  The  Dutch  took  Am- 
boyna from  the  Portuguese  in  1605.  The 
British  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the 
Dutch  in  the  terrible  Amboyna  massacre 
of   1623,  for  which,  in   1654,   Cromwell 


AMBBIDQE 


140 


AMENEMHAT 


exacted  compensation.  The  British  held 
the  island,  1796-1802.  It  finally  became 
Dutch  in  1814.  Amboyna,  capital  of  the 
Dutch  Moluccas,  is  situated  on  the  N. 
W.  shore  of  Leitimor,  on  the  Bay  of  Am- 
boyna, and  has  a  good  roadstead.  The 
government  buildings  are  in  Fort  Vic- 
toria. 

AMBRIDGE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Beaver  co.,  about  16  miles  N. 
W.  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad  and  the  Ohio  river.  It  is 
an  important  industrial  center  having 
manufactures  of  bridges,  m^tal  moldings, 
and  tubes.  Pop.  (1910)  5,205;  (1920) 
12,730. 

AMBRIZ  (am-breth'),  a  seaport  and 
region  in  the  Portuguese  colony  of  An- 
gola, on  the  coast  of  Old  Guinea,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Loje.  The  official  name  is 
Oporto  do  Ambriz  or  Mbrish.  It  has  a 
number  of  factories  and  a  trade  in  India 
rubber,  coffee,  and  palm  oil.  Its  former 
trade  in  ivory  is  now  transferred  to 
Nokki  and  other  places  on  the  Kongo. 

AMBROSE,  ST.,  a  celebrated  father 
of  the  Church;  born  in  333  or  334  A.  D., 
probably  at  Treves,  where  his  father  was 
prefect;  died  in  397.  He  was  educated 
at  Rome,  studied  law,  practiced  as  a 
pleader  at  iViilan,  and,  in  369,  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Liguria  and  Emilia 
(north  Italy).  His  kindness  and  wisdom 
gained  him  the  esteem  and  love  of  the 
people,  and,  in  374,  he  was  unanimously 
called  to  the  bishopric  of  Milan,  though 
not  yet  baptized.  For  a  time  he  refused 
to  accept  this  dignity,  but  he  had  to  give 
way,  and  at  once  ranged  himself  against 
the  Aryans.  In  his  struggle  against  the 
Aryan  heresy  he  was  opposed  by  Justina, 
mother  of  Valentinian  II.,  and  for  a 
time  by  the  young  Emperor  himself,  to- 
gether with  the  courtiers  and  the  Gothic 
troops.  Backed  by  the  people  of  Milan, 
however,  he  felt  strong  enough  to  deny 
the  Aryans  the  use  of  a  single  church 
in  the  city.  He  had  also  to  carry  on  a 
war  with  paganism,  Symmachus,  the  pre- 
fect of  the  city,  an  eloquent  orator,  hav- 
ing endeavored  to  restore  the  worship  of 
heathen  deities.  In  390,  on  account  of 
the  ruthless  massacre  at  Thessalonica, 
ordered  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  he 
refused  him  entrance  into  the  church  of 
Milan.  He  wrote  Latin  hymns,  intro- 
duced the  Ambrosian  chant,  and  compiled 
a  form  of  ritual  known  by  his  name. 

AMBROSIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
food  of  the  gods,  as  nectar  was  their 
drink. 

AMBULANCE,  a  hospital  establish- 
ment which  accompanies  an  army  in  its 
movements  in  the  field  for  the  purpose  of 


providing  assistance  and  surgical  treat- 
ment to  the  soldiers  wounded  in  battle. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  one  of  the 
carts  or  wagons  used  to  transfer  the 
wounded  to  the  hospital.  Americans  of 
both  sexes  volunteered  for  ambulance  serv- 
ice in  France  almost  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  World  War  of  1914-1918. 
Thousands  of  American  ambulances,  de- 
vices, drivers,  and  attendants  were  em- 
ployed on  the  battle  fields  of  France, 
Italy,  and  Russia  after  America  entered 
the  war.    See  Red  Cross. 

AMEN,  a  Hebrew  word  of  assever- 
ation, equivalent  to  "Yea,"  "Truly," 
which  has  been  commonly  adopted  in  the 
forms  of  Christian  worship.  In  Jewish 
synagogues,  the  "Amen"  is  pronounced 
by  the  congregation  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  benediction  given  at  parting.  Among 
the  early  Christians,  the  prayer  offered 
by  the  presbyter  was  concluded  by  the 
word  "Amen,"  uttered  by  the  whole  con- 
gregation (cf.  I  Cor.  xiv:  16).  Accord- 
ing to  Tertullian,  none  but  the  faithful 
were  permitted  to  join  in  the  response. 
In  the  Greek  Church,  this  word  was  pro- 
nounced after  the  name  of  each  person 
of  the  Trinity;  and,  at  the  close  of  the 
baptismal  formula,  th.e  people  responded. 
At  the  conclusion  of  prayer,  it  signifies 
(according  to  the  English  Church 
Cathechism)  "So  be  it";  after  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  creed,  "So  is  it."  The  Roman 
Catholic  version  of  the  New  Testament 
(Rheims  1582),  substitutes  "Amen"  for 
the  "Verily"  of  our  authorized  version, 
it  being  the  word  used  in  the  original 
Greek.  The  Mohammedans  also  use  this 
word  in  their  service. 

AMENDMENT,  in  law,  the  correction 
of  any  mistake  discovered  in  a  writ  or 
process. 

In  legislative  proceedings,  a  clause, 
sentence,  or  paragraph  proposed  to  be 
substituted  for  another,  or  to  be  inserted 
in  a  bill  before  Congress,  and  which,  if 
carried,  actually  becomes  part  of  the 
bill  itself.  As  a  rule^  amendments  do 
not  overthrow  the  principle  of  a  bill. 

In  public  meetings,  a  proposed  altera- 
tion of  the  terms  of  a  motion  laid  before 
a  meeting  for  acceptance.  This  amend- 
ment may  be  so  much  at  variance  with 
the  essential  character  of  the  motion 
that  a  counter  motion  would  be  its  more 
appropriate  name. 

AMENEMHAT  (am-en'em-hat),  of 
AmenemJia,  the  name  of  four  Egyptian 
kings  of  the  12th  dynasty.  The  first, 
called  Sehotep-ab  Ra,  the  founder  of 
the  dynasty,  reigned  about  2466  B.  C; 
was  successful  as  a  ruler  and  general, 
0r\c{  huilt  the  temple  of  Amun,  in  Thebes. 


AMENHOTEP 


141 


AMERICANIZATION 


The  second,  called  Nub-kan  Ra,  reigned 
in  2400  B.  c.  The  third,  called  Maa-en 
-Ra,  reigned  in  2300  B.  c.  He  built  a 
great  reservoir  in  the  oasis  of  Fayum, 
connected  with  the  Nile  by  a  canal  in 
order  to  regulate  the  flow  of  the  water 
and  improve  its  usefulness.  He  built 
also,  beside  the  Lake  Moeris,  the  great 
temple  called  the  Labyrinth  and  pyra- 
mid of  his  tomb.  The  fourth,  called 
Maatkhern  Ra,  reigned  2266  B.  c. 

AMENHOTEP  (am-en'ho-tep),  or 
AMENOPHIS,  the  name  of  four  Egyp- 
tian kings  of  the  18th  dynasty.  The  first, 
Ser-ka  Ra,  reigned  about  1666  B.  c,  and 
carried  on  successful  wars  in  Ethiopia 
and  Libya.  The  second,  called  Aa-khe- 
PERU  Ra,  reigned  in  1566  B.  c,  and  made 
a  successful  campaign  in  Asia.  The 
third,  the  most  famous,  was  the  9th  of 
the  18th  dynasty,  known  as  MajVT-neb 
Ra,  reigned  about  1500  B.  C.  During  his 
reign  Egypt  stretched  from  Mesopotamia 
to  the  country  of  Karo  in  Abyssinia.  He 
also  built  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile 
a  series  of  marvelous  monuments.  The 
temple  at  Gebel-Barkal  in  the  Sudan 
was  erected  by  this  King.  He  added  con- 
siderably to  the  temple  of  Karnak  and 
that  part  of  the  temple  of  Luxor  which 
bears  his  name;  also  erected  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite  Luxor,  a  sa- 
cred edifice  which  once  must  have  been 
one  of  the  most  important  in  Egypt,  of 
which  now  only  the  enormous  colossi  are 
left,  which  are  portrait  statues  of  him- 
self. He  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Am- 
mon.  The  fourth  was  known  as  Khun- 
ATEN  and  reigned  in  1466  B.  c,  and  made 
an  innovation  in  religion  by  substituting 
the  new  worship  of  Aten  (the  sun's  disk) 
for  that  of  Amun  and  other  Egyptian 
deities.  He  also  moved  the  capital  from 
Thebes  to  a  place  in  the  middle  of  Egypt, 
the  modem  Tel-el  Amaxna. 

AMERICA,  the  grand  land  division 
oi  the  western  hemisphere  of  the  world, 
comprising  North,  Central,  and  South 
America,  the  West  Indies  and  other  adja- 
cent islands.  Although  the  indigenous 
inhabitants  of  the  greater  part  of 
America  display  no  family  connection 
with  the  other  races  of  the  earth,  the 
Eskimos  of  the  Arctic  regions  are  un- 
questionably of  Mongolian  origin.  By 
many  it  is  believed  that  the  earliest  dis- 
covery of  America  was  by  the  Chinese. 
According  to  a  circumstantial  Chinese 
narrative,  the  voyager  Hwui-Shan,  at 
the  end  of  the  5th  century  A.  D.,  sailed 
32,000  li  E.  to  the  Fu-Sang  country. 
Moreover,  students  of  the  ancient  Mex- 
ican and  Peruvian  civilizations  find  in 
them  evidences  of  the  imitation  of 
Chinese   institufons   and   practices. 


The  first  European  voyages  to  Ameri- 
can shores  were  made  by  the  Northmen, 
who,  in  the  middle  of  the  10th  century, 
discovered  and  colonized  Greenland,  and 
(about  1001)  visited  the  coasts  of  New 
England,  where  they  established  settle- 
ments. In  1492  Columbus  discovered  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  1498  the  mainland  of 
South  America;  the  first  navigator  to 
reach  the  North  American  mainland  was 
Cabot  (1497).  The  circumstances  of  the 
origin  of  the  name  America  are  highly 
interesting.  Amerigo  Vespucci,  a  navi- 
gator of  Florence,  undertook  four  voy- 
ages across  the  Atlantic— in  1497,  1499, 
1501,  and  1503.  He  described  his  ex- 
periences in  a  series  of  letters,  addressed 
to  his  friend  Soderini,  gonfalonier  of 
Florence,  and  to  other  gentlemen.  These 
letters  were  translated  by  Martin  Wald- 
seemiiller,  a  German  schoolmaster  and 
cosmographer  at  St.  Die  in  Lorraine,  and 
incorporated  by  him  in  a  treatise,  "Cos- 
mographiae  Introductio,"  published  in 
1507.  In  his  preface  Waldseemiiller  pro- 
posed that  "this  fourth  part  of  the 
world"  should  be  called,  after  its  discov- 
erer, a  man  of  sagacious  mind,  by  the 
name  of  Amerige — that  is  to  say,  the 
land  of  Americus  or  America,  since  both 
Europe  and  Asia  have  obtained  the  name 
of  women."  The  mature  judgment  of 
historical  specialists  acquits  Vespucci  of 
any  collusion  or  participation  in  the  nam- 
ing of  America,  and  places  the  respon- 
sibility wholly  upon  the  obscure  Vosgian 
pedagogue.  The  two  American  conti- 
nents, with  their  N.  and  S.  islands,  have 
a  length  of  about  8,280  geographical 
miles,  covering  138  degrees  of  latitude. 
Their  extreme  E.  and  W.  points  are  sep- 
arated by  131%  degrees  of  longitude. 
The  combined  area  is  estimated  at  16,- 
000,000  square  miles;  the  population  at 
200,000,000. 

AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LA- 
BOR. See  Labor,  American  Federa- 
tion   OF. 

AMERICAN  INDIANS.  See  INDIANS, 
American. 

AMERICANIZATION.  This  term  was 
brought  into  general  use  during  the 
organization  of  "Americanization  Day" 
celebrations  in  a  number  of  cities  for 
July  4,  1915.  It  properly  refers  to  the 
"science  of  race  assimilation" — the  proc- 
ess of  making  an  American  people  out  of 
the  vast  army  of  immigrants  who  have 
come  from  every  nation  of  the  world  to 
seek  homes  in  the  United  States.  The 
term  has  consequently  been  applied  some- 
what indiscriminately  to  a  wide  variety 
of  activities  among  the  foreign  born  on 
the  assumption  that  such  programs  con- 


AMERICANIZATION 


142 


AMERICANIZATION 


tribute  to  the  process  of  race  assimilation 
in  America. 

Interest  in  this  fundamental  problem 
of  American  democracy  had  been  increas- 
ing for  many  years  before  such  programs 
were  designated  "Americanization."  The 
publication  of  the  report  of  the  United 
States  Immigration  Commission  in  1911 
marked  the  culmination  of  an  attempt  to 
formulate  a  constructive  national  policy 
toward  immigration  and  naturalization 
and  has  been  the  basis  of  many  of  the 
programs  adopted  since. 

Public  interest  in  the  foreign  born 
was  quickened  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War  which  revealed  the  intense 
nationalistic  feeling  of  many  foreign- 
born  groups  in  America  and  their  utter 
ignorance  of  and  even  estrangement  from 
the  daily  life  of  the  American  people. 
This  situation  came  to  be  seriously  con- 
sidered as  a  problem  of  national  defense 
when  it  became  clear  that  the  United 
States  would  enter  the  conflict,  and  a 
systematic  campaign  of  patriotic  edu- 
cation among  the  foreign  born  was  com- 
menced at  once  by  the  Councils  of  Na- 
tional Defense,  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  the  Interior,  the  Food  Ad- 
ministration and  other  Government 
agencies  charged  with  the  task  of  unit- 
ing the  American  people  in  support  of 
the  war  aims  of  the  nation.  The  em- 
phasis was  gradually  shifted  from  emer- 
gency propaganda  to  a  long-time  edu- 
cational program,  when  a  study  of  con- 
ditions in  the  draft  army  made  by  the 
Surgeon-General's  Office  showed  con- 
clusively that  from  18  per  cent,  to  42 
per  cent,  of  the  men  in  army  camps  were 
unable  to  read  a  newspaper  or  to  write 
a  letter  home,  and  that  in  the  Northern 
and  Middle  Western  States  these  illiter- 
ates were  almost  entirely  foreign  born 
whites.  Indications  were  that  barriers 
to  any  understanding  of  American  aims 
and  interests  were  even  more  marked 
than  this  among  the  older  men  and  the 
women  in  the  foreign  colonies  within 
America.  The  hole  nation  was  aroused 
to  the  situation  and  hundreds  of  Ameri- 
canization agencies  sprang  up  overnight. 

National  Program. — The  leadership  in 
the  national  movement  was  assumed  by 
Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior, who  enlisted  the  co-operation  of 
the  National  Council  of  Defense  and 
the  National  Americanization  Committee, 
through  the  Bureau  of  Education,  In 
March,  1919,  connection  with  the  Na- 
tional Americanization  Committee  was 
severed  and  a  Federal  Division  of  Amer- 
icanization, headed  by  Mr.  Fred  C. 
Butler,  was  organized  as  a  part  of  the 
Bureau.  Eleven  "regional  directors" 
represented     the     Washington     division 


throughout  the  United  States.  Permanent 
financial  support  of  this  division  was  pro- 
vided for  in  the  Smith-Bankhead  Ameri- 
canization bill,  but  the  failure  of  this 
measure  to  pass  caused  the  discontin- 
uance of  the  division  at  the  close  of  1919. 
Interest  in  Americanization  legislation 
was  again  roused  by  the  investigation 
of  the  steel  strike  in  the  fall  of  1919 
by  the  Education  and  Labor  Committee 
of  the  Senate.  This  committee  became 
convinced  of  the  need  of  education  of 
the  adult  foreign  born  and  introduced 
the  Kenyon  bill  which  (amended)  pro- 
vided for  an  appropriation  of  $6,500,000 
for  the  year  1920-1921  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  illiterates  and  non-English- 
speaking  adults.  This  sum  was  to  have 
been  spent  through  the  various  States, 
on  condition  that  each  State  should  ap- 
propriate a  sum  equal  to  its  share  of 
the  Federal  grant  and  should  make  at- 
tendance at  classes  compulsory  for  il- 
literate and  non-English-speaking  per- 
sons from  16  to  45  years.  The  measure 
passed  the  Senate  in  January,  1920,  but 
was  not  voted  upon  in  the  House. 

Simultaneously  with  the  Americani- 
zation program  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  the  Department  of  Labor, 
through  its  Bureau  of  Naturalization, 
has  been  active  in  stimulating  a  pro- 
gram of  education  in  citizenship  through- 
out the  country,  working  through  State 
and  local  boards  of  education,  as  well 
as  through  the  courts  and  the  industries. 

State  and  City  Programs. — Prior  to  the 
war,  practically  nothing  had  been  done 
in  the  individual  States  toward  develop- 
ing a  definite  policy  toward  immigration. 
Notable  exceptions  to  this  rule  were  Cali- 
fornia and  New  York,  where  permanent 
Commissions  on  Immigration  have  been 
functioning  for  some  years.  During 
1917  and  1918,  thirty  States  organized 
Americanization  committees — usually  as 
a  part  of  State  Defense  Council  pro- 
grams— and  six  had  appointed  State  di- 
rectors of  Americanization.  A  large 
number  of  these  States  passed  laws  pro- 
viding facilities  for  the  education  of 
adult  immigrants ;  a  few  made  attendance 
at  school  compulsory  for  non-English- 
speaking  adults  under  45.  Most  of  these 
State  committees  went  out  of  existence 
with  the  Defense  Councils,  but  a  number 
have  been  continued  and  developed,  either 
as  departments  of  State  Divisions  of  Uni- 
versity Extension  {e.  q.  Massachusetts, 
New  York)  or  as  separate  departments, 
attached  more  or  less  closely  to  the  State 
Boards  of  Education  (e.  g.,  Connecticut 
Delaware,  Maryland).  A  number  of  city 
Americanization  committees  survived  the 
armistice  and  developed  constructive  pro- 
grams.    Outstanding  features  of  typical 


AMERICANIZATION 


143 


AMERICAN  PARTY 


State  and  city  programs  follow: 

(1)  The  drive  against  illiteracy  (as  in 
New  York  State,  where  the  elimination 
of  illiteracy  has  been  adopted  as  a  definite 
goal). 

(2)  Improvement  of  facilities  for  im- 
migrant education  (as  in  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Ohio, 
California,  and  other  States,  where 
teachers  have  been  given  special  train- 
ing, methods  have  been  standardized, 
attendance  stimulated,  and  definite 
studies  of  results  made). 

(3)  Intensive  training  of  aliens  in 
constructive  citizenship — particularly  in 
Massachusetts,  where  standards  have 
been  greatly  improved. 

(4)  Home  classes  for  immigrant 
women — particularly  in  California,  where 
teachers  are  paid  by  the  State  to  teach 
groups  of  women  in  their  own  homes. 

(5)  Industrial  classes  in  which  im- 
migrant workers  are  given  lessons  in 
English  and  citizenship  in  factories  and 
shops,  either  on  their  own  time,  or  on 
the  employer's,  or  both.  This  work  is 
usually  run  under  private  auspices,  but 
is  often  under  the  direction  of  State  or 
city  educational  authorities,  as  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut,  New  York,  Ohio, 
and  other  States. 

(6)  Prevention  of  exploitation  of  the 
immigrant,  handled  by  private  agencies 
in  many  States  and  cities,  but  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Americanization  pro- 
grams of  California,  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Delaware,  and  other  States. 

(7)  Stimulation  of  self-expression  of 
the  foreign  born  and  of  mutual  sympathy 
among  all  groups  through  pageants, 
parades,  homeland  exhibits,  etc.  This 
has  been  done  by  scores  of  city  com- 
mittees and  notably  by  the  New  York 
State  Division  of  University  Extension. 

(8)  Recreational  work  and  commun- 
ity organization.  (Chiefly  by  city  com- 
mittees and  boards  of  education,  but 
sometimes  as  a  part  of  a  State  pro- 
gram, as  in  Delaware.) 

Pnvate  Organizations. — Huge  sums 
have  been  raised  by  numerous  religious 
and  patriotic  organizations  for  various 
activities  among  immigrants.  In  some 
instances  the  contribution  made  by  these 
programs  to  the  process  of  American- 
ization, or  race  assimilation,  is  neces- 
sarily subordinated  to  the  special  aims 
and  interests  for  which  these  groups 
were  organized;  in  other  cases  the  work 
is  exactly  similar  to  the  public  programs 
outlined  above.  Among  the  religious 
groups  carrying  on  systematic  pro- 
grams of  work  among  immigrants  are 
most  of  the  larger  Protestant  denomina- 
tions, the  National  Catholic  War  Coun- 


cil, the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  the 

Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Y.  M.  H.  A., 
and  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  Extensive  cam- 
paigns have  been  conducted  by  such  pa- 
triotic organizations  as  the  National  Se- 
curity League,  the  Sons  and  Daughters 
of  the  American  Revolution,  and  the  Co- 
lonial Dames  of  America.  The  National 
Chamber  of  Commerce  and  hundreds  of 
city  chambers  have  done  systematic  and 
successful  work.  The  National  Federa- 
tion of  Women's  Clubs  and  the  National 
Council  of  Jewish  Women  have  adopted 
definite  and  comprehensive  programs  of 
work.  Incidentally,  the  contribution  to 
the  process  of  race  assimilation  made 
steadily  for  many  years  by  the  public 
libraries,  countless  social  settlements, 
immigrant  aid  societies,  and  legal  aid 
bureaus  has  been  more  widely  recog- 
nized as  the  Americanization  movement 
developed. 

AMERICAN  LEGION,  an  organi- 
zation composed  of  members  who  served 
in  the  United  States  army  or  navy  dur- 
ing the  World  War.  It  was  incorporated 
Sept.  16,  1919,  though  it  had  been  infor- 
mally organized  in  Paris  in  the  preced- 
ing March.  The  preamble  to  its  consti- 
tution sets  forth  its  objects  as  being  "to 
uphold  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America;  to  maintain 
law  and  order;  to  foster  and  perpetuate 
a  hundred  per  cent.  Americanism;  to  pre- 
serve the  memories  and  incidents  of  our 
association  in  the  Great  War;  to  incul- 
cate a  sense  of  individual  obligation  to 
the  community,  state,  and  nation ;  to  com- 
bat the  autocracy  of  both  the  classes  and 
the  masses;  to  make  right  the  master 
of  might;  to  promote  peace  and  good  will 
on  earth;  to  safeguard  and  transmit  to 
posterity  the  principles  of  justice,  free- 
dom, and  democracy;  to  consecrate  and 
sanctify  our  comradeship  by  our  devotion 
to  mutual  helpfulness."  The  legion  aims 
to  be  non-political  and  not  to  promote 
candidacy  of  persons  seeking  public  office. 
Its  first  national  convention  was  held  at 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  Nov.  10-11, 1919.  Col. 
F.  W.  Gailbraith,  national  commander  for 
1921,  was  killed  in  an  accident  on  June  9, 
1921.  John  W.  Emery,  of  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.,  was  elected  on  June  14,  1921,  to 
succeed  F.  W.  Gailbraith.  The  national 
headquarters  are  in  New  York  City. 

AMERICAN  PARTY,  THE,  the  name 
of  three  separate  organizations  which  at 
different  times  held  a  prominent  place  in 
the  political  affairs  of  the  United  States. 
The  first,  organized  about  1852,  at  a 
time  when  the  Whig  party  was  near  its 
dissolution  was,  in  fact,  a  secret  society, 
and  was  better  known  in  later  years  as 
the  "Know  Nothings,"  from  the  assumed 


AM.  PROTECTIVE  ASSOCIATION     144 


AMERICA'S  CUP 


ignorance  of  its  members  when  ques- 
tioned in  regard  to  the  objects  and  name 
of  the  order.  Its  principal  doctrine  was 
opposition  to  all  foreigners  and  Roman 
Catholics,  and  its  motto  was  "Americans 
must  rule  America."  The  first  National 
Convention  of  the  party  was  held  in 
February,  1856,  at  which  resolutions 
were  adopted,  demanding  a  lengthening 
of  the  residence  necessary  to  naturaliza- 
tion, and  condemning  President  Pierce's 
administration  for  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise.  A  number  of  the 
members  withdrew  because  of  the  re- 
fusal to  consider  a  resolution  regarding 
the  restriction  of  slavery.  Millard 
Fillmore,  of  New  York,  was  nomi- 
nated for  President,  and  Andrew  Jackson 
Donelson  for  Vice-President,  which 
nominations  were  subsequently  indorsed 
by  the  Whig  Convention.  Fillmore  carried 
but  one  State,  Maryland.  The  party  was 
successful  in  carrying  the  State  elections 
in  Rhode  Island  and  Maryland  in  1857, 
but  never  gained  any  popularity  in  the 
Western  States.  A  second  party,  bearing 
the  same  name,  but  directly  adverse  to 
the  first  in  that  it  was  founded  in  opposi- 
tion to  secret  societies,  was  organized 
for  political  purposes  by  the  National 
Christian  Association.  The  organization 
was  completed  and  the  name  adopted  at 
a  convention  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1874. 
At  Pittsburgh,  June  9,  1875,  a  platform 
was  adopted  in  which  were  demanded 
recognition  of  the  Sabbath,  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Bible  into  public  schools,  pro- 
hibition of  the  sale  of  liquors,  the  restric- 
tion of  land  monopolies,  resumption  of 
specie  pajrnent,  etc.  James  B.  Walker 
of  Illinois  was  nominated  for  President. 
In  1880,  the  party  again  made  nomina- 
tions, and  in  1884,  S.  C.  Pomeroy  was 
nominated,  but  withdrew  in  favor  of 
John  P.  St.  John,  the  Prohibition  candi- 
date. The  third  party  to  be  called  by  the 
name  of  American  party  was  organized 
at  a  convention  held  at  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  16-17,  1887.  Its  principal  aims,  as 
set  forth  in  its  platform,  were:  To  oppose 
the  existing  system  of  immigration  and 
naturalization  of  foreigners;  to  demand 
its  restriction  and  regulation  so  as  to 
make  a  14-years'  residence  a  prerequisite 
of  naturalization;  to  exclude  from  the 
oenefits  of  citizenship  all  anarchists, 
socialists,  and  other  dangerous  char- 
acters, etc. 

AMERICAN  PROTECTIVE  ASSOCI- 
ATION, popularly  known  as  the  "A.  P. 
A.,"  a  secret  order  organized  throughout 
ttie  United  States,  with  branches  in  Can- 
ada. Its  chief  doctrine  is  that  "subjec- 
tion to  and  support  of  any  ecclesiastical 
power    not    created    and    controlled    by 


American  citizens,  and  which  claims 
equal,  if  not  greater,  sovereignty  than 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  is  irreconcilable  with  American 
citizenship";  and  it  accordingly  opposes 
"the  holding  of  offices  in  National,  State, 
or  Municipal  Government  by  any  sub- 
ject or  supporter  of  such  ecclesiastical 
power."  Another  of  its  cardinal  pur- 
poses is  to  prevent  all  public  encourage- 
ment and  support  of  sectarian  schools. 
It  does  not  constitute  a  separate  political 
party,  but  seeks  to  control  existing 
parties.  The  order  was  founded  March 
13,  1887,  and  at  one  time  had  2,000,000 
members.    It  has  virtually  died  out. 

AMERICAN  PROTECTIVE  LEAGUE. 

See  Protective  League,  American. 

AMERICAN  PSYCHOLOGICAL  AS- 
SOCIATION, an  organization  founded  in 
1892  for  the  advancement  of  psychology 
as  a  science.  Office  of  Secretary,  Smith 
College,  Northampton.  Mass. 

AMERICAN  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  AS. 
SOCIATION,  a  society  organized  in  1865 ; 
meets  annually  in  certain  selected  cities. 

AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  EN- 
GINEERS, an  association  instituted  in 
1852.  Home,  29  W,  39th  St.,  New  York 
City.    It  has  over  8,000  members. 

AMERICAN  SOCIETY  OF  MECHAN- 
ICAL ENGINEERS,  an  organization 
chartered  in  1881.  Home,  29  W.  39th 
St.,  New  York  City.  Publishes  "The 
Journal,"  a  monthly.  Maintains  a  li- 
brary of  60,000  books  and  10,000  pam- 
phlets. 

AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY,  THE,  a 
coeducational  post-graduate  institution 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1893,  Chancellor,  Bishop  John 
W.  Hamilton,  LL.  D. 

AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY  UNION 
IN  EUROPE,  an  association  of  Ameri- 
can universities  and  colleges,  founded  in 
Paris,  to  meet  the  needs  of  their  stu- 
dents and  graduates  in  Europe  for  mili- 
tary or  other  service  in  the  World  War. 
During  the  war  headquarters  were  main- 
tained in  Paris  and  London.  The  union 
provided  a  home  with  the  privileges  of  a 
club  to  the  students  of  the  colleges  affil- 
iated with  it.  Most  of  the  leading  col- 
leges of  the  United  States  were  members 
of  the  union,  which  performed  useful 
services  during  the  war  and  after. 

AMERICA'S  CUP,  a  yachting  trophy, 
originally  known  as  the  Queen's  Cup, 
offered  as  a  prize  to  the  yachts  of  all 
nations  by  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron  of 
Great  Britain,  in  1851.    The  first  conte?^ 


AMERICA'S  CUP 


145 


AMES 


for  it  was  held  Aug.  22  of  that  year, 
when  it  was  won  by  the  American  yacht 
"America,"  whose  owners  deeded  it  in 
trust  to  the  New  York  Yacht  Club,    The 


THE  AMERICA'S  CUP 

subsequent  success  of  American  yachts 
in  keeping  the  cup  caused  it  to  become 
popularly  known  as  the  America's  Cup. 
Since  the  first  contest  in  1851  there  have 
been,  at  various  intervals,  32  other  con- 
tests, all  of  which,  except  one  on  Oct.  19, 
1871,  were  won  by  American  boats.  The 
last  five  challenges  coming  from  the 
Royal  Ulster  Yacht  Club  were  represented 
by  Sir  Thomas  Lipton  and  were  sailed 
by  four  different  boats  of  English  design, 
"Shamrock  I.,"  "II.,"  "HI.,"  and  "IV  " 
His  challenge  of  1914,  though  accepted, 
could  not  be  fought  out  on  account  of 


the  war.  It  was  renewed  in  October, 
1919.  A  series  of  races,  held  off  Sandy 
Hook  in  midsummer,  1920,  between 
"Shamrock  IV."  and  the  American  de- 
fender "Resolute,"  was  won  by  the 
latter. 

AMERICUS,  a  city  of  Georgia,  the 
county-seat  of  Sumter  co.,  about  70  miles 
S.  W.  of  Macon.  It  is  on  the  Central  of 
Georgia  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  rail- 
roads. The  center  of  an  important  agri- 
cultural region,  it  also  has  extensive  in- 
dustries, including  cotton  oil,  fertilizer, 
and  monument  works.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  Agricultural  College,  and  its 
important  buildings  include  a  library, 
large  hotel,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,063;   (1920)  9,010. 

AMERONGEN  CASTLE,  the  property 
of  Count  von  Bentinck,  Dutch  nobleman, 
located  in  the  village  of  the  same  name, 
15  miles  S.  E.  of  Utrecht,  near  the  fron- 
tier between  Germany  and  Holland.  It 
was  the  place  to  which  the  ex-Kaiser  of 
Germany  fled  after  his  abdication.  He 
left  Spa  on  the  night  of  Nov.  9.  1918, 
and  reached  Amerongen  on  the  following 
day.  There  he  remained  until  1920,  at 
which  time  he  removed  to  an  estate  at 
Doom  near  Utrecht,  which  he  had  pur- 
chased and  furnished.  Most  of  the  time 
of  the  ex-royal  fugitive  was  spent  in 
cutting  down  trees  on  the  Amerongen 
estate.  He  was  joined  there  later  by  the 
German  ex-Empress. 

AMES,  a  city  of  Iowa,  in  Story  co.,  37 
miles  N.  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad,  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts,  The  city 
has  a  library  and  is  of  considerable  in- 
dustrial importance.  Pop.  (1910)  4,223; 
(1920)  6,270. 

AMES,  ADELBERT,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  1835;  graduated 
at  West  Point,  1861;  became  Brigadier- 
General  and  brevet  Major-General 
United  States  Volunteers,  in  the  Civil 
War;  Provisional  Governor  of  Missis- 
sippi, 1868;  resigned  army  commission, 
1870;  United  States  Senator  from  Mis- 
sissippi, 1870-1873,  Governor  1874-1876; 
and  Brigadier-General  United  States 
Volunteers  in  the  war  with  Spain,  1898. 

AMES,  FISHER,  an  American  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
April  9,  1758.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1781,  he  became  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1789,  where  he  gained  a  national  rep- 
utation by  his  oratory.  Two  of  his  finest 
efforts  were  in  support  of  John  Jay's 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  a  eulogy 
on    Washington    before    the    Massachu- 


AMES 


146 


AMES 


3etts  Legislature.    He  was  elected  presi-    and    Institutional    History    during    the 
dent  of   Harvard    College   in    1804,   but    Colonial     and     Revolutionary     Periods" 


AMERONGEN  CASTLE 


declined.  His  work  consists  of  orations, 
essays,  and  letters  (2  vols.,  1854).  He 
died  in  Dedham,  July  4,  1808. 

AMES,  HERMAN  VANDENBURG, 
an  American  educator,  bom  in  Lan- 
caster, Mass.,  in  1865.  He  graduated 
from  Amherst  College  in  1888  and  took 
post-graduate  courses  in  Columbia  and 
Harvard  Universities.  After  three  years 
on  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  he  studied  at  Leipsic  and 
Heidelberg.  In  1896  he  became  assist- 
ant professor  of  history  in  Ohio  State 
University,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  instructor  in  American 
constitutional  history  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  In  1908  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  American  consti- 
tutional history  in  the  same  institution 
and  in  1907  he  became  dean  of  the  Grad- 
uate School.  He  gave  lectui'e  courses  in 
other  colleges  and  was  a  member  of 
many  important  historical  societies. 
Among  his  popular  writings  are  "Out- 
line of  Lectures  on  American  Political 


(1908);  "Syllabus  of  American  Colonial 
History"  (1912),  etc. 

AMES,  MARY  CLEMMER,  an  Amer- 
ican author,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  in  1839. 
Among  her  works  are  the  novels  "Vic- 
toria" (1864);  "Eirene"  (1870),  and 
"His  Two  Wives"  (1874);  a  volume  of 
"Poems"  (1882);  and  biographies  of 
Alice  and  Phoebe  Cary.  She  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Aug.  18,  1884. 

AMES,  WINTHROP,  an  American 
theatrical  manager,  bom  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1871.  He  graduated  from  Har- 
vard University  in  1895.  After  several 
years  spent  in  editorial  work  and  in 
magazine  writing,  he  became  manager  of 
the  Castle  Square  Theater  in  Boston  in 
1904.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  movers 
in  the  plan  to  erect  the  New  Theater  in 
New  York  City  and  was  its  director 
from  1908  until  the  enterprise  was  aban- 
doned in  1911,  Afterward  he  was  man- 
ager of  several  theaters  in  New  York 
City  and  produced  some  of  the  most 
notable  plays  seen  in  recent  years. 


AMESBURY 


147 


AMIENS 


AMESBURY,  a  town  in  Essex  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Merrimac  river  and  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad;  27  miles  N. 
of  Salem.  It  has  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  boots  and  shoes, 
machinery,  carriages,  etc.,  and  was  long 
the  residence  of  the  poet  Whittier.  Pop. 
(1910)    9,894;    (1920)    10,036. 

AMETABOLA,  or  AMETABOLIANS, 
a  sub-class  of  insects,  consisting  of  those 
which  do  not  undergo  metamorphosis. 
It  includes  three  orders:  the  anoplura, 
or  lice;  the  mallophaga,  or  bird-lice; 
and  the  thysanura,  or  spring-tails.  All 
are  wingless  insects. 

AMETHYST,  a  variety  of  quartz.  Its 
color  is  clear  purple  or  bluish  violet; 
hence  it  is  sometimes  called  violet- 
quartz.  The  coloring  matter  is  generally 
believed  to  be  manganese.  The  beauty 
and  hardness  of  the  amethyst  cause  it 
to  be  regarded  as  a  precious  stone.  It 
occurs  in  veins  or  geodes  in  trappean 
and  other  rocks.  The  best  specimens 
are  brought  from  India,  Annenia,  and 
Arabia. 

The  Oriental  amethyst  is  a  rare  pur- 
ple variety  of  sapphire. 

The  last  stone  in  the  third  row  of  the 
Jewish  high-priest's  breastplate  was  an 
amethyst  (Exod.  xxviii:  19);  and  the 
12th  foundation  of  the  new  Jerusalem, 
mentioned  in  Rev.  xxi:  20,  was  to  be  an 
amethyst. 

AMHERST,  a  town  in  Hampshire  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the 
Central  Vermont  railroads;  23  miles  N. 
N.  E.  of  Springfield.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  paper,  straw  and  palm-leaf 
hats,  leather,  and  children's  wagons,  and 
is  best  known  as  the  seat  of  Amherst 
College  (q.  v.),  the  State  Agricultural 
College,  and  the  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion.    Pop.   (1910),  5,112;    (1920)   5,650. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  an  educational 
institution  in  Amherst,  Mass.;  founded 
in  1821  and  incorporated  in  1825.  The 
members  of  the  faculty  in  1919  num- 
bered 52,  and  the  students  503.  The 
productive  funds  amounted  to  $3,800,000, 
and  the  income  to  $300,000.  President, 
Alexander  Meiklejohn,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

AMHERST,  JEFFERY,  LORD,  a  dis- 
tinguished British  officer,  born  in  1717. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age, 
and  ultimately  became  Major-General. 
Sent  over  to  America,  he  captured  Louis- 
burg,  and  followed  it  up  by  the  reduction 
of  Forts  Duquesne,  Niagara,  and  Ticon- 
deroga,  which  paved  the  way  for  the  en- 
tire conquest  of  Canada.  In  1763,  Amherst 
was  made  Governor  of  Virginia,  and 
created  Baron  Amherst  of  Holmesdale  in 
1776.    He  was  appointed  Commander-in- 

11 — Vol.  I — Cyo 


Chief  of  the  British  army  in  1778,  in 
which  capacity  he  took  a  most  active, 
but  humane,  part  in  suppressing  the 
London  riots  of  1780.  Upon  resigning 
his  chief  command  in  1795  he  was  mad« 
a  Field-Marshal.     Died  in  1798. 

AMIGA,  a  lake  of  South  America,  in 
the  province  of  Cumana,  Venezuela,  on 
a  plateau  between  the  Rupumung  and 
Tocoto  rivers.  In  the  age  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  the  vicinity  of  this  lake  was 
called  the  El  Dorado,  and  near  it  was 
supposed  to  stand  the  wonderful  im- 
perial city  of  Manoa,  forming  the  object 
of  the  expedition  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
and  his  ill-fated  followers,  but  which 
they  failed  to  discover. 

AMICIS,  EDMONDO  DE  (a-me'ches), 
an  Italian  writer,  born  at  Oneglia,  in 
Liguria,  Oct.  21,  1846.  From  1865  till 
the  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  Italian 
army,  he  was  in  the  military  service  of 
King  Victor  Emmanuel's  Government; 
then  he  returned  to  civil  life  at  Turin, 
devoting  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
Among  his  writings  the  most  note- 
worthy are  "Army  Life"  (1869),  and 
"Recollections  of  1870-1871."  Of  novels 
"The  College  Friends,"  "A  Great  Day," 
"The  Paternal  Home"  (1872),  and 
"Cuore"  (Hearts),  published  in  English 
as  "The  Heart  of  a  Schoolboy."  His 
works  of  travel — including  "Spain," 
"Recollections  of  London,"  "Holland," 
"  Constantinople,"  "  Recollections  of 
Paris,"  and  "Morocco" — have  had  a  very 
wide  circulation.  He  has  published  also 
a  volume  of  "Verses."    He  died  in  1908. 

AMIEL,  HENRI  FREDERIC,  a  dis- 
tinguished Swiss  essayist,  philosophical 
critic,  and  poet,  born  at  Geneva,  Sept. 
27,  1821.  He  became  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy in  the  Geneva  Academy.  He  is 
author  of  several  works  on  the  history 
of  literature,  as  "The  Literary  Movement 
in  Romanish  Switzerland"  (1849); 
"Study  on  Mme.  de  Stael"  (1878);  and 
of  several  poems.  But  his  fame  rests 
principally  on  the  "Journal."  He  died  in 
Geneva,  March  11,  1881. 

AMIENS  (am-yan'),  an  old  French 
city,  the  capital  once  of  Picardy,  and 
now  of  the  department  of  Somme,  on 
the  many-channelled  navigable  Somme, 
81  miles  N.  of  Paris  by  rail.  The  Cathe- 
dral of  Notre  Dame  is  a  masterpiece 
of  Gothic  architecture.  Begun  in  1220, 
it  is  452  feet  long,  and  has  a  spire 
(1529)  426  feet  high;  but  its  special 
feature  is  the  loftiness  of  the  nave,  141 
feet.  Other  noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  Hotel  de  Ville  (1600-1760),  in  which 
the  Peace  of  Amiens  was  signed,  the 
large  museum  (1864),  in  Renaissance 
style;  and  the  public  library,  which  was 


AMIENS 


148 


AMIENS 


founded  in  1791,  and  contains  70,000  vol-  tained   possession  of   Ceylon  and  Trini- 

umes.     Amiens   has   considerable   manu-  dad,   and   an  open  port  at  the   Cape   of 

factures  of  velvet,  silk,  woolen,  and  cot-  Good   Hope;   the   republic   of  the   Ionian 

ton  goods,  ribbons,  and  carpets.     Peter  islands  was  recognized;   Malta   was  re- 


CATHEDRAL  AT  AMIENS,   FRANCE 


the  Hermit  and  Ducange  were  natives, 
and  there  are  statues  to  both  of  them. 
The  Peace  of  Amiens  (March  27,  1802) 
was  a  treaty  intended  to  settle  the  dis- 
puted points  botween  England,  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland.  By  it,  England  re- 


stored to  the  Knights  of  St.  John;  Spain 
and  Holland  regained  their  colonies,  with 
the  exception  of  Trinidad  and  Cey- 
lon; the  French  were  to  quit  Rome  and 
Naples;  and  Turkey  was  restored  to  its 
integrity.     In  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 


AMMEBGAU 


149 


AMMUNITION 


on  Nov.  27,  1870,  General  ManteufFel  in- 
flicted, near  Amiens,  a  signal  defeat  on 
a  French  army  30,000  strong,  and  three 
days  later  the  citadel  surrendered.  In 
the  World  War  (1914-1918)  it  was  a 
military  center  and  railroad  supply 
depot.  It  was  an  objective  of  the  Ger- 
mans in  the  last  great  drive  in  April, 
1918,  and  narrowly  escaped  capture,  but 
was  badly  damaged  by  German  artillery 
fire.     Pop.  about  95,000. 

AMMEKGAIT  (am'er-gou),  OBER- 
and  UNTER-,  two  adjoining  villages  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  in  the  higher  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  Ammer,  42  miles  S.  W.  by 
S.  of  Munich.  Ober-Ammergau  is  noted 
for  the  performance  of  the  "Passion 
Play,"  a  series  of  dramatic  representa- 
tions of  the  sufferings  of  Christ.  On  the 
height  near  the  theater  is  a  colossal  me- 
morial of  "Christ  on  the  Cross,  with 
Mary  and  John,"  modeled  by  Halbig,  the 
gift  of  King  Ludwig  II.  See  Passion 
Play. 

AMMON,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, worshipped  especially  in  Thebes 
(No-Ammon),  and  early  represented  as 
a  ram  with  downward  branching  horns, 
the  symbols  of  power;  as  a  man  with  a 
ram's  head;  and  as  a  complete  man  with 
two  high  feathers  on  his  head,  bearded, 
sitting  on  a  throne,  and  holding  in  his 
right  hand  the  scepter  of  the  gods,  in  his 
left  the  handled  cross,  the  symbol  of 
divine  life.  Ammon,  his  wife  Mut  (the 
mother),  and  his  son  Chensu,  form  the 
divine  triad  of  Thebes.  In  Egyptian 
mythology  he  held  his  highest  place. 
From  about  the  time  of  the  21st  dynasty, 
he  came  to  be  considered  the  god  of 
oracles,  and  as  such  was  worshipped  in 
Ethiopia  and  in  the  Libyan  desert. 
Twelve  days'  journey  W.  of  Memphis, 
in  the  desert,  was  a  green  oasis  fringed 
with  a  belt  of  palm  trees,  on  which  rose 
the  temple  of  Ammon.  Hither  came  pil- 
grims laden  with  costly  presents;  among 
them  Alexander  the  C^reat  and  Cato  of 
Utica.  Alexander  was  hailed  as  the 
actual  son  of  the  god  by  the  priests, 
quick  to  anticipate  the  wishes  of  the 
hero.  The  Persian  conqueror,  Cambyses, 
sent  against  the  temple  an  expedition, 
which  perished  miserably  in  the  sands. 
The  worship  of  Ammon  spread  at  an 
\  early  period  to  Greece,  and  afterward  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  identified  with 
Zeus  and  Jupiter. 

AMMONIA,  a  substance  consisting  of 
NH,.  Molecular  weight,  17.  Sp.  gr.  8.5, 
compared  with  H;  compared  with  air 
(1),  its  sp.  gr,  is  0.59.  It  is  a  colorless, 
pungent  gas,  with  a  strong  alkaline  re- 
action.     The    liquo7'    ammonise    of    the 


pharmacopoeia  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.959,  and  a  fluid  drachm  contains  5.2 
grains  of  NHs.  Ammonia  is  obtained  by 
the  dry  distillation  of  animal  or  veg- 
etable matter  containing  nitrogen; 
horns,  hoofs,  etc.,  produce  large  quan- 
tities; hence  its  name  of  spirits  of  harts- 
horn. Guano  consists  chiefly  of  urate  of 
ammonia.  But  ammonia  is  now  obtained 
from  the  liquor  of  gasworks,  coal  con- 
taining about  2  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
Ammonia  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen  on  dilute  acetic  acid. 
Ammonia  gas  is  prepared  in  the  labora- 
tory by  heating  together  one  part  of 
NH4CI  with  two  parts  by  weight  of 
quicklime,  and  is  collected  over  mercury. 
NHs  is  decomposed  into  N  and  Hs  by 
passing  it  through  a  red-hot  tube,  or  by 
sending  electric  sparks  through  it;  the 
resulting  gases  occupy  twice  the  volume 
of  the  ammonia  gas.  It  is  used  in  medi- 
cine as  an  antacid  and  stimulant;  it  also 
increases  the  secretions.  Externally,  it 
is  employed  as  a  rubefacient  and  vesi- 
cant. Ammonia  liniment  consists  of  one 
part  of  solution  of  ammonia  to  three 
parts  of  olive  oil.  Ammonia  is  used  as 
an  antidote  in  cases  of  poisoning  by 
prussic  acid,  tobacco,  and  other  sedative 
drugs. 

AMMONIACUM,  a  gum  resin,  called 
also  gum  ammoniac,  which  is  imported 
into  this  country  from  Turkey  and  the 
East  Indies  in  little  lumps,  or  tears,  of 
a  strong  and  not  very  pleasing  smell  and 
a  nauseous  taste,  followed  by  bitterness 
in  the  mouth.  It  is  a  stimulant,  a  deob- 
struent,  an  expectorant,  an  antispas- 
modic,  a  discutient,  and  a  resolvent. 
Hence,  it  is  internally  employed  in 
asthma  and  chronic  catarrh,  visceral  ob- 
structions, and  obstinate  colic,  while  it  is 
used  externally  in  scirrhous  tumors  and 
white  swellings  of  the  joints. 

AMMONITE,  a  large  genus  of  fossil 
chambered  shells,  belonging  to  the  class 
cephalopoda,  the  order  tetrabranchiata, 
and  the  family  ammonitidas.  The  shell 
is  discoidal,  the  inner  whorls  more  or 
less  concealed,  the  septa  undulated,  the 
sutures  lobed  and  foliated,  and  the  si- 
phuncle  dorsal. 

The  ancients  venerated  them,  as  the 
Hindus  still  do.  About  700  so-called 
species  have  been  described,  ranging 
from  the  trias  to  the  chalk. 

AMMONIUM,  the  name  given  by  Ber- 
zelius  to  a  supposed  monatomic  radical 
(NH.)'. 

AMMUNITION,  a  term  applied  to 
the  ordnance  stores  used  in  the  firing  of 
guns    of   every   sort   and   caliber.      The 


AMMUNITION 


150 


AMMUNITION 


term    includes    gunpowder,    projectiles,  rim  or  groove  around  the  base  which  is 

primers,     and     accessories.       The    term  seized  by  the  extractor  in  removing  the 

"fixed    ammunition"    is    applied    to    the  empty  case  after  firing. 

condition    when    powder,    projectile,    or 

primer  are  combined  in  the  single  piece,  rIME  FUSES 

so  as  to  be  ready  for  firing  when  placed  /   { 

in  the  gun.     It  is  also  employed  in  the  /      Y 

case  of  ammunition   for  large   guns,   in 

which  the  powder  is  inclosed  in  a  metal- 


f>eHCt/SSION 
FUSE 


GUN  SHELLS. 

A.  French  75  mm.  Shrapnel  Shell 

B.  BritiBh  13  Pounder  Shrapnel  Shell 

C.  United  State"  High  Explosive  Shell 

lie  case  which  is  primed,  but  is  loaded 
separately  from  the  projectile.  This 
type  of  ammunition  is  now  seldom  used. 
The  ammunition  used  in  heavy  guns  is 
almost  always  fixed  for  calibers  of  less 
than  4  inches.  The  metallic  cartridge 
ease  employed  for  fixed  ammunition  is 
usually  made  of  brass  of  the  best  qual- 
ity stamped  from  sheets  or  plates  of 
varying   thickness.      The   cases    have    a 


GUN   SHELLS 

A.  United  States  3"  Shrapnel  Shell 

B.  Russian  3"  Shrapnel  Shell 

C.  German  3.30  Shrapnel  Shell 

For  guns  of  larger  caliber,  the  propel- 
ling force,  which  is  gunpowder,  is  in- 
closed in  bags  made  of  cloth.  The 
charges  are  divided  into  sections  when 
the  weight  of  the  complete  charge  is 
more  than  100  pounds. 

The  charges  are  ignited  by  primers 
which  are  of  four  types:  percussion, 
friction,  electric,  and  percussion  and 
electric  combined.  The  ammunition  sup- 


AMMUNITION 


151 


AMMUNITION 


ply  for  the  army  of  the  United   States  company  bodies  of  infantry  and  cavalry, 

includes  ammunition  for  small  arms  in-  and  caissons  which  accompany  artillery 

eluding  rifles,  machine  guns,  and  pistols,  to   the    immediate    neighborhood    of   the 

and  ammunition  for  the  Field  Artillery,  battle.     Ammunition  trains  are  held  in 

In   the    United    States    the    ammunition  the  rear  to  insure  a  re-supply  of  combat 

for  the    Field    Artillery,    prior    to    the  trains. 

World  War,  included  the  following  call-  The    initial    advantage     obtained     by 

bers:     2.95-inch    mountain    gun,    3-inch  Germany  in  the  first  years  of  the  World 


iM 


RIFLE  AMMUNITION 

A.  Armor-Piercine  .30  Caliber  Rifle  Cartridare 

B.  Tracer  .30  Caliber  Rifle  Cartridge 

C.  Incendiary  .30  Caliber  Rifle  Cartridge 

D.  Ordinary  .30  Caliber  Rifle  Cartridge 


field  gun,  and  3.8-inch  field  howitzers. 
In  the  case  of  these  arms  fixed  ammuni- 
tion is  used. 

The  problem  of  continual  and  suffi- 
cient supply  of  ammunition  is  one  of 
the  most  serious  factors  in  war  and  was 
an  especially  difficult  solution  in  the 
World  War  in  which  vast  quantities  of 
ammunition  were  expended.  The  supply 
is  maintained  by  combat  trains  com- 
posed of  ammunition  wagons  which  ac- 


War  were  to  a  large  extent  due  to  the 
immense  store  of  ammunition  which  had 
been  prepared  and  held  in  reserve.  Thus 
these  years  resulted  in  an  industrial 
as  well  as  a  military  combat  between 
Germany  and  the  western  Allies.  The 
Entente  Powers  soon  recovered  from 
this  disadvantage  and  by  1916  possessed 
the  advantage  in  artillery  and  ammuni- 
tion. This  preponderance  was  even 
more    marked    in    1917    and    continued 


AMCEBA 


152 


AMPHIBIA 


throughout  the  war.  The  French  out- 
put of  projectiles  for  the  75  mm.  field 
pieces  had  increased,  by  1917,  40  times, 
compared  with  the  output  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  war.  The  production  of 
large-caliber  projectiles  had  increased 
90  times.  The  case  of  Great  Britain 
was  even  more  remarkable.  The  out- 
put in  a  single  day  of  shells  for  heavy 
guns  and  in  a  week  for  field  howitzer 
and  3-inch  guns  in  1917  equalled  the 
production  of  these  shells  during  the  en- 
tire first  year  of  the  war.  At  this  time 
there  were  nearly  5,000  Government- 
controlled  ammunition  plants  in  Great 
Britain,  with  over   2,000,000   employees. 

The  largest  shells  thrown  during  the 
World  War  were  those  fired  from  the 
long  range  cannon  with  which  the 
Germans  bombarded  Paris.  This  gun 
had  a  range  of  73  miles.  The  shell 
thrown  weighed  330  pounds  and  had  a 
bursting  charge  of  33  pounds.  This  was 
placed  in  two  compartments  separated 
by  a  metal  diaphragm.  The  walls  of 
the  shell  were  very  thick  in  order  to 
withstand  the  shock  of  discharge.  The 
total  length  was  4  feet,  2  feet  5  inches 
of  which  were  ballastic  cap  to  offset  air 
resistance  and  cause  the  center  of  pres- 
sure to  fall  in  advance  of  the  center  of 
gravity. 

For  discussion  of  the  types  of  am- 
munition used  in  various  types  of  ord- 
nance, see  Artillery,  Machine  Gun, 
Explosives,  Projectiles,  etc. 

AMCEBA,  a  term  applied  to  a  proto- 
zoon  which  perpetually  changes  its  form. 
It  is  classed  under  the  rhizopoda.  It  is 
among  the  simplest  living  beings  known, 
and  might  be  described  almost  as  an  ani- 
mated mass  of  perfectly  transparent 
moving  matter.  The  amoeba  diffluens  is 
sometimes  called,  from  its  incessant 
changes  of  form,  the  proteus. 

AMOMUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  zingiberacese,  or  ginger- 
worts.  They  are  natives  of  hot  coun- 
tries. The  seeds  of  A.  granwm  paradisi, 
A.  Tnaxiviutn,  and  on  the  frontiers  of 
Bengal  of  A.  aroviaticwtn,  are  the  chief 
of  the  aromatic  seeds  called  cardamoms. 
A  pungent  flavor  is  imparted  to  spirit- 
uous liquor  by  the  hot  acrid  seeds  of  A. 
angustifolimn,  rnaerospermum,  maxi- 
mum, and  clusii.  It  is  also  the  specific 
name  of  the  sison  amowMm.,  the  hedge- 
bastard  stone-parsley. 

AMOS,  one  of  the  so-called  minor 
prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  was  a  herdsman 
of  Tekoa,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethle- 
hem, and  also  a  dresser  of  sycamore 
trees.  During  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  in 
Judah,  and  Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  (about 


800  B.  c),  he  came  forward  to  denounce 
the  idolatry  then  prevalent. 

AMOY,  a  seaport  town  and  one  of  the 
treaty  ports  of  China;  on  a  small  island 
of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of 
Fukien;  325  miles  E.  by  N.  E.  of  Canton, 
and  directly  opposite  the  island  of  For- 
mosa. It  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats 
of  European  commerce  in  China,  the  Por- 
tuguese having  had  establishments  here 
in  the  16th  and  the  Dutch  in  the  17th 
centuries.  In  1841  it  was  taken  by  the 
British,  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Nankin, 
a  British  consul  and  British  subjects 
were  permitted  to  reside  here.  This  port 
is  especially  important  in  its  relations 
to  the  prospective  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  China,  and  already  its  trade 
with  the  United  States  leads  that  of  all 
other  Chinese  ports.  During  the  inter- 
national military  operations  in  China,  in 
1900,  the  city  was  occupied  by  the  Jap- 
anese. Pop.  (1917)  of  port,  300,000; 
city,  114,000. 

AMPERE,  the  practical  imit  of  electric 
current  strength.  It  is  the  measure  of 
the  current  produced  by  an  electro-mo- 
tive force  of  one  volt  through  a  resist- 
ance of  one  ohm.  In  electric  quantity 
it  is  the  rate  of  one  coulomb  per  second. 

AMPERE,  ANDRE  MARIE  (am-par'), 
a  French  mathematician  and  physicist, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1775.  In  1805, 
after  four  years  as  a  lecturer  at  Bourg 
and  Lyons,  he  was  called  to  Paris,  where 
he  distinguished  himself  as  an  able 
teacher  in  the  Polytechnic  School.  In 
1814  he  became  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences;  in  1824  Professor  of 
Experimental  Physics  in  the  College  de 
France.  He  died  at  Marseilles,  June  10, 
1836.  Scientific  progress  is  largely  in- 
debted to  Ampere,  especially  for  his  elec- 
tro-dynamic theory,  and  his  original 
views  of  the  identity  of  electricity  and 
magnetism,  as  given  in  his  "  Collec- 
tion of  Electro-Dynamic  Observations" 
(1822),  and  his  "Theory  of  Electro- 
Dynamic   Phenomena"    (1830). 

AMPHIBIA,  in  zoology,  animals 
which  can  live  indiscriminately  on  land 
or  water,  or  which  at  one  part  of  their 
existence  live  in  water  and  at  another 
on  land.  It  is  used  by  Macleay,  Swain- 
son,  Huxley,  and  other  modern  zoolo- 
gists for  the  fourth  great  class  of  ani- 
mals corresponding  to  Cuvier's  reptilian 
order  batrachia.  It  is  intermediate  be- 
tween reptilia  and  pisces.  They  have  no 
amnion.  Their  visceral  arches  during  a 
longer  or  shorter  period  develop  fila- 
ments exercising  a  respiratory  function, 
or  branchiae.  The  frog,  the  toad,  and  the 
newt  are  familiar  examples  of  the  am- 
phibia. 


AMPHIOXXTS 


153 


AMPUTATION 


AMPHIOXUS,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
an  organization  so  humble,  that  the  first 
specimen  discovered  was  believed  by  Pal- 
las to  be  a  slug,  and  was  described  by 
him  as  the  Umax  lanceolatus.  It  is  now 
called  amphioxus  lanceolatus. 

AMPHIPOD,  in  zoology,  an  animal 
belonging  to  the  crustaceous  order  am- 
phipoda, 

AMPHITHEATER,  a  double  theater. 
The  ancient  theaters  were  nearly  semi- 
circular in  shape;  or,  more  accurately, 
they  were  half  ovals,  so  that  an  amphi- 
theater, theoretically,  consisting  of  two 
theaters,  placed  with  their  concavities 
meeting  each  other,  was,  loosely  speak- 
ing, a  nearly  circular,  or,  more  precisely, 
an  oval  building.  Amphitheaters  were 
•first  constructed  of  wood,  but  in  the  time 
of  Augustus  stone  began  to  be  employed. 
The  place  where  the  exhibitions  took 
place  was  called  the  arena  (Lat.=sand), 


and  Doris.  Neptune  wished  to  make  her 
his  wife,  and,  as  she  hid  herself  from 
him,  he  sent  a  dolphin  to  find  her,  which 
brought  her  to  him,  and  received  as  a  re- 
ward a  place  among  the  stars. 

AMPHORA,  a  two-handled  vessel, 
generally  made  of  clay,  and  used  for 
holding  wine,  oil,  honey,  or  even  the 
skeletons  or  ashes  of  the  dead. 

It  is  also  a  liquid  measure,  containing 
48  sectari,  or  nearly  six  gallons.  The 
Greek  amphoreus  held  nearly  nine.  The 
capacity  of  the  Saxon  ambra  is  un- 
known. 

AMPUTATION,  the  cutting  off  of  a 
part  which,  by  its  injured  or  diseased 
condition,  endangers,  or  may  endanger, 
the  safety  of  the  whole  body.  The  am- 
putation of  a  limb  was  in  ancient  times 
attended  with  great  danger  of  the  pa- 
tient's dying  during  its  performance,  as 
surgeons  had  no  efficient  means  of  re- 


AMPHITHEATER    IN    THE    NATIONAL    CEMETERY    AT    ARLINGTON 


because  it  was  covered  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust. The  part  next  the  arena  was 
called  podium,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
enij)eror,  the  senators,  aryi  the  ambassa- 
dors of  foreign  nations.  Among  the 
sights  were  combats  of  wild  beasts  and 
gladiator  fights.  The  Romans  built  am- 
phitheaters wherever  they  went.  Re- 
mains of  them  are  still  to  be  found  in 
various  parts  of  Europe;  but  the  most 
splendid  ruins  existing  are  those  of  the 
Coliseum  at  Rome.  In  recent  years 
numerous  elaborate  amphitheaters  have 
been  built  by  some  of  the  larger  universi- 
ties in  the  United  States.  These  are  used 
chiefly  for  athletic  contests.  Elaborate 
amphitheaters  have  also  been  erected  as 
memorials,  of  which  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
amples is  the  amphitheater  in  the  Na- 
tional Cemetery  at  Arlington. 

AMPHITRITE  (am-fe-tri'te),adaugh. 
ter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  or  of  Nereus 


straining  the  bleeding.  The  desired 
power  of  controlling  the  hemorrhage  was 
obtained  by  the  invention  of  the  tourni- 
quet in  1674,  by  a  French  surgeon, 
Morel,  and  its  improvement  early  in  the 
next  century  by  his  countryman  Petit. 
The  ancient  surgeons  endeavored  to  save 
a  covering  of  skin  for  the  stump,  by  hav- 
ing the  skin  drawn  upward  by  an  assist- 
ant, pi'eviously  using  the  knife.  In  1679 
Lowdham  of  Exeter  suggested  cutting 
semicircular  flaps  on  one  or  both  sides 
of  a  limb,  so  as  to  preserve  a  fleshy 
cushion  to  cover  the  end  of  the  bone. 
Both  these  methods  are  now  in  use,  and 
are  known  as  the  "circular"  and  the 
"flap"  operations;  the  latter  is  most  fre- 
quently used  in  this  country. 

The  question  when  amputation  of  a 
limb  is  necessary,  is  often,  especially 
after  an  accident,  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult in   surgery.     The  chief  indications 


AMBITSAB 


164 


AMSTEBDAM 


ror  It  in  these  cases  are — very  extensive 
destruction  or  laceration  of  the  skin;  in- 
jury to  the  large  vessels  or  nerves;  se- 
vere splintering  of  the  bones.  The  dis- 
eases most  commonly  requiring  it  are — 
disease  of  bones  or  joints,  especially 
when  the  discharge  from  it  threatens  to 
exhaust  the  patient;  tumors,  especially 
cancer  and  sarcoma,  which  cannot  other- 
wise be  removed;  and  gangrene. 

AMRITSAR,  or  UMBITSIR,  a  well- 
built  city  of  the  Punjab,  32  miles  E.  of 
Lahore  by  rail.  It  is  the  religious  me- 
tropolis of  the  Sikhs,  a  distinction  which, 
along  with  its  name  (literally,  "pool  of 
inunortality"),  it  owes  to  its  sacred 
tank,  in  the  midst  of  which  stands  the 
marble  temple  of  the  Sikh  faith.  Founded 
in  1574,  but  all  of  it  more  recent  than 
1762,  it  is,  next  to  Delhi,  the  richest  and 
most  prosperous  city  in  northern  India, 
with  manufactures  of  cashmere  shawls, 
cotton,  silks,  etc.  The  huge  Govindgarh, 
or  fortress,  is  the  most  prominent  feature 
of  Amritsar.    Pop.  about  150,000. 

AMSTERDAM  ("dam"  or  "dike  of  the 
Amstel"),  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands, 
is  situated  at  the  influx  of  the  Amstel  to 
the  Ij  or  Y  (pronounced  eye),  an  arm 
(now  mostly  drained)  of  the  Zuyder  Zee, 
44%  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Rotterdam  by  rail. 
It  is  divided  by  the  Amstel  and  numer- 
ous canals  into  a  hundred  small  islands, 
connected  by  more  than  300  bridges.  Al- 
most the  whole  city,  which  extends  in  the 
shape  of  a  crescent,  is  founded  on  piles 
driven  40  or  50  feet  through  soft  peat 
and  sand  to  a  firm  substratum  of  clay. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  it 
was  merely  a  fishing  village,  with  a  small 
castle,  the  residence  of  the  Lords  of  Am- 
stel. In  1296,  on  account  of  its  share  in 
the  murder  of  Count  Floris  of  Holland, 
the  rising  town  was  demolished;  but  in 
1311,  with  Amstelland  (the  district  on 
the  banks  of  the  Amstel),  it  was  taken 
under  the  protection  of  the  Counts  of 
Holland.  In  1482  it  wa_s  walled  and  for- 
tified. After  the  revolt  of  the  seven 
provinces  (1566),  it  speedily  rose  to  be 
their  first  commercial  city,  a  great  asy- 
lum for  the  Flemish  Protestants;  and  in 
1585  it  was  considerably  enlarged  by  the 
building  of  the  new  town  on  the  W.  The 
establishment  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company  (1602)  did  much  to  forward 
the  well-being  of  Amsterdam.  In  the 
middle  of  that  century  the  war  with  Eng- 
land nearly  ruined  the  commerce  of  the 
port.  Amsterdam  had  to  surrender  to 
the  Prussians  in  1787,  to  the  French  in 
1795;  and  the  union  of  Holland  with 
France  in  1810  entirely  destroyed  its 
foreign  trade.  In  1815  commerce  again 
began  to  expand — an  expansion  greatly 


promoted  by  the  opening  in  1876  of  the 
new  and  more  direct  waterway  between 
the  North  Sea  and  the  city. 

The  city  has  a  fine  appearance  when 
seen  from  the  harbor,  or  from  the  high 
bridge  over  the  Amstel.  Church  towers 
and  spires,  and  a  perfect  forest  of  masts, 
relieve  the  flatness  of  the  prospect.  The 
three  chief  canals — the  Heerengracht, 
Keizersgracht,  and  Prinsengracht — i-un 
in  semi-circles  within  each  other,  and 
are  from  two  to  three  miles  long.  The 
defenses  of  Amsterdam  now  consist  in  a 
row  of  detached  forts,  and  in  the  sluices, 
several  miles  distant  from  the  city,  which 
can  flood,  in  a  few  hours,  the  surround- 
ing land.    Pop.  (1917)  640,993. 

The  chief  industrial  establishments  are 
sugar  refineries,  engineering  works,  mills 
for  polishing  diamonds  and  other  pre- 
cious stones,  dockyards,  manufactories 
of  sails,  ropes,  tobacco,  silks,  gold  and 
silver  plate  and  jewelry,  colors,  and 
chemicals,  breweries,  distilleries,  with 
export  houses  for  corn  and  colonial  prod- 
uce; cotton-spinning,  book-printing,  and 
type-founding  are  also  carried  on. 

The  former  Stadhuis  ("townhouse"), 
converted  in  1808  into  a  palace  for  King 
Louis  Bonaparte,  and  still  retained  by 
the  reigning  family,  is  a  noble  structure. 
It  was  built  by  Van  Kampen  in  1648- 
1655.  It  has  a  hall,  120  feet  long,  57 
wide,  and  90  high,  lined  with  white  Ital- 
ian marble — an  apartment  of  great 
splendor.  The  cruciform  Nieuwe  Kerk 
(New  Church),  a  Gothic  edifice  of  1408- 
1414,  is  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structure 
in  the  city,  with  a  splendidly  carved  pul- 
pit, and  the  tombs  of  Admiral  de  Ruyter, 
the  great  Dutch  poet  Vondel,  and  vari- 
ous other  worthies.  The  Old  Church 
(Oude  Kerk),  built  in  the  14th  century, 
is  rich  in  painted  glass,  has  a  grand  or- 
gan, and  contains  several  monuments  of 
naval  heroes.  Literature  and  science  are 
represented  by  a  university,  by  acad- 
emies of  arts  and  sciences,  by  museums 
and  picture  galleries,  a  palace  of  na- 
tional industry,  a  botanical  garden,  etc. 
The  new  Rijksmuseum  contains  a  truly 
national  collection  of  paintings,  its 
choicest  treasure  being  Rembrandt's 
"Night-guard."  Rembrandt  (q.  v.),  made 
Amsterdam  his  home;  and  his  statue 
(1852)  now  fronts  the  house  he  occupied. 
Spinoza  was  a  native.  The  North  Hol- 
land canal,  to  which  Amsterdani  is  so 
largely  indebted  for  the  rapid  increase 
of  its  commerce,  is  noticed  under  Zuider 
Zee. 

In  the  European  War,  Amsterdam  be- 
came a  most  flourishing  port,  as  all  the 
trade  that  formerly  went  to  Antwerp 
came  here  while  the  Belgian  city  was 
in  German  hands. 


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TUTEMS   AT    SITKA.      THESE    AKI::    HISTORY    AND    GRAVE    MONUMENTS 


Underwood  cr  Underzvood 


THE  CHRIST   OF   THE  ANDES 


AMSTERDAM 


155 


AMUNDSEN 


AMSTERDAM,  a  city  of  Montgomery 
CO.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Mohawk  river  and  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  river  and 
the  West  Shore  railroads;  33  miles  N. 
W.  of  Albany.  It  is  an  agricultural  re- 
gion, but  is  noted  for  its  manufactures, 
especially  of  knit  goods,  carpets,  steel 
springs,  and  paper,  Pop.  (1910)  31,267; 
(1920)  33,524. 

AMSTERDAM,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  an 
institution  for  higher  learning  in  the 
city  of  Amsterdam,  Holland,  founded  in 
1632.  It  was  reorganized  in  1867  and 
ten  years  later  was  made  the  Royal  Uni- 
versity. It  has  faculties  of  law,  medi- 
cine, mathematics,  science,  arts,  and 
theology,  and  about  1,100  students. 

AMULET,  anything  hung  around  the 
neck,  placed  like  a  bracelet  on  the  wrist, 
or  otherwise  attached  to  the  person,  as 
an  imagined  preservative  against  sick- 
ness, witchcraft,  or  other  evils,  amulets 
were  common  in  the  ancient  world,  and 
they  are  so  yet  in  nations  where  igno- 
rance prevails. 

AMUNDSEN,  ROALD,  a  polar  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Borge,  Norway,  July  16, 
1872.  He  studied  medicine  for  two  years 
in  the  University  of  Christiania.     The 


CAPTAIN  ROALD  AMUNDSEN 

call  of  the  sea,  however,  made  itself  felt, 
and  he  became  a  member  of  the  Nor- 
wegian navy.  His  first  seagoing  expe- 
rience dates  from  1893.  Four  years  later 
he  was  made  first  officer  of  one  of  the 
vessels  of  the   South   Polar   expedition. 


This  cruise  covered  the  period  1897-1899, 
and  determined  his  future  career.  In 
1903  he  undertook  an  expedition  in  a 
small  vessel,  the  "Gjoa,"  with  the  design 
of  relocating  the  magnetic  North  Pole. 
For  more  than  a  year  and  a  half  he  sur- 
veyed an  extensive  district  in  the  regions 
about  the  Pole,  and  gathered  data  which 
proved  invaluable  to  him  in  his  subse- 
quent work.  He  was  the  first  man  to 
thread  the  Northwest  Passage  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  On  Aug.  13,  1905, 
he  reached  Herschel  Island.  His  desire 
to  discover  the  Pole  remained  unabated, 
and  he  was  planning  an  expedition  with 
this  in  view,  when  Peary's  discovery  of 
the  Pole  was  announced  to  the  world. 
There  remained,  however,  the  field  of 
Antarctic  exploration,  and  he  determined 
if  possible  to  rival  Peary's  discovery  by 
reaching  the  South  Pole,  When  he 
started  out,  it  was  generally  believed 
that  he  was  aiming  for  the  Arctic,  and 
it  -was  only  when  his  vessel  reached  Ma- 
deira that  he  disclosed  the  real  goal  of 
his  expedition.  He  reached  the  Bay  of 
Whales  on  Jan.  14,  1911.  Nearly  a  year 
was  spent  at  this  base,  before  he  was 
ready  to  make  the  final  dash  for  the 
South  Pole.  When  at  last  his  prepara- 
tions were  completed  in  October,  1911,  he 
took  four  companions  and  started  for  the 
Pole,  which  he  reached  Dec.  16,  1911. 
Had  he  waited  a  month  longer,  the  lau- 
I'els  of  the  discovery  would  have  fallen  to 
his  English  competitor.  Captain  Scott. 
While  Amundsen  was  favored  by  weather 
conditions,  this  detracted  no  whit  from 
the  greatness  of  his  achievement,  which 
called  into  play  all  his  native  qualities 
of  daring  and  persistence.  The  story  of 
his  adventures  was  told  in  lectures  after 
his  return,  and  embodied  in  a  book,  en- 
titled "The  South  Pole"  (1912). 

Shortly  afterward  he  planned  a  trip  to 
the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  project  was 
well  under  way,  $40,000  having  been  ap- 
propriated by  the  Norwegian  Govern- 
ment for  the  purpose,  when  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War  made  a  postponement 
necessary.  On  June  28,  1918,  Amundsen, 
with  a  crew  of  eight  men  and  carrying 
with  him  two  airplanes,  set  sail  on  the 
"Maude"  from  Christiania  for  the  Arctic 
Circle.  On  Sept.  1  he  took  on  oil 
and  supplies  at  Dixon  Island  in  the 
White  Sea,  north  of  Russia,  and  sailed 
northeast.  He  then  pushed  east  along 
the  north  coast  of  Siberia,  until  his  ship 
became  embedded  in  the  ice  floes.  This 
was  what  he  desired,  for  he  believed  that 
the  ship  would  be  carried  by  the  floes 
around  the  northern  end  of  Nova  Zembla 
and  from  there  to  the  Liakoflf  Islands  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Siberia.  From  that 
time   no   word   of  the   expedition  came 


AMUR 


156 


AMURATH 


from  the  Arctic  silences  until  March  25, 
1920.  Then  a  wireless  message  from 
Amundsen  was  picked  up  at  Cordova, 
Alaska,  from  the  radio  station  on  St. 
Paul's  Island,  which  reported  that  the 
expedition  was  icebound  in  the  Kolyma 
river.  No  details  were  given  as  to  the 
experiences  or  discoveries  of  the  party, 
but  it  was  gathered  that  the  attempt  to 
sail  farther  north  had  been  abandoned, 
and  that  Amundsen  was  contemplating  a 
return  to  the  United  States.  It  was 
understood  that  the  object  of  his  expedi- 
tion had  been  not  to  reach  the  North 
Pole,  but  to  explore  the  deep  sea  that 
covered  the  polar  circle,  to  take  sound- 
ings to  determine  the  shape  of  the  bot- 
tom, the  temperature  and  direction  of  the 
winds,  and  other  meteorological  data.  See 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  Explorations. 

AMUR  (am-or'),  a  river  formed  by 
the  junction  (about  53°  N.  lat.,  and  121" 
E.  long.)  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argun, 
which  both  come  from  the  S.  W. — the 
former  rising  in  the  foothills  of  the 
Yablonoi  Mountains.  From  the  junction, 
the  river  flows  first  from  S.  E.  and  then 
N.  E.,  and,  after  a  total  course  of  2,500 
miles,  falls  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  op- 
posite the  island  of  Sakhalin.  Its  main 
tributaries  are  the  Sungari  and  the  Us- 
suri,  both  from  the  S.  Above  the  Ussuri, 
the  Amur  is  the  boundary  between  ^  Si- 
beria and  Manchuria;  below  it  the  river 
runs  through  Russian  territory.  It  is 
very  valuable  for  navigation,  and  carries 
a  considerable  fleet  of  steamers.  The 
river  is  frozen  for  six  months  of  the 
year;  in  summer  there  are  extensive  in- 
undations. 

From  as  early  as  1636,  Russian  adven- 
turers made  excursions  into  the  Chinese 
territories  of  the  lower  Amur.  In  1854- 
1856  two  military  expeditions  were  con- 
ducted by  Count  Muravieff,  who  twice 
descended  the  river,  unopposed  by  the 
Chinese,  and  established  the  stations  of 
Alexandrovsk  and  Nikolaevsk.  In  1858 
China  agreed  to  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin, 
by  which  the  boundaries  of  Russia  and 
China  were  defined.  The  left  bank  of 
the  Amur,  and  all  the  territory  N.  of  it, 
became  Russian;  and  below  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Ussuri,  both  banks.  In  1860, 
after  the  occupation  of  Pekin  by  the 
British  and  French,  General  Ignatieff  se- 
cured the  signature  of  Prince  Kung  to  a 
treaty,  by  which  Russia  acquired  the 
broad  and  vnde  territory  comprised  be- 
tween the  river  Amur  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Tumen,  extending  10°  of  latitude 
nearer  the  temperate  regions,  and  run- 
ning from  the  shore  of  the  North  Pa- 
cific eastward  to  the  banks  of  the  river 
Ussuri,  a  principal  affluent  of  the  Amur. 


In  September,  1900,  Russia  took  foi*mal 
possession  of  the  right  bank  of  the  river. 
This  vast  territory  was  divided  into 
two  Russian  provinces — the  Maritime 
province  between  the  Ussuri  and  the  sea, 
and  the  government  of  Amur,  N.  of  the 
river.  The  latter  has  an  area  of  175,000 
square  miles.  Pop.  about  250,000.  The 
country  is  richly  timbered,  and  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  pasturage  and  agri- 
culture. Fur  bearing  animals  are  still 
plentiful,  and  the  river  abounds  in  fish. 
The  capital  is  Blagovestschensk.  Niko- 
laevsk, once  the  only  important  place  in 
these  regic'-is,  is  on  the  Amur,  26  miles 
from  its  mouth,  where  the  river  is  1^ 
miles  wide,  and  in  places  15  feet  deep; 
but  the  political  center  tends  south- 
ward to  the  more  temperate  maritime 
province  (area,  730,000  square  miles), 
near  the  southern  end  of  which  is  sit- 
uated the  important  harbor  of  Vladivos- 
tok ("Rule  of  the  East"),  or  Port  May, 
which,  in  1872,  was  placed  in  telegraphic 
communication  with  Europe  by  the  China 
submarine  cable,  and  is  now  the  capital 
of  the  Amur  provinces.  As  a  result  of 
the  World  War  and  the  Russian  revolu- 
tion the  political  future  of  the  region  is 
doubtful.  Japan  has  made  steady  in- 
roads, but  may  not  be  able  to  maintain 
herself  eventually. 

AMURATH  I.  (am-o-raf),  a  sultan 
of  the  Turks;  succeeded  his  father  Or- 
chan  in  1360.  He  founded  the  corps  of 
Janissaries,  conquered  Phrygia,  and,  on 
the  plains  of  Kossovo,  defeated  the 
Christians.  In  this  battle  he  was 
wounded  and  died  the  next  day,  1389. 

AMURATH  II.,  one  of  the  more  illus- 
trious of  the  Ottoman  emperors,  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Mohammed  I.,  in  1421, 
at  the  age  of  17.  In  1423  he  took  Thes- 
salonica  from  the  Venetians;  in  1435, 
subdued  the  despot  of  Servia,  besieged 
Belgrade,  which  was  successfully  de- 
fended by  John  Hunniades;  defeated  the 
Hungarians  at  Varna,  in  1444,  and  slew 
their  king,  Ladislaus.  He  died  at  Adria- 
nople  in  1451. 

AMURATH  III.,  succeeded  his  father, 
Selim  II.,  in  1574.  His  first  act  was 
the  murder  of  his  five  brothers.  He  add- 
ed several  of  the  best  provinces  of  Per- 
sia to  the  Turkish  empire.  He  died  in 
1595. 

AMURATH  IV.,  succeeded  his  uncle. 
Mustapha  X.,  1623.  After  two  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  he  took  Bagdad  from 
the  Persians  in  1638,  and  ordered  the 
massacre  of  30,000  prisoners  who  had 
surrendered  at  discretion.  He  died  in 
1640. 


AMYGDALIN 


157 


ANABAPTISTS 


AMYGDALIN  (aoH^rNOnSH^O),  a 
crystalline  principle  existing  in  the  ker- 
nel of  bitter  almonds,  the  leaves  of  the 
prunus  laurocerasus,  and  various  other 
plants,  which,  by  distillation,  yield  hy- 
drocyanic acid.  It  is  obtained,  by  ex- 
traction with  boiling  alcohol,  from  the 
paste  or  cake  of  bitter  almonds,  which 
remains  after  the  fixed  oil  has  been  sep- 
arated by  pressure.  When  obtained  pure, 
it  has  a  sweetish,  somewhat  bitter  taste, 
and  is  not  poisonous,  and,  when  treated 
with  alkaline  solvents,  ammonia  is  ex- 
pelled, and  amygdalic  acid,  CaoHaeOu,  is 
produced. 

AMYGDALOID,  an  igneous  crystal- 
line, or,  as  the  case  may  be,  vitreous  rock 
(lava),  containing  numerous  cells,  which 
owe  their  origin  to  the  segregation  and 
expansion  of  steam,  with  which  all  lavas 
are  more  or  less  charged  at  the  time  of 
their  eruption.  The  cells  vary  in  size 
from  mere  pores  up  to  cavities  several 
inches,  or  even  feet,  in  diameter.  The 
cells  are  generally  flattened  or  drawn  out 
in  the  direction  of  flow  of  the  lava,  and 
are  frequently  filled  with  mineral  matter 
(amygdules),  subsequently  introduced  by 
infiltrating  water.  This  is  the  origin  of 
many  of  the  agates  and  so-called  "Scotch 
pebbles"  of  jewelers. 

AMYGDALUS  (am-ig'dal-us),  a  ge- 
nus of  plants  belonging  to  the  order 
drupacese,  or  almond-worts.  It  contains, 
among  other  species,  the  common  peach, 
amygdalus  persica,  with  the  nectarine 
(variety  nectarina),  the  almond,  amyg- 
dalus communis,  with  the  variety  amara, 
or  bitter  almond. 

AMYL  (CoHii),  the  fifth  in  the  series 
of  alcohol  radicals  whose  general  for- 
mula is  C„H2„+,,  and  of  which  methyl 
and  ethyl  are  the  first  two  members.  It 
has  an  agreeable  smell  and  burning 
taste.  It  enters  into  a  large  number  of 
chemical  compounds,  most  of  which— as, 
for  instance,  bromide,  chloride,  iodide, 
etc. — are  derived  from  amylic  alcohol, 
which  bears  precisely  the  same  relation 
to  amyl  that  ordinary  alcohol  bears  to 
ethyl,  C^Hc 

AMYL,  NITBITE  OF  (aHnNOj),  a 
valuable  drug  which  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  nitrate  of  amyl,  may  be 
prepared  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
fusel  oil  (amylic  alcohol).  It  is  a  very 
powerful  remedy  in  all  convulsive  dis- 
eases, and  is  of  especial  value  in  angina 
pectoris,  as  well  as  in  asthma.  Owing 
to  its  volatile  nature  it  is  usually  kept 
in  small  glass  or  composition  globes  con- 
taining from  two  to  five  drops,  one  of 
which,  when  crushed  in  the  handkerchief, 
and  the  vapor  breathed,  will  often  give 
immediate  relief. 


AMYLOID,  a  term  used  both  in  chem- 
istry and  botany,  and  generally  equiva- 
lent to  "starchy."  Amyloids  are  sub- 
stances like  starch,  dextrine,  sugar,  gum, 
etc.,  which  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen.  The  animal  body,  chemically 
considered,  is  a  mixture  of  proteids,  amy- 
loids or  carbohydrates,  and  fats,  plus 
water  and  mineral  constituents,  and  the 
normal  food  always  contains  these  con- 
stituents. Of  the  three  items,  proteids 
are,  however,  absolutely  essential,  amy- 
loids and  fats  only  desirable  accessories. 
A  compound  radical  called  amyl  is 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  starch 
in  a  peculiar  fermentation — the  amylic 
fermentation. 

AMYRIDACEiE  (am-er-e-das'e-i),  an 
order  of  exogenous  plants.  The  amyri- 
dacex  have  a  panicled  inflorescence,  hy- 
pogynous  stamina,  double  the  petals  in 
number,  the  fruit  sub-drupaceous,  sam- 
aroid,  or  leguminous,  with  from  one  to 
two  seeds,  the  leaves  abounding  in  resin. 
They  occur  in  the  tropics  of  India  and 
America,  in  the  latter  region  extending 
as  far  N.  as  Florida. 

ANABAPTISTS,  members  of  a  well- 
known  sect,  which  largely  figured  in  the 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  history  of  the  16th 
century.  It  began  to  attract  notice 
within  four  years  of  the  ever-memorable 
31st  of  October,  1517,  on  which  Luther 
affixed  his  "theses"  to  the  gate  of  the 
castle  church  of  Wittenberg.  The  most 
eminent  of  its  early  leaders  were 
Thomas  Miinzer,  Mark  Stubner,  and 
Nicholas  Storck.  They  had  been  dis- 
ciples of  Luther;  but,  becoming  dissatis- 
fied with  the  moderate  character  of  his 
reformation,  they  cast  off  his  authority, 
and  attempted  more  sweeping  changes 
than  he  was  prepared  to  sanction.  Dur- 
ing his  absence,  they,  in  1521,  began  to 
preach  their  doctrines  at  Wittenberg. 
Laying  claim  to  supernatural  powers, 
they  saw  visions,  uttered  prophecies,  and 
made  an  immense  number  of  proselytes. 
In  1525,  the  peasants  of  Suabia,  Thu- 
ringia,  and  Franconia,  who  had  been 
much  oppressed  by  their  feudal  supe- 
riors, rose  in  arms.  The  Anabaptists- 
cast  in  their  lot  with  the  insurgent  peas- 
anti-y,  and  became  their  leaders  in  bat- 
tle. After  a  time  the  allied  princes  of 
the  empire,  led  by  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  put  down  the  rebellion,  and  Mun- 
zer  was  defeated,  captured,  and  ulti- 
mately beheaded.  In  1532,  some  extreme 
Anabaptists  from  Holland,  led  by  a  ba- 
ker called  John  Matthias,  and  a  tailor, 
John  of  Leyden,  seized  on  the  city 
of  Miinster,  in  Westphalia,  with  the 
view  of  setting  up  in  it  a  spiritual 
kingdom.  The  name  was  changed  to 
Mount   Zion    and    Matthias    becarme    its 


ANABLEPS 


158 


ANESTHESIA 


actual  king.  On  June  24,  1535,  the 
Bishop  of  Miinster  retook  the  city  by 
force  of  arms,  and  John  of  Leyden,  who 
had  succeeded  Matthias,  was  put  to 
death.  It  was  in  1534,  when  John  of 
Leyden  was  in  the  height  of  his  glory  in 
Miinster,  that  Ignatius  Loyola  took  the 
first  step  toward  founding  the  Order  of 
the  Jesuits. 

ANABLEPS,  a  genus  of  abdominal 
fishes,  of  the  order  vmlacopterygii  ab- 
dominales,  belonging  to  the  family  cy- 
prinidse  (carps).  Their  eyes  greatly 
project,  and,  moreover,  seem,  but  only 
seem,  as  if  divided  into  two;  hence  the 
species  is  called  anableps  tetrophthal- 
mus.    It  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Guiana. 

ANACONDA,  a  city  of  Montana,  the 
county-seat  of  Deer  Lodge  co.  It  is  26 
miles  N.  W.  of  Butte,  and  is  on  the 
Butte,  Anaconda  and  Pacific,  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul,  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  railroads.  It  is  in 
the  midst  of  an  important  mining  region 
and  in  it  are  located  the  largest  copper 
smelting  works  in  the  world.  There  are 
also  deposits  of  gold,  lead,  and  silver 
in  the  vicinity.  Other  industries  are 
brass  and  iron  foundries,  machine  shops, 
brick  works,  etc.  There  are  several 
parks,  a  library,  opera  house,  and  a  race 
track.   Pop.  (1910)  10,134;  (1920)  11,668. 

ANACORTES,  a  city  of  Washington, 
in  Skagit  co.,  about  90  miles  N.  of  Seat- 
tle. It  is  on  the  Great  Northern  railroad, 
and  is  a  port  of  call  for  boats  of  the 
Inland  Navigation  Co.,  the  Pacific  Coast 
Steamship  Co.,  the  Alaska  Pacific  S.  S. 
Co.,  and  the  Island  Navigation  Co.  The 
city  has  important  industries,  including 
lumber  mills,  salmon  canneries,  box  fac- 
tories, shipyards,  etc.  There  are  two 
parks  and  a  library.  Pop.  (1910)  4,168; 
(1920)    5,284. 

ANACREON  (a-nak're-on) ,  a  renowned 
lyric  poet  of  Greece,  born  at  Teos  in 
Ionia,  562  B.  c.  He  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  Polycrates,  autocrat  of  Samos; 
and,  while  at  his  court,  composed  most 
of  the  odes  in  praise  of  wine  and  women 
which  won  for  him  pre-eminence  among 
singers.  A  few  of  his  authentic  com- 
positions have  come  down  to  us.  He 
died  477  B.  c. 

ANADYR  (an-a'der),  the  most  east- 
erly of  the  larger  rivers  of  Siberia  and 
of  all  Asia;  rises  in  the  Stanovoi  Moun- 
tains, and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr; 
length,  600  miles. 

ANAEMIA,  bloodlessness;  a  morbid 
state  of  the  system  produced  by  loss  of 
blood,  by  deprivation  of  light  and  air  in 
coal  mines,  or  causes  more  obscure.  The 


patient  is  characterized  by  a  great  pale- 
ness, and  blood  vessels,  easily  traceable 
at  other  times,  become  unseen  after 
great  hemorrhage,  or  in  cases  of  anaemia. 

ANESTHESIA  (Greek,  "lack  of  sen- 
sation"), a  term  used  to  express  a  loss 
of  sensibility  to  external  impressions, 
which  may  involve  a  part  of  the  whole 
surface  of  the  body.  It  may  occur  nat- 
urally as  the  result  of  disease,  or  may  be 
produced  artificially  by  the  administra- 
tion of  anaesthetics. 

In  ancient  writers,  we  read  of  insensi- 
bility or  indifference  to  pain  being  ob- 
tained by  means  of  Indian  hemp  (canna- 
bis indica),  either  smoked  or  taken  into 
the  stomach.  The  Chinese,  more  than 
1,500  years  ago,  used  a  preparation  of 
hemp,  or  ma-ya,  to  annul  pain.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  used  mandragora 
for  a  similar  purpose  (poiein  anaisthe- 
sian);  and,  as  late  as  the  13th  century, 
the  vapor  from  a  sponge  filled  with 
mandragora,  opium,  and  other  sedatives 
was  used.  In  1784,  Dr.  Moore,  of  Lon- 
don, used  compression  on  the  nerves  of 
a  limb  requiring  amputation,  but  this 
method  was  in  itself  productive  of  much 
pain.  In  1800,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  ex- 
perimenting with  nitrous  oxide  or  laugh- 
ing-gas, suggested  its  usefulness  as  an 
anjesthetic;  and  in  1828  Dr.  Hickman 
suggested  carbonic  acid  gas.  As  early 
as  1795,  Dr.  Pearson  had  used  the  vapor 
of  sulphuric  ether  fo;:  the  relief  of  spas- 
modic affections  of  the  respiration.  The 
fact  that  sulphuric  ether  could  produce 
insensibility  was  shown  by  the  American 
physicians,  Godwin  (1822),  Mitchell 
(1832),  Jackson  (1833),  Wood  and  Bache 
(1834);  but  it  was  first  used  to  prevent 
the  pain  of  an  operation  in  1846,  by  Dr. 
Morton,  a  dentist  of  Boston.  The  news 
of  his  success  reached  England  on  Dec. 
17,  1846;  on  the  22d,  Mr.  Robinson,  a 
dentist,  and  Dr.  Liston,  the  eminent  sur- 
geon, operated  on  patients  rendered  in- 
sensible by  the  inhalation  of  sulphuric 
ether.  This  material  was  extensively 
used  for  a  year,  when  Sir  S»  Y.  Simpson, 
of  Edinburgh,  discovered  the  anaesthetic 
powers  of  chloroform  and  introduced  the 
use  of  it  into  his  special  department, 
midwifery.  Since  that  time,  chloroform 
has  been  the  anaesthetic  in  general  use 
in  Europe,  but  ether  is  preferred  in  the 
United  States.  Other  substances  have 
been  used  by  inhalation,  such  as  nitrous 
oxide  gas,  which  is  the  best  and  safest 
anaesthetic  for  operations  that  last  only 
one  or  two  minutes,  as  in  the  extraction 
of  teeth;  bichloride  of  methylene  and 
tetrachloride  of  carbon  have  also  been 
employed. 

Local  anaesthesia,  artificially  produced, 
is  of  great  value  in  minor  operations. 


ANAGNI 


159 


ANALYSIS 


and  in  painful  affections  of  limited 
areas  of  the  body.  It  depends  upon  a 
paralysis  of  the  sensory  nerves  of  the 
part,  and  may  be  induced  by  the  ap- 
plication of  cold,  or  of  medical  agents. 
Of  medical  agents  the  best  is  cocaine, 
prepared  from  the  coca  shrub  of  Peru 
(erythr-oxylon  coca).  Eucaine,  thymol, 
menthol,  aconite,  belladonna,  chloroform 
(the  last  three  as  the  well-known  A.  B. 
C.  liniment),  phenol,  chloral,  and  Indian 
hemp,  have  also  a  local  anaesthetic  action 
if  rubbed  on  the  skin,  or  applied  to 
abraded  surfaces,  but  most  are  too  irri- 
tating to  be  of  any  great  value. 

ANAGNI  (an-an'ye),  a  town  of  Italy, 
on  a  hill,  40  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Rome.  The 
seat  of  a  bishop  since  487,  it  has  an  old, 
but  much  modernized  cathedral,  and  was 
the  birthplace  of  four  popes — Innocent 
III.,  Gregory  IX.,  Alexander  IV.,  and 
Boniface  VIII.  The  chief  city  of  the 
Hernici,  it  was  a  place  of  importance 
during  the  whole  period  of  Roman  his- 
tory. Vergil  calls  it  "wealthy  Anagnia." 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

ANAHEIM,  a  city  of  California,  in 
Orange  co.,  about  27  miles  S.  E.  of  Los 
Angeles.  It  is  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
railroads.  The  center  of  an  important 
fruit-growing  country,  it  has  also  im- 
portant trade  interests  in  oil,  oranges, 
farm  and  dairy  products.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,628;  (1920)  5,526. 

ANALOGY,  similitude  of  relations  be- 
tween one  thing  and  other.  The  thing  to 
which  the  other  is  compared  is  preceded 
by  to  or  with.  When  both  are  mentioned 
together  they  are  connected  by  the  word 
between. 

In  logic,  the  resemblance  of  relations, 
a  meaning  given  to  the  word  first  by 
the  mathematicians. 

As  more  commonly  used  it  is  a  re- 
semblance of  any  kind  on  which  an  argu- 
ment falling  short  of  induction  may  be 
founded.  If  an  invariable  conjunction  is 
made  out  between  a  property  in  the  one 
case  and  a  property  in  the  other,  the 
argument  rises  above  analogy,  and  be- 
comes an  induction  on  a  limited  basis; 
but  if  no  such  conjunction  has  been 
made  out,  then  the  argument  is  one  of 
analogy  merely.  Metaphor  and  allegory 
address  the  imagination,  while  analogy 
appeals  to  the  reason.  The  former  are 
founded  on  similarity  of  appearances,  of 
effects,  or  of  incidental  circumstances; 
the  latter  is  built  upon  more  essential 
resemblances,  which  afford  a  proper 
basis  for  reasoning. 

In  biology,  an  analogy  is  the  relation 
between  parts  which  agree  in  function, 


as  the  wing  of  a  bird  and  that  of  a  but- 
terfly, the  tail  of  a  whale  and  that  of  a 
fish. 

ANALYSIS,  in  ordinary  language,  the 
act  of  analyzing;  the  state  of  being  an- 
alyzed; the  result  of  such  investigation. 
The  separation  of  anything  physical, 
mental,  or  a  mere  conception  into  its 
constitutent  elements.  It  is  also  applied 
to  a  syllabus,  conspectus,  or  exhibition 
of  the  heads  of  a  discourse;  a  synopsis. 
a  brief  abstract  of  a  subject  to  enable 
a  reader  more  readily  to  comprehend  it 
when  it  is  treated  at  length. 

In  mathematics,  the  term  analysis, 
signifying  an  unloosing,  as  contradis- 
tinguished from  synthesis=a  putting  to- 
gether. The  analytical  method  of  in- 
quiry has  been  defined  as  the  art  or 
method  of  finding  out  the  truth  of  a 
proposition  by  first  supposing  the  thing 
done,  and  then  reasoning  back  step  by 
step  till  one  arrives  at  some  admitted 
truth.  It  is  called  also  the  method  of 
invention  or  resolution.  Analysis  in 
mathematics  may  be  exercised  on  finite 
or  infinite  magnitudes  or  numbers.  The 
analysis  of  finite  quantities  is  the  same 
as  specious  arithmetic  or  algebra.  That 
of  infinites,  called  also  the  new  analysis, 
is  particularly  used  in  fluxions  or  the 
differential  calculus.  But  analysis  could 
be  employed  also  in  geometry,  though 
Euclid  preferred  to  make  his  immortal 
work  synthetic;  it  is,  therefore,  a  de- 
parture from  correct  language  to  use  the 
word  analysis,  as  many  do,  as  the  anti- 
thesis of  geometry;  it  is  opposed,  as 
already  mentioned,  to  ssntithesis,  and  to 
that  alone. 

In  chemistry,  the  examination  of 
bodies  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  of 
what  substance  they  are  composed,  and 
in  what  proportion  these  substances  are 
contained  in  them.  The  former  is  called 
qualitative  and  the  latter  quantitative 
analysis.  Chemical  analysis  is  classified 
into  blowpipe,  qualitative,  gravimetrical, 
and  volumetric  analysis;  and  the  proxi- 
mate and  the  ultimate  analysis  of  or- 
ganic bodies. 

1.  Blow-pipe  analysis. 

2.  Qualitative  analysis  is  employed  to 
find  out  the  composition  and  properties 
of  any  unknown  substance,  and  to  sepa- 
rate different  substances  from  each 
other. 

3.  Gravimetrical  analysis,  or  quanti- 
tative analysis  by  weight,  is  the  method 
of  separating  out  of  a  weighed  quantity 
of  a  compound  its  constituents,  either  in 
a  pure  state  or  in  the  form  of  some  new 
substance  of  known  composition,  and  ac- 
curately weighing  the  products;  from 
the  results  of  these  operations  the  per- 


AN  AM 


160 


ANARCHISM 


centage  of  the  constituents  contained  in 
the  substance  can  be  determined. 

4.  Volumetrical  analysis,  or  quanti- 
tative analysis  by  measure,  determines 
the  amount  of  the  constituents  contained 
in  a  given  solution  by:  (a)  Neutraliza- 
tion of  a  measured  quantity  of  the 
liquid  by  a  certain  volume  of  a  standard 
solution  of  acid  or  alkali,  (b)  By  the 
quantity  of  a  standard  solution  of  an 
oxidizing  or  reducing  agent  required  to 
oxidize  or  reduce  a  measured  quantity  of 
the  liquid  to  be  tested,  (c)  By  observing 
when  no  further  precipitation  takes 
place  on  adding  the  standard  solution  of 
the  reagent  to  a  known  volume  of  the 
liquid  to  be  tested. 

5.  By  proximate  analysis  we  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  sugar,  fat,  resin, 
alkaloid,  etc.,  contained  in  an  organic 
compound,  each  of  these  being  removed 
and  separated  by  different  solvents,  etc. 

6.  By  ultimate  analysis  of  an  organic 
substance  we  determine  the  percentage 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
sulphur,  and  phosphorus  contained  in  it. 
Thus  the  amount  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen is  determined  by  burning  a  weighed 
quantity  of  the  substance  in  a  combus- 
tion tube  along  with  oxide  of  copper,  and 
collecting  the  water  produced  in  a 
weighed  U  tube  filled  with  chloride  of 
calcium,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  in 
weighed  bulbs  filled  with  caustic  potash. 

In  other  sciences,  etc.,  the  separation 
of  anything  which  becomes  the  object  of 
scientific  inquiry  into  its  constituent  ele- 
ments; also  the  result  thus  obtained. 

ANAM,  or  ANNAM,  a  French  pro- 
tectorate comprising  the  central  part  of 
French  Indo-China.  Its  area  is  52,100 
square  miles. 

Topography. — Anam  is  mountainous 
on  the  N.  but  in  the  E.  is  nearly  level, 
terminating  toward  the  sea  in  an  allu- 
vial plain  yielding  good  crops  of  rice, 
cotton,  fruits,  ginger,  and  spices,  and  a 
great  variety  of  varnish  trees,  palms, 
etc.  The  principal  river  is  the  Mekong, 
which  has  numerous  tributaries,  many  of 
them  being  joined  together  by  canals, 
both  for  irrigation  and  commerce.  Agri- 
culture is  the  chief  occupation,  but  many 
of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the 
spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton  and  silk 
into  coarse  fabrics,  the  preparation  of 
varnish,  iron  smelting,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  ships  or  junks.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts of  the  country  are  cotton,  rice 
maize,  and  other  cereals.  Tobacco,  sugar, 
manioc,  and  bamboo  are  also  extensively 
produced.  The  production  of  raw  silk 
forms  an  important  industry,  and  about 
800,000  kilograms  are  produced  annually. 
Copper,  iron,  zinc,  and  gol4  exist  in  va- 


rious parts  of  the  country.  The  imports 
in  1918  amounted  to  5,067,518  francs,  and 
the  exports  to  8,705,679  francs.  The  lead- 
ing exports  are  cotton  yarn,  cotton,  tea, 
petroleum,  paper  goods,  and  tobacco.  The 
chief  imports  are  sugar,  rice,  cinnamon, 
tea,  and  paper.     Pop.  about  5,200,000. 

People. — The  inhabitants  are  said  to 
be  the  ugliest  of  the  Mongoloid  races  of 
the  peninsula,  being  under  the  middle 
size  and  less  robust  than  the  surrounding 
peoples.  Their  language  is  monosyllabic, 
and  is  connected  with  the  Chinese.  The 
religion  of  the  majority  is  Buddhism, 
but  the  educated  classes  hold  the  doc- 
trines of  Confucius;  besides  which  there 
are  420,000  Roman  Catholics.  The  capi- 
tal is  Hue. 

History. — Anam  was  conquered  by  the 
Chinese  in  214  B.  C,  but  in  1428  A.  D.  it 
completely  won  its  independence.  The 
French  began  to  interfere  actively  in  its 
affairs  in  1847  on  the  plea  of  protecting 
the  native  Christians.  By  the  treaties 
of  1862  and  1867  they  obtained  the  south- 
ern and  most  productive  part  of  Cochin- 
China,  subsequently  known  as  French 
Cochin-China;  and  in  1874  they  obtained 
large  powers  over  Tonquin,  notwith- 
standing the  protests  of  the  Chinese. 
Finally,  in  1883,  Tonquin  was  ceded  to 
France,  and  next  year  Anam  was  de- 
clared a  French  protectorate.  After  a 
short  period  of  hostilities  with  China  the 
latter  recognized  the  French  claims,  and 
Tonquin  is  now  directly  administered  by 
France,  while  Anam  is  entirely  under 
French  direction. 

ANAPA,  an  important  seaport  and 
fortified  town  in  Russian  Circassia,  on 
the  Black  Sea,  a  station  of  the  Russian 
navy. 

ANARCHISM,  a  tendency  founded 
upon  anarchy  in  human  society.  By 
anarchy  is  not  to  be  understood  the  word 
in  its  exaggerated  sense  of  chaos  and  dis- 
order, but  literally  a  state  of  society  in 
which  authority  does  not  exist;  that  is, 
a  society  with  the  greatest  imaginable 
independence  of  the  individual,  without 
law  and  without  any  relations  whatever 
of  superior  and  inferior.  There  were 
tendencies  to  anarchy  in  the  thought  of 
antiquity  and  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  well 
as  in  modern  times.  Anarchistic  tenden- 
cies first  became  notably  influential  as 
a  phase  of  thought  toward  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century,  when  they  were  de- 
veloped under  an  increasing  sense  of  the 
misery  of  the  oppressed  masses  of  hu- 
manity. The  founder  of  modern  anarch- 
ism was  Peter  Joseph  Proudhon  (1809- 
(1865)  who  wrote  "Vv^hat  is  Property?" 
He  held  that  under  the  compulsion  of 
the  laws  of  property  there  existed  be- 


ANABCHISM 


161 


ANABCHISM 


tween  employers  and  workingmen  a  con- 
dition of  exchange  in  commodities  most 
unfavorable  to  the  latter,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  capitalist,  without  working 
himself,  appropriated  to  himself,  most  un- 
justly, a  portion  of  the  earnings  of  the 
worker.  Hence  Proudhon's  famous  con- 
clusion: "Property  is  robbery."  As  a 
remedy  for  these  unjust  conditions, 
Proudhon  held  that  there  should  be  a 
free  activity  of  industrial  forces  under 
which  there  would  be  a  just  exchange  of 
commodities  corresponding  to  the  actual 
relations  of  value.  In  order  to  achieve 
such  conditions  Proudhon  rejected  law 
and  authority  of  every  kind  and  demanded 
a  social  condition  in  which  there  should 
be  absolutely  no  authority.  As  a  char- 
acterization of  this  condition  he  was  the 
first  to  employ  the  word  "anarchy."  In 
his  essay,  "A  General  Idea  of  the  Revo- 
lution"  (1851),  he  set  forth  his  theory. 

It  found  much  approval  in  Germany 
at  first.  The  doctrine  was  elaborated 
by  Max  Stirner  in  a  book  called  "The 
Individual  and  His  Property,"  published 
in  1845.  Stirner  acknowledges  nothing 
but  the  will  of  the  individual.  He  re- 
jects every  combination  among  men  to- 
ward a  higher  unity,  every  compulsion 
of  civilized  principles — all  of  these  sig- 
nifying for  him  nothing  but  the  enthral- 
ment  of  the  individual  will.  Stirner  ad- 
vocated the  path  of  revolution.  The 
triumph  of  the  reaction  in  1848  crowded 
anarchistic  teachings  into  the  background. 
In  1852  Proudhon  himself  in  his  essay 
on  "The  Federative  Principle,"  declared 
anarchy  to  be  impracticable,  and  held  the 
correct  form  of  government  to  be  a  fed- 
eration of  autonomist  communities.  The 
labor  agitations  that  began  in  the  '60's 
were  accompanied  by  a  development  of 
the  anarchistic  party,  chiefly  under  the 
influence  of  Russian  agitators.  The 
founder  of  this  party  was  Michael 
Bakunin  (1814-1876).  Since  1864  Baku- 
nin  was  active  in  Switzerland  as  an  an- 
archistic agitator.  Unlike  Proudhon,  he 
advocated  revolution  as  the  means  to  the 
end,  but  he  drew  the  line  at  murder. 
Bakunin  sent  his  disciple,  Sergei  Net- 
shaye,  to  Russia  and  there,  in  1869,  the 
latter  develojped  the  so-called  "propa- 
ganda of  action";  that  is,  an  agitation 
by  means  of  deeds  of  violence,  murder 
and  disorder,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
overcoming  the  existing  order  of  society, 
but  simply  to  arouse  sentiment  by  the 
effect  of  horrible  deeds. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  representa- 
tives of  anarchistic  doctrines  is  the  Rus- 
sian Prince  Krapotkin  (born  in  1842). 
Krapotkin  advocates  a  system  of  com- 
munistic anarchy  based  upon  the  idea 
of    free    production    and    consumption, 


with  a  free  development  of  industrial 
powers  in  groups  and  societies.  Ac- 
cording to  his  theory,  everybody  should 
share  as  he  pleased  in  production  and 
also  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  fruits  of 
collective  effort.  This  is  the  programme 
of  the  greater  number  of  the  anarchists 
of  to-day,  especially  of  those  who  are 
called  the  Latin  anarchists,  being  those 
believers  in  the  doctrine  who  live  in 
western  Switzerland,  the  S.  of  France, 
in  Italy  and  in  Spain.  With  the  grow- 
ing development  of  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic organization,  anarchy  fell  more 
and  more  into  disfavor.  These  two 
tendencies,  anarchy  and  socialism,  have 
a  common  source  in  a  sense  of  the  misery 
of  the  oppressed  masses,  but  their  end3 
are  directly  opposed,  the  aim  of  anarchy 
being  to  achieve  the  extreme  of  indi- 
vidualism, while  that  of  socialism  aims 
to  realize  the  extreme  of  collectivism. 
At  the  Congress  of  International  So- 
cieties of  Workingmen,  held  at  The 
Hague,  in  1872,  at  the  instance  of  Carl 
Marx,  the  International  Alliance  of  the 
Social  Democracy,  which  followed  the 
doctrines  of  Bakunin,  was  excluded,  and 
ever  since  the  hostility  between  the  ten- 
dencies has  been  increasing.  The  German 
law  against  socialism,  passed  in  1878, 
caused,  for  the  time,  a  tendency  toward 
anarchism  in  consequence  of  the  for- 
mation of  revolutionary  groups  under 
the  leadership  of  Most  (1846),  a  former 
member  of  the  German  Reichstag.  In 
consequence  of  this  Most  was  expelled 
from  the  Social  Democratic  Party  and 
went  to  London,  but,  in  1882,  he  came 
to  New  York  and  advocated  the  "propa- 
ganda of  action."  Most  sought  to  im- 
prove upon  the  teaching  of  Proudhon  by 
advocating  the  regulation  of  production 
and  price  through  common  action  among 
groups  of  workers. 

In  Germany,  unlike  the  Latin  countries, 
the  anarchistic  agitation  has  never  had 
much  significance.  The  "propaganda  of 
action,"  however,  has  resulted  in  various 
deeds  of  violence — for  instance,  the  at- 
tempted assassination  of  Emperor  Wil- 
helni  I.,  by  Hoedel  (1878),  and  the  at- 
tempt of  Reinsdorf  against  the  German 
princes  at  the  dedication  of  the  Nieder- 
wald  monument,  in  1883.  The  latter 
caused  the  enactment  of  the  law  against 
the  criminal  use  of  explosives  on  June 
9,  1884.  In  consequence  of  the  assassi- 
nation of  the  French  President  Carnot 
by  an  Italian  anarchist,  in  December, 
1894,  there  was  an  attempt  made  to  in- 
crease the  severity  of  the  German  laws, 
but  the  proposition  was  rejected  by  the 
Reichstag.  The  assassination  of  the 
Empress  Elizabeth  of  Austria,  by  an 
Italian  anarchist,  in  1898,  and  also  that 


ANARCHISM 


162 


ANATOMY 


bf  the  Spanish  statesman  Canovas  by 
an  Italian  anarchist  led  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment to  feel  that  it  was  its  duty  to 
call  for  some  international  action  for  the 
suppression  of  anarchists  and  an  anti- 
anarchist  conference  was  held  at  Rome 
in  the  latter  part  of  1878.  It  had,  how- 
ever, no  further  result  than  a  propo- 
sition to  institute  a  sort  of  international 
intelligence  service  for  the  watching  of 
anarchists.  King  Humbert  of  Italy  was, 
notwithstanding  this  vigilance,  assassi- 
nated by  an  anarchist,  in  1900  (July  29). 

Francisco  Ferrer,  who  at  one  period 
of  his  life  had  been  actively  engaged  in 
anarchistic  propaganda,  but  had  later 
abandoned  it,  was  arrested  in  1909,  fol- 
lowing serious  riots  in  Barcelona,  Spain. 
It  was  charged  that  his  teachings  were 
responsible  for  the  uprising.  In  spite 
of  the  impossibility  of  proving  these 
charges  definitely,  he  was  executed  on 
Oct.  12,  1909.  In  November,  1910,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  a  group  of  anarchist 
Socialists  to  assassinate  the  Mikado  of 
Japan.  Twelve  of  these  were  executed. 
King  George  of  Greece  was  assassinated 
at  Salonica  on  March  18,  1913. 

Following  the  assassination  of  Presi- 
dent McKinley  in  1902  by  an  avowed 
anarchist,  Leon  Czolgosz,  Congress  passed 
laws  excluding  anarchists  from  the 
classes  permitted  to  immigrate  into  the 
United  States. 

In  1892  France  passed  the  law  impos- 
ing the  death  penalty  upon  those  who 
should  cause  damage  to  property  by  the 
use  of  explosives.  After  the  attempt 
of  Vaillant  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  the  murder  of  President  Carnot, 
special  laws  against  anarchists  were 
passed  in  1893  and  1894,  whereby  the 
glorification  of  anarchistic  crime  and  the 
incitement  thereto  were  made  criminal 
offenses  and  the  punishment  of  anarchists 
was  provided  for.  In  1894,  Switzerland 
passed  a  law  against  the  criminal  use 
of  explosives  and  the  incitement  of  such 
crimes.  Similar  laws  were  also  passed 
in  1894-1896  in  Spain  and  Italy.  Dis- 
ordered conditions  following  upon  the 
end  of  the  World  War  gave  the  anarchists 
an  opportunity  for  carrying  on  effective 
propaganda.  Although  anarchists  as  a 
class  did  not  dominate  in  the  Bolshevik 
revolution  in  Russia,  both  the  leaders 
and  the  rank  and  file  of  the  movement 
carried  out  to  a  large  degree  the  princi- 
ples of  anarchism. 

There  was  persistent  propaganda 
carried  on  in  the  United  States  with  the 
greatest  audacity,  following  the  war,  by 
avowed  anarchists,  the  most  prominent 
of  whom  were  Emma  Goldman  and  Alex- 
ander Berkman.  The  officers  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, under  authority  given  by  war 


measures,  began  vigorous  measures  iiS 
December,  1919,  for  the  suppression  of 
anarchistic  and  communistic  propaganda. 
The  headquarters  of  the  radical  societies 
throughout  the  country  were  raided  and 
many  of  the  leaders  were  taken  prisoners 
for  the  purpose  of  deportation.  In  the 
same  month  about  300  anarchists,  in- 
cluding Emma  Goldman  and  Berkman, 
were  deported.  Several  thousand  other 
anarchists  were  held  in  confinement 
pending  examination. 

ANASTASIUS  (an-a-sta'shus),  the 
name  of  four  Popes,  the  first  and  most 
eminent  of  whom  held  that  office  for  only 
three  years  (398-401).  He  enforced 
celibacy  on  the  higher  clergy,  and  was  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  Manichaeans  and 
Origen. 

ANASTASIUS  I.,  Emperor  of  the 
East,  succeeded  Zeno,  A.  D.  491,  at  the  age 
of  60.  He  distinguished  himself  by  sup- 
pressing the  combats  between  men  and 
wild  beasts  in  the  arena,  abolishing  the 
sale  of  offices  and  building  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Constantinople.  His  support 
of  the  heretical  Eutychians  led  to  a 
dangerous  rebellion  and  his  anthemati- 
zation  by  the  Pope.     He  died  A.  D.  518. 

ANATOMY  (Greek,  "a  cutting  up  or 
dissecting"),  the  science  of  the  form  and 
structure  of  organized  bodies;  it  is  prac- 
tically acquired  by  separation  of  the 
parts  of  a  body,  so  as  to  show  their  dis- 
tinct formation,  and  their  relations  to 
one  another.  It  is,  therefore,  a  branch 
of  the  science  of  biology,  and  consists  of 
two  great  divisions — the  anatomy  of  an- 
imals, styled  zootomy,  and  that  of  plants, 
phytotomy. 

History  of  Ana  torn  y. — The  real 
founder  of  the  science  was  Aristotle, 
born  384  B.  C.  He  seems  to  have  based 
his  systematic  views  of  comparative  an- 
atomy on  the  dissection  of  animals,  but 
not  of  men.  He  first  gave  the  name  aorta 
to  the  great  artery.  No  real  progress  in 
human  anatomy  was  made,  owing  to  the 
researches  being  confined  to  animals,  till 
the  time  of  Erasistratus  (250  B.  c),  who 
was  the  first  to  dissect  human  bodies — 
the  bodies  of  criminals.  Herophilus  also 
is  said  to  have  dissected  living  subjects, 
Celsus  (63  B.  c),  in  his  "De  Medicina," 
wrote  on  anatomy.  Galen  (131  A.  D.) 
dissected  apes,  as  being  most  like  human 
subjects,  though  he  occasionally  obtained 
bodies  of  persons  found  murdered;  and 
his  writings  show  a  knowledge  of  human 
anatomy.  Avicenna  (980  A.  D.),  born  in 
the  province  of  Khorassan,  was  a  good 
osteologist,  and  described  some  struc- 
tures not  alluded  to  by  Galen.  The  med- 
ical schools  at  Bologna,  Padua,  and  Sa- 
lerno became  famous   in  the  13th  cen- 


ANATOMY 


163 


ANATOMY 


tury,  but  no  very  material  progress  was 
made  in  anatomy.  Mondino,  born  at  Mi- 
lan, 1315,  is  considered  the  real  restorer 
of  anatomy  in  Italy. 

William  Horman,  of  Salisbury,  wrote 
in  1530,  "Anatomia  Corporis  Humani." 
Thomas  Gemini,  of  London,  in  1545,  en- 
graved upon  copper  the  anatomical  fig- 
ures of  Vesalius,  which  had  appeared  in 
Germany  upon  wood.  Thomas  Vicary, 
in  1548,  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  wrote 
in  English  on  anatomy. 

In  the  17th  century,  progress  was 
rapid.  In  1619  Harvey  discovered  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  micro- 
scope was  employed  to  detect  the  struc- 
ture in  minute  vessels.  In  1622  Aselli 
discovered  and  demonstrated  the  exist- 
ence of  the  lymph  vessels.  The  glandu- 
lar organs  were  investigated  by  Whar- 
ton; Malpighi,  Swammerdam,  and  the 
illustrious  Ruysch,  by  the  use  of  injec- 
tions and  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  research  in  the  minute 
structures.  In  Italy,  which  still  retained 
its  former  pre-eminence,  we  find  Pac- 
chioni,  Valsalva,  Morgagni,  Santorini, 
Mascagni,  and  Cotunni;  in  France, 
Winslow,  D'Aubenton,  Lieutaud,  Vicq 
d'Azyr,  and  Bichat,  the  founder  of  gen- 
eral anatomy;  in  Germany,  Haller  and 
Meckel  prepared  the  way  for  greater 
achievements  in  the  19th  century;  in 
Great  Britain,  Cowper,  Cheselden,  Hun- 
ter, Cruikshank,  Monro,  and  Charles  Bell 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  science; 
while  Holland  was  worthily  represented 
by  Boerhaave,  Albinus,  Camper,  Sandi- 
fort,  and  Bonn.  The  enormous  strides 
made  in  practical  anatomy  during  the 
last  50  years  are  largely  due  to  the  use 
of  the  microscope. 

The  necessity  of  a  union  of  theory 
and  practice  led  to  the  study  of  patho- 
logical anatomy,  which  is  the  dissection 
and  study  of  structures  as  modified  by 
disease.  In  the  16th  century,  many  no- 
tices of  pathological  anatomy  o«cur,  but 
Morgagni  (1767)  is  regarded  as  the  true 
founder  of  pathological  anatomy.  He 
was  followed  by  Lieutaud,  Sandifort, 
Hunter,  Bailie,  Meckel  the  younger,  and 
others.  The  recent  change  of  direction 
given  to  the  study  of  pathological  anat- 
omy must  be  ascribed  to  Bichat  and  the 
pupils  of  Broussais,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  the  names  of  Laennec,  Louis, 
Andral,  Leber,  Virchow,  and  Bennett. 

Theoretical  anatomy  is  divided  into 
general  and  special.  General  anatomy 
gives  a  description  of  the  elementary  tis- 
sues of  which  the  systems  and  organs  of 
the  body  are  composed,  as  preliminary 
to  an  examination  of  them  in  their  com- 
bined state  in  the  various  organs;  it  also 
investigates  their  laws  of  formation  and 

12 — Vol.  I— Cyc 


combination,  and  the  changes  which  they 
undergo  in  various  stages  of  life.  Anat- 
omy has  been  divided,  though  not  with 
scientific  precision,  into  seven  branches 
of  study.  (1)  Osteology,  which  treats 
of  the  bones,  including  the  cartilages  of 
the  joints  Cchondrology) .  (2)  Arthrol- 
ogy,  which  describes  the  ligaments  or 
bands  that  unite  the  bones  of  various 
joints.  (3)  Myology  explains  the  sys- 
tem of  the  muscles,  which,  by  their  con- 
tractile power,  serve  to  impart  motion 
to  the  bones  and  joints;  while,  like  the 
bones,  they  contribute  to  form  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  body,  and  to  protect  the  in- 
ternal organs.  Their  form  also  serves 
to  produce  the  external  shape  and  sym- 
metry. (4)  Angeiology  describes  the 
vessels  and  ducts,  with  their  complex  net- 
work and  ramifications  spreading  over 
most  parts  of  the  body,  and  divided  into 
two  great  systems:  (a)  the  blood  ves- 
sels with  the  heart,  a  fleshy  organ  pro- 
pelling the  blood  through  the  pulsating 
vessels  or  arteries,  from  which  it  re- 
turns to  the  heart,  after  circulation 
through  the  veins;  (b)  the  lymphatics, 
by  means  of  which  a  certain  fluid 
(lymph)  is  passed  through  a  series  of 
organs  named  lymphatic  glands,  and  af- 
terward enters  the  large  veins  at  the 
root  of  the  neck.  The  lacteals,  which 
absorb  the  chyle  from  the  intestine,  also 
belong  to  this  system  of  vessels.  (5) 
Neurology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  nerves, 
describes  the  nervous  system,  as  divided 
into,  first,  the  two  central  masses  of  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord;  second,  the 
ramifications  of  nerves  running  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  to  almost  all  points 
of  the  surface;  and  lastly,  the  order  of 
nerves  having  a  peculiar  structure  and 
styled  the  ganglionic  system  of  nerves. 
(6)  Splanchnology  describes  the  viscera 
or  organs  formed  by  combination  of  the 
distinct  systems  of  veins,  nerves,  lymph- 
atics, etc.,  and  mostly  situated  in  the 
cavities  of  the  body.  These  are  divided 
into  five  groups,  viz.:  (a)  the  organs  of 
the  senses — sight,  hearing,  smell,  taste, 
and  touch;  (b)  of  voice  and  respiration 
— nostrils,  mouth,  larynx,  trachea,  and 
lungs,  with  the  thyroid  gland,  the  thymus 
gland,  and  the  diaphragm;  (c)  digestive 
organs — the  mouth,  with  its  salivary 
glands,  the  throat,  gullet,  the  stomach, 
the  intestines,  with  the  liver,  spleen  and 
pancreas;  (d)  the  urinary  organs — kid- 
neys, ureters,  bladder,  and  urethra;  (e) 
sexual  organs  of  both  sexes.  (7)  Em- 
bryology, the  science  v/hich  treats  of  the 
first  or  rudimentary  stage  of  existence. 

The  eldest  of  the  Monros  of  Edinburgh 
University  first  gave  this  branch  of  the 
study  its  due  prominence. 

Comparative  anatomy,  the  investiga- 
tion and   comparison   of  the  structures 


ANAXAGORAS 


164 


ANCONA 


of  two  or  more  animals,  has  always  pre- 
ceded anthropotomy,  or  dissection  of  the 
human  subject,  but  was  first  treated  sys- 
tematically as  a  distinct  science  by  Cu- 
vier  and  his  pupil,  Meckel  the  younger. 
Blumenbach,  Tiedemann,  Geofi'roy,  St. 
Hilaire,  Goethe,  Owen,  Wagner,  Bow- 
man, Todd,  Milne-Edwards,  Remak,  Ley- 
dig,  Frey,  Haeckel,  Agassiz,  Carpenter, 
AUman,  Sharpey,  Allen  Thomson,  Hux- 
ley, Turner,  and  Flower,  may  be  named 
as  eminent  contributors  to  this  branch  of 
science. 

The  most  general  and  available  assist- 
ance in  the  study  of  anatomy  is  found 
in  anatomical  engravings  and  plates  on 
wood  and  copper.  This  assistance  was 
known  in  ancient  times.  Aristotle  affixed 
to  his  works  on  anatomy  some  anatom- 
ical drawings,  which  have  been  lost. 

ANAXAGORAS  (an-iaks-ag'o-ras),  a 
famous  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Ionic 
school,  born  at  Clazomenge  in  500  B.  C. 
He  explained  eclipses  and  advanced 
physical  science.  In  philosophy,  he  taught 
that  the  universe  is  regulated  by  an 
eternal  self-existent  and  infinitely  power- 
ful principle,  called  by  him  mind;  matter 
he  seems  to  have  asserted  to  be  eternal, 
what  is  called  generation  and  destruction 
being  merely  the  temporary  union  and 
separation  of  ever  existing  elements;  he 
disproved  the  doctrine  that  things  may 
have  arisen  by  chance.  Fragments  of 
his  "Treatise  on  Nature"  are  still  in  ex- 
istence.    He  died  in  428  B.  C. 

ANCACHS  (an-kachs') ,  a  department 
of  Peru,  bounded  N.  by  the  department 
of  Libertad,  S.  by  that  of  Lima,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  Pacific  eastward  to  the 
headwaters  of  ..he  Amazon.  Area,  16,562 
square  miles;  pop.  about  500,000.  It  is 
rich  in  minerals,  and  is  traversed  by  a 
railway.  Capital,  Huaraz. 

ANCHISES  (an-ki'sez),  the  father  of 
the  Trojan  hero  -(Eneas,  who  carried 
him  off  on  his  shoulders  at  the  burning 
of  Troy  and  made  him  the  companion 
of  his  voyage  to  Italy.  He  died  at 
Drepanum,  in  Sicily. 

ANCHITHERIUM  (an-ke-the're-um) , 
a  fossil  mammal  belonging  to  the  family 
'palseotheHdx.  It  has  been  called  also 
hipparitherium,  suggesting  an  affinity  to 
the  horse  in  the  neighboring  family  of 
equida;. 

ANCHOR,  a  well-known  instrument 
for  preventing  a  ship  from  drifting,  by 
mooring  her  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
provided  that  the  water  is  shallow  enough 
to  permit  of  this  being  done.  Its  invention 
was  at  a  very  early  period.  Those  of  the 
early  Greeks  were  simply  large  stones, 


sacks  filled  with  sand,  or  logs  of  wood 
loaded  with  lead.  Then  the  Tuscans,  or 
Midas,  King  of  Phrygia,  introduced  a 
tooth,  or  fluke,  which  was  ultimately  ex- 
changed for  two.  The  modern  anchor 
consists  of  a  long  bar  or  shank  of  iron, 
branching  out  at  the  lower  extrenaity  intt 
two  arms  ending  in  flukes  barbed  at  their 
extremity,  and  with  a  stock  of  oak  or 
wood  at  the  upper  one,  while  it  termi- 
nates in  a  ring,  to  which  a  rope  or  chain 
is  aff'ixed.  The  arms  or  flukes  are  de- 
signed to  penetrate  and  fix  themselves  in 
the  sea-bottom. 

An  anchor,  in  architecture,  is  a  kind  of 
carving  somewhat  resembling  an  anchor. 
It  is  generally  used  as  part  of  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  bottoms  of  capitals  in  the 
Tuscan,  Doric,  and  Ionic  orders,  or  as 
that  of  the  boultins  of  bed-moldings  in 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  cornices, 
anchors  and  eggs  being  carved  alternately 
throughout  the  whole  building. 

ANCHOVY,  a  fish,  the  engraulis  en- 
crasicolus  of  Fleming;  the  engraulis  vul- 
garis of  Cuvier.  It  belongs  to  the  her- 
ring family.^  In  general,  its  length  is 
from  4  to  5  inches.  Shoals  of  anchovies 
annually  enter  the  Mediterranean,  and 
various  fisheries  exist  along  its  northern 
shores,  the  most  celebrated  being  at 
Gorgona,  a  small  island  W.  of  Leghorn. 

ANCHOVY  PEAR,  the  English  name 
of  the  genus  grias.  Grias  cauliflora,  the 
stem-flowering  anchovy  pear,  is  an  ele- 
gant tree,  with  large  leaves,  which  grows 
in  the  West  Indies,  The  fruit,  which 
is  eaten,  tastes  like  that  of  the  mango, 
and  is  pickled  in  the  same  way. 

ANCHYLOSIS,  the  coalescence  of  two 
bones,  so  as  to  prevent  motion  between 
them.  If  anything  keep  a  joint  motion- 
less for  a  long  time,  the  bones  which  con- 
stitute it  have  a  tendency  to  become 
anchylosed,  in  which  case  all  flexibility  is 
lost. 

ANCONA,  capital  of  a  province  in 
Italy,  is  situated  on  a  promontory  of  the 
Adriatic  coast,  127  miles  S.  E.  of  Ravenna 
by  rail.  The  seat  of  a  bishop.  Pop. 
about  70,000. 

It  is  still  the  most  important  seaport 
on  the  Adriatic  between  Venice  and  Brin- 
disi.  The  manufactures  are  silk,  ships' 
rigging,  leather,  tobacco,  and  soft  soap; 
the  exports  (declining  in  recent  years) 
are  cream  of  tartar,  lamb  and  goat  skins, 
asphalt,  bitumen,  corn,  hemp,  coral,  and 
silk.  A  mole  of  2,000  feet  in  length,  built 
by  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  a  triumphal 
arch  of  the  same  emperor,  are  the  most 
notable  monuments  of  antiquity.  One  of 
the  most  venerable  buildings  is  the  Cathe- 
dral  of  San   Ciriaco,  built  in  the  11th 


ANCRUM  MOOB 


165 


ANDERSEN 


century,  and  possessing  the  oldest  cupola 
in  Italy.  Ancona  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  about  380  B.  c.  by  Syracusans, 
who  had  fled  from  the  tyranny  of  Di- 
onysius  the  Elder.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Goths,  rebuilt  by  Narses,  and  again 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  10th 
century.  It  afterward  became  a  republic; 
but  in  1532  Pope  Clement  VII.  annexed 
it  to  the  states  of  the  Church.  In  1797 
it  was  taken  by  the  French;  but  in  1799 
•  General  Meunier  was  obliged  to  surrender 
it  to  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  after 
a  long  and  gallant  defense.  In  1832  a 
French  force  took  possession  of  the  town 
and  kept  it  in  their  hands  till  1838,  when 
both  French  and  Austrians  retired  from 
the  Papal  states.  In  1849  a  revolutionary 
garrison  in  Ancona  capitulated  after  en- 
during a  siege  by  the  Austrians  of  25 
days.  In  1861  the  flag  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  waved  over  the  ancient  city.  "The 
March  of  Ancona"  was  the  name  applied 
to  the  territory  Ijdng  between  the  Adri- 
atic and  the  Apennines,  from  Tronto  N. 
W.  of  San  Marino.  Erected  into  an  in- 
dependent marquisate  under  the  Longo- 
bards,  the  district  was  a  papal  depend- 
ency from  the  13th  century,  but  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Victor  Emmanuel  in 
1860. 

ANCRUM  MOOR,  Roxburghshire,  5^ 
miles  N.  W.  of  Jedburgh,  was  in  1544 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  5,000  English, 
under  Sir  Ralph  Evers  and  Sir  Brian 
Latoun,  by  a  Scottish  force  under  the 
Earl  of  Angus  and  Scott  of  Buccleuch. 

ANDALUSIA,  a  large  and  fertile 
region  occupying  the  S.  of  Spain.  Its 
shores  are  washed  both  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Atlantic,  The  name  is 
a  form  of  Vandalitia  or  Vandalusia,  from 
the  Vandals,  who  overran  it  in  the  5th 
century.  When  it  was  a  Phoenician 
trade  emporium,  it  was  called  Tartessus; 
the  Romans  named  it  Baetica,  from  the 
river  Baetis,  the  modern  Guadalquivir. 
In  the  8th  century,  the  Moors  founded 
here  a  splendid  monarchy,  which  quickly 
attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization. 
The  four  great  Moorish  capitals  were 
Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Granada. 
During  the  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
Cordova  was  "the  Athens  of  the  West, 
the  seat  of  arts  and  sciences."  The 
Moorish  kingdoms  were  finally  con- 
quered by  the  Castilians  in  1235-1248. 
Christian  intolerance  seriously  and  per- 
manently impoverished  the  country;  but 
later,  under  the  Spaniards,  painting 
here  arose  in  a  new  form  in  the  schools 
of  Velasquez  and  Murillo.  Andalusia 
mainly  consists  of  the  great  basin  of  the 
Guadalquivir,  and  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts which  bound  it.     In   the   S.,  the 


Sierra  Nevada  attains  a  height  of  11,657 
feet.  Cotton  and  sugar-cane  flourish  in 
the  open  air,  and  the  cactus  and  aloe 
form  impenetrable  hedges.  Wine  and  oil 
abound;  but  some  tracts  are  very  barren. 
On  the  whole,  however,  Andalusia  is  still 
one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Spain. 
Its  breeds  of  horses  and  mules  have  long 
been  celebrated.  The  mountains  yield 
silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  coal;  and 
some  ores  are  extensively  worked.  The 
Andalusians  speak  a  dialect  of  Spanish, 
manifestly  tinctured  with  traces  of 
Arabic.  Andalusia  is  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Almeria,  Jaen,  Malaga, 
Cadiz,  Huelva,  Seville,  Cordova,  and 
Granada.  The  chief  towns  are  Seville, 
Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Cadiz.  Area,  33,340 
square  miles.     Pop.  about  4,000,000. 

ANDAMANS,  a  group  of  thickly 
wooded  islands  toward  the  E.  side  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  about  680  miles  S.  of 
the  Hooghly  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  be- 
tween 10°  and  14°  of  N.  latitude,  and 
92°  and  94°  of  E.  longitude.  They  con- 
sist of  the  Great  and  Little  Andaman 
groups,  surrounded  by  many  smaller  is- 
lands. The  Great  Andaman  group  is 
more  than  200  miles  long  and  20  miles 
broad,  and  comprises  four  islands,  the 
North,  Middle,  and  South  Andaman, 
and  Rutland  Island.  The  Little  Anda- 
man, which  lies  about  30  miles  S.  of  the 
larger  group,  is  28  miles  long  by  17  miles 
broad.  The  total  area  is  2,508  square 
miles.  The  native  inhabitants  stand  in 
the  lowest  stage  of  civilization,  and  be- 
long to  the  same  family  as  the  original 
small-statured  races  in  southern  India; 
their  number  in  the  entire  group  is 
steadily  decreasing  and  now  is  only 
about  1,300.  The  total  population  of  the 
islands  is  about  18,000.  Those  that  have 
come  into  contact  with  the  convicts  here 
have  deteriorated  morally.  Their  height 
seldom  reaches  five  feet;  their  com- 
plexion is  very  dark,  the  hair  crisp  and 
woolly.  The  men  go  naked;  the  women 
wear  round  the  loins  a  girdle  of  leaves. 
They  have  no  settled  dwellings,  but  go 
freely  from  island  to  island,  and  sub- 
sist on  the  fruit  and  beasts  of  the  wood, 
and  upon  fish.  A  British  settlement  was 
made  on  North  Andaman  in  1789,  but 
abandoned  in  1796  for  Penang.  The 
capital  of  the  present  settlement  is  at 
Port  Blair,  on  South  Andaman,  the 
largest  island  of  the  group.  The  harbor 
here  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
Since  1858  the  Andamans  have  been  a 
penal  settlement  for  Sepoy  mutineers 
and  other  life  convicts, 

ANDERSEN,  HANS  CHRISTIAN 
(an'der-sen),  a  Danish  poet  and  story 
writer,  born   at   Odense,  April  2,    1805. 


ANDERSON 


166 


ANDERSON 


Having  lost  his  father  early  in  childhood, 
the  boy  received  his  elementary  educa- 
tion in  a  charity  school.  He  traveled  in 
Germany  (1828),  and  made  tours  in 
France,  Italy,  and  the  East.    His  impres- 


HANS  CHRISTIAN  ANDERSEN 

sions  of  Italy  are  embodied  in  "The  Im- 
provisatore"  (1835).  In  the  same  year 
appeared  "O.  T.,"  a  novel  of  life  and 
nature  in  the  North.  "Only  a  Fiddler" 
(1837)  and  "The  Poet's  Bazar"  (1842) 
followed.  He  is  seen  at  his  very  best  in 
"The  Picture  Book  Without  Pictures." 
Among  his  dramatic  compositions  are 
"The  Mulatto,"  "The  Flowers  of  Hap- 
piness," "Raphaella,"  "Ahasuerus,"  and 
"The  Two  Baronesses."  In  the  English 
speaking  world  Andersen's  great  fame 
will  ever  rest  upon  his  stories  for  chil- 
dren, the  celebrated  "Wonder  Tales." 
He  died  Aug.  4,  1875. 

ANDERSON,  city  in  Indiana,  county- 
seat  of  Madison  co.;  on  several  railroads 
and  a  hydraulic  canal  with  a  fall  of 
nearly  50  feet;  36  miles  N.  E.  of  Indi- 
anapolis. It  is  principally  engaged  in 
manufactuing,  and  has  National  banks, 
public  library,  high  school,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
22,476;    (1920)   29,767. 

ANDERSON,  a  city  of  South  Carolina 
and  the  county-seat  of  Anderson  co.  It 
is  about  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Raleigh,  on 
the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Charleston  and 
Western  Carolina  railroads.  The  city  is 
in  an  important  cotton-growing  and  agri- 
cultural region,  and  has  also  extensive 
industries,  including  cottonseed  mills, 
fertilizer  factories,  flour  mills,  ma- 
chine   shops,   etc.      There    are    excellent 


schools  and  libraries,  a  city  hall,  a  hos- 
pital, and  a  county  court  house.  Power 
is  furnished  to  the  city  by  a  large  elec- 
tric power  station  on  the  Seneca  river, 
10  miles  from  the  city.  Pop.  (1910) 
9,654;    (1920)    10,570. 

ANDERSON,  EDWIN  HATFIELD,  an 
American  librarian,  born  in  Zionville^ 
Ind.,  in  1861.  He  graduated  from 
Wabash  College  in  1883  and  afterward 
studied  at  Columbia  University  and  at 
the  New  York  State  Library  School.  He 
was  cataloguer  of  the  Newberry  Library 
of  Chicago  and  in  the  Carnegie  Free 
Library  in  Braddock,  Pa.  In  1885  he 
organized  and  became  librarian  of  the 
Carnegie  Library,  Pittsburgh,  acting  in 
that  capacity  until  1904.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  the  director  of  the  New 
York  State  Library  and  Library  School, 
and  in  1913  was  appointed  Director  of 
the  New  York  Public  Library. 

ANDERSON,  JOHN  FISHER,  Ameri- 
can physician,  bom  in  Fredericksburg, 
Va.,  in  1873.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  city  and  studied 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
and  also  in  Vienna  and  Liverpool.  He 
was  appointed  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  Public  Health  and  Marine 
Service  in  1898  and  did  duty  in  connec- 
tion with  the  yellow  fever.  After  acting 
as  quarantine  inspector  and  immigrant 
inspector  at  several  ports,  he  was  sani- 
tary observer  in  several  cities  in  Europe 
from  1899  to  1901.  From  1902  to  1909 
he  was  assistant  director  of  the  Hygienic 
Laboratory  in  Washington,  being  ap- 
pointed director  in  1916.  He  was  also 
assistant  professor  of  hygiene  in  Rut- 
gers College.  One  of  the  most  eminent 
of  American  bacteriologists,  he  wrote 
many  articles  on  his  investigations  into 
the  cause  of  diseases. 

ANDERSON,  MARY  (MRS.  A.  DE 
NAVARRO),  an  American  actress,  born 
in  Sacramento,  Cal.,  July  28,  1859.  She 
played  for  the  first  time  at  Louisville,  in 
1875,  in  the  character  of  Juliet.  Her 
success  was  marked  and  immediate,  and 
during  the  following  years  she  played 
with  increasing  popularity  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  United  States  in  vari- 
ous roles.  In  1883  she  appeared  at  the 
Lyceum  Theater,  in  London,  and  speedily 
became  well  known  in  England.  In  1890, 
one  year  after  retiring  from  the  stage, 
she  married  A.  de  Navarro  of  New  York. 

ANDERSON,  ROBERT,  an  American 
military  officer,  noted  for  his  defense  of 
Fort  Sumter,  where  the  first  gun  was 
fired  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  born 
near  Louisville,  Ky.,  June  14,  1805;  was 
graduated  at  West  Point,  and  served  in 


ANDERSON 


167 


ANDES 


the  Black  Hawk,  Seminole,  and  Mexican 
Wars.  He  was  promoted  major  in  1857; 
took  command  of  the  troops  in  Charles- 
ton harbor  in  November,  1860;  removed 
his  forces  from  Fort  Moultrie  to  Fort 
Sumter,  Dec.  26;  was  invested  there  by 
the  Confederates  who  bombarded  the 
fort  April  12-13,  1861;  and  evacuated  the 
fort  Apj-il  14.  He  was  promoted  Briga- 
dier-General in  1861,  and  was  retired  in 
1863,  with  the  rank  of  brevet  Major- 
General.  He  died  in  Nice,  France,  Oct. 
27,  1871. 

ANDERSON,  WILLIAM  HAMILTON, 
American  temperance  advocate,  born  in 
Carlinville,  111.,  Aug.  8,  1874;  studied  at 
Blackburn  College  and  University  of 
Michigan;  taught  school  1892-1894,  and 
practiced  law  at  Carlinville,  1896-1900. 
He  became  attorney  for  the  Anti-Saloon 
League  of  111.,  Jan.  1,  1900,  and  from 
that  time  on  has  devoted  his  time  wholly 
to  the  temperance  cause.  In  1914  he 
became  State  Superintendent  of  the  New 
York  State  Anti-Saloon  League.  In 
1920,  he  provoked  considerable  contro- 
versy by  an  attack  upon  certain  mem- 
bers of  the  Catholic  church  whom  he 
charged  with  obstructing  the  operation 
of  prohibition  laws. 

ANDERSONVILLE,  a  village  in  Geor- 
gia, noted  as  having  been  the  seat  of  a 
Confederate  States  military  prison, 
which  was  notorious  for  unhealthfulness 
and  for  barbarity  of  discipline.  Between 
Feb.  15,  1864,  and  April,  1865,  49,485 
prisoners  were  received,  of  whom  12,926 
died  in  that  time  of  various  diseases. 
Henry  Wirz,  the  superintendent,  was 
tried  for  injuring  the  health  and  de- 
stroying the  lives  of  the  soldiers  confined 
here,  was  found  guilty,  and  hanged,  Nov. 
10,  1865.  The  long  trenches  where  the 
soldiers  were  buried  have  since  been  laid 
out  as  a  cemetery. 

ANDES  (an'dez),  or,  as  they  are  called 
in  Spanish  South  America,  Cordilleras 
(ridges)  de  los  Andes,  or  simply  Cordil- 
leras, a  range  of  mountains  stretching 
along  the  whole  of  the  W.  coast  of  South 
America,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  In 
absolute  length  (4,500  miles)  no  single 
chain  of  mountains  approaches  the  An- 
des, and  only  a  certain  number  of  the 
higher  peaks  of  the  Himalayan  chain 
rise  higher  above  the  sea-level.  Several 
main  sections  of  this  huge  chain  are 
distinguishable.  The  southern  Andes 
present  a  lofty  main  chain,  with  a  minor 
chain  running  parallel  to  it  on  the  £., 
reaching  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  northward  to  about 
latitude  28°  S.,  and  rising  in  Aconcagua 
to  a  height  of  22,860  feet.    North  of  this 


is  the  double  chain  of  the  central  Andes, 
inclosing  the  wide  and  lofty  plateaus  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru,  which  lie  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  more  than  12,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  Th€  mountain  system  is  here  at 
its  broadest,  being  about  500  miles 
across.  Here  are  also  several  very  lofty 
peaks,  as  Illampu  or  Sorata  (21,484 
feet),Sahama  (21,054)  .lUimani  (21,024). 
Further  N.  the  outer  and  inner  ranges 
draw  closer  together,  and  in  Ecuador 
there  is  but  a  single  system  of  elevated 
masses,  generally  described  as  forming 
two  parallel  chains.  In  this  section  are 
crowded  together  a  number  of  lofty 
peaks,  most  of  them  volcanoes,  either 
extinct  or  active.  Of  the  latter  class  are 
Pichincha  (15,918  feet),  with  a  crater 
2,500  feet  deep;  Tunguragua  (16,685 
feet) ;  Sangay  (17,460  feet) ;  and  Coto- 
paxi  (19,550  feet).  The  loftiest  summit 
here  appears  to  be  Chimborazo  (20,581 
feet);  others  are  Antisana  (19,260  feet) 
and  Cayambe  (19,200  feet).  North- 
ward of  this  section  the  Andes  break 
into  three  distinct  ranges,  the  eastmost 
running  north-eastward  into  Venezuela, 
the  westmost  running  north-westward 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  In  the  cen- 
tral range  is  the  volcano  of  Tolima 
(17,660  feet).  The  western  slope  of  the 
Andes  is  generally  exceedingly  steep, 
the  eastern  much  less  so,  the  mountains 
sinking   gradually  to  the   plains. 

The  whole  range  gives  evidence  of  vol- 
canic action,  but  it  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  sedimentary  rocks.  Thus  moun- 
tains may  be  found  rising  to  the  height 
of  over  20,000  feet,  and  fossiliferous  to 
their  summits  (as  Illimani  and  Sorata 
or  Illampu).  There  are  about  30  vol- 
canoes in  a  state  of  activity.  The  lofti- 
est of  these  burning  mountains  seems  to 
be  Gualateiri,  in  Peru  (21,960  feet).  The 
heights  of  the  others  vary  from  13,000 
to  20,000  feet.  The  passes  are  generally 
at  a  great  height,  the  most  important 
being  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet.  Rail- 
ways have  been  constructed  to  cross  the 
chain  at  a  similar  elevation. 

The  Andes  are  extremely  rich  in  the 
precious  metals,  gold,  silver,  copper, 
platinum,  mercury  and  tin  all  being 
wrought;  lead  and  iron  are  also  found. 
The  llama  and  its  congeners — the  guan-- 
aco,  vicuiia  and  alpaca — are  character- 
istic of  the  Andes.  Among  birds,  the 
condor  is  the  most  remarkable.  The 
vegetation  necessarily  varies  much  ac- 
cording to  elevation,  latitude,  rainfall, 
etc.,  but  generally  is  rich  and  varied. 
From  the  Andes  rise  two  of  the  largest 
water  systems  of  the  world — the  Ama- 
zon and  its  affluents,  and  the  La  Plata 
and  its  affluents.  Besides  which,  in  the 
>'  ,  from  its  slopes  flow  the  Magdalena 


ANDESITE 


168 


ANDRASSY 


to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  some  tribu- 
taries to  the  Orinoco.  In  the  Andes  are 
towns  at  a  greater  elevation  than  any- 
where else  in  the  world,  the  highest 
being  the  silver-mining  town  of  Cerro 
de  Pasco  (14,270  feet),  the  next  being 
Potosi. 

ANDESITE,  a  group  of  volcanic  rocks, 
gray,  reddish  or  dark  brown  in  color. 
The  ground-mass  of  these  rocks  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  feldspar-microlith, 
scattered  through  which  are  abundant 
crystals  of  plagioclase  feldspar.  Horn- 
blende and  augite,  one  or  both,  are  gen- 
erally present,  together  with  magnetite, 
which  is  often  very  abundant.  Andesite 
occurs  chiefly  in  Tertiary  and  more  re- 
cent strata,  and  is  found  in  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  Siebengebirge,  Santorin, 
Iceland,  the  Andes,  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States,  etc. 

ANDIB.A,  a  genus  of  leguminous 
American  trees,  with  fleshy  plum-like 
fruits.  The  wood  is  well  fitted  for  build- 
ing. The  bark  of  andira  inermis,  or  cab- 
bage-tree, is  narcotic  and  is  used  as  an 
anthelminthic  under  the  name  of  worm 
bark  or  cabbage  bark.  The  powdered 
bark  of  <  ndira  araroba  is  used  as  a 
remedy  in  certain  skin  diseases,  as 
herpes. 

ANDORRA  (an-dor'a),  a  valley  in  the 
eastern  Pyrenees,  between  the  French 
department  of  Ariege  and  the  Spanish 
province  of  Lerida,  part  of  Catalonia.  It 
is  inclosed  by  mountains,  through  which 
its  river,  the  Balira,  breaks  to  join  the 
Segre  at  Urgel;  and  its  inaccessibility 
naturally  fits  it  for  being  the  seat  of  the 
interesting  little  republic  which  here 
holds  a  kind  of  semi-independent  position 
between  France  and  Spain.  Area  (di- 
vided into  six  communes),  175  square 
miles.  Population,  6,800.  The  former 
abundant  forests  have  been  much  thinned 
for  fuel;  there  is  much  excellent  pasture; 
vines  and  fruit  trees  flourish  on  the 
lower  grounds;  and  the  mountains  con- 
tain rich  iron  mines,  unwrought  lead 
supplies  and  mineral  springs.  The  chief 
occupations  are  agriculture,  cattle  breed- 
ing, trade  in  wood,  charcoal  and  wool, 
and  especially  smuggling.  Andorra  is 
said  to  have  been  declared  a  Free  State 
by  Charlemagne.  Now  the  state  stands 
under  the  common  protectorate  of  France 
and  of  the  Bishop  of  Urgel.  The  Re- 
public is  governed  by  a  sovereign  coun- 
cil of  24  members,  chosen  by  certain 
heads  of  houses,  and  the  council  elects 
a  President  for  four  years,  a  syndic, 
under  whom  is  a  second  syndic.  Since 
1882,  the  interests  of  France  in  the  state 
are  represented  by  a  permanent  dele- 
gate.    The  Andorrans  are  good-natured. 


hard-working  mountaineers,  hospitable, 
moral  and  devoted  to  liberty.  They  are 
of  the  Catalonian  stock,  and  speak  a  dia- 
lect of  Catalonian.  The  capital  is  An- 
dorra la  Vieja  (pop.  600). 

ANDOVER,  a  town  in  Essex  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Merrimac  river  and  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad;  23  miles  N. 
of  Boston,  It  is  widely  known  as  the  seat 
of  the  Phillips  Academy  for  boys,  and  the 
Abbot  Academy  for  girls,  formerly  also 
the  Theological  Seminary,  and  has  manu- 
factories of  flax,  shoes  and  woolen  goods, 
a  National  bank.  Memorial  Hall  and 
school  libraries,  and  a  property  valuation 
of  over  $4,000,000.  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe  lived  here  many  years,  and  it 
is  the  birthplace  of  Elizabeth  Stuart 
Phelps  Ward.  Pop.  (1910)  7,301; 
(1920)  8,268. 

ANDRASSY,  JULIUS,  COUNT  (an- 
dra'she),  Hungarian  statesman,  born 
March  8,  1823;  studied  at  the  Pest  Uni- 
versity; took  part  in  the  Revolution  of 


COUNT   JULIUS   ANDRASSY 

1848;  was  condemned  to  death,  but  es- 
caped and  went  into  exile;  appointed 
Premier  when  self-government  was  re- 
stored to  Hungary,  in  1867;  became  Im- 
perial Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  in 
1871;  was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878;  negotiated 
the  German- Austrian  alliance  with  Bis- 
marck in  1879;  and  the  same  year  retired 
from  public  life.    He  died  Feb.  18,  1890. 

ANDRASSY,  JULIUS,  a  Hungarian 
statesman,  son  of  Count  Andrassy.  He 
entered  his  political  career  in  1884  with 
his  entrance  to  the  Reichstag  and  in 
1892  was  under-secretary.     In  the  fol- 


ANDRE 


169 


ANDREW 


lowing  year  he  became  Secretary  of  Edu- 
cation and  was  Hungarian  Minister  to 
the  King  in  1894.  In  1898  he  abandoned 
the  Liberal  party,  but  returned  to  it  a 
year  later.  He  was  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior in  1906  and  held  that  oifice  until 
1909.  In  1912  he  represented  Austria 
in  the  diplomatic  attempts  to  prevent  the 
outbreak  of  the  Balkan  War.  In  1917 
he  served  as  Prime  Minister  of  Hungary. 
He  was,  in  general,  opposed  to  Austria's 
warlike  attitude,  but  he  supported  the 
Government  until  1916,  when  he  took  his 
place  with  the  opposition.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral works  on  political  subjects,  includ- 
ing "The  Development  of  Hungarian 
Constitutional  Liberty"   (1908). 

ANDRE,   JOHN   (an-dra'),  a  British 

military  officer,  bom  in  London  in  1751; 

>  entered  the  army  in  1771;  went  to  Can- 


MAJOR  ANDRE 

ada  in  1774;  and  was  made  prisoner  by 
the  Americans  in  1775.  After  his  ex- 
change, he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and  in 
1780  was  appointed  Adjutant-General, 
with  the  rank  of  Major.  His  prospects 
were  of  the  most  flattering  kind  when 
the  treason  of  Arnold  led  to  his  death. 
The  temporary  absence  of  Washington 
having  been  chosen  by  the  traitor  as  the 
most  proper  season  for  carrying  into  ef- 
fect his  design  of  delivering  to  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  the  fortification  at  West  Point, 
then  under  his  command,  and  refusing 
to  confide  to  any  but  Major  Andre  the 
maps  and  information  required  by  the 
British  general,  an  interview  became 
necessary,  and  Sept.  19,  1780,  Andre  left 
New  York  in  the  sloop-of-war  "Vulture," 
and  on  the  next  day  arrived  at  Fort 
Montgomery,  in  company  with  Beverly 
Robinson,  an  American.  Furnished  with 
passports    from    Arnold,    Robinson    and 


Andre  the  next  day  landed  and  were  re- 
ceived by  the  traitor  at  the  water's  edge. 
Arnold  delivered  to  Andre  drafts  of  the 
works  at  West  Point  and  memoranda  of 
the  forces  and  the  latter  returned  to 
the  beach.  But  the  ferrymen,  who  were 
Americans,  refused  to  carry  him  to  the 
"Vulture"  and  he  was  compelled  to  re- 
turn by  land.  Accompanied  by  Smith, 
an  emissary  of  Arnoldj  and  provided  with 
a  passport  under  his  assumed  name  of 
Anderson,  he  set  out.  At  Tarrytown  he 
was  first  stopped,  and  then  arrested,  bj 
three  Americans.  Andre  offered  them 
his  money,  horse,  and  a  large  reward, 
but  without  avail.  They  examined  hig 
person,  and,  in  his  boots,  found  the  fatal 
papers.  He  w^s  then  conveyed  to  Colo- 
nel Jameson,  commander  of  the  Ameri- 
can outposts.  On  the  arrival  of  Wash- 
ington, Ancire  was  conveyed  to  Tappan 
and  tried  by  a  board  of  general  officers, 
among  whom  were  General  Greene,  the 
president,  Lafayette,  and  Knox.  Every 
effort  was  made  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
to  save  him,  and  there  was  strong  dis- 
position on  the  American  side  to  do  so. 
His  execution,  originally  appointed  for 
Sept.  30,  did  not  take  place  till  Oct.  2. 
His  remains  which  were  buried  on  the 
spot,  were  afterward  removed  to  London, 
and  now  repose  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

ANDREA  DEL  SARTO.  See  Sarto. 

ANDREE,  SALOMON  AUGUSTE  (an- 
dra'),  a  Swedish  aeronaut,  born  Oct.  18, 
1854;  educated  for  a  civil  engineer.  In 
1882,  he  took  part  in  a  Swedish  meteoro- 
logical expedition  to  Spitzbergen.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  to 
the  patent  office,  and  from  1886  to  1889 
he  occupied  a  professor's  chair  at  Stock- 
holm. In  1892  he  received  from  the 
Swedish  Academy  of  Sciences  a  sub- 
vention for  the  purpose  of  undertaking 
scientific  aerial  navigation.  From  that 
time  Dr.  Andree  devoted  himself  to 
aerial  navigation,  and  made  his  first  as- 
cent at  Stockholm  in  the  summer  of  1893. 
In  1895  he  presented  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  a  well-matured  project  for  ex- 
ploring the  regions  of  the  North  Pole 
with  the  aid  of  a  balloon.  With  two  com- 
panions, Dr.  S.  T.  Strindberg  and  Herr 
Fraenckell,he  started  from  Dane's  Island, 
Spitzbergen,  July  11,  1897.  Two  days 
after  his  departure,  a  message  was  re- 
ceived from  Dr.  Andree  by  carrier  pigeon, 
which  stated  that  at  noon,  July  13,  they 
were  in  latitude  82.2°,  and  longitude  15.5° 
E.,  and  making  good  progress  to  the  E., 
10°  southerly.  This  was  the  last  word 
received  from  the  explorer. 

ANDREW,  the  first  disciple,  and  one 
of  the  apostles  of  Jesus.  His  career  after 
the  Master's  death  is  unknown.    The  an- 


ANDREW 


170 


ANDROMACHE 


niversary  of  St.  Andrew  falls  on  Nov.  30. 
About  740,  St.  Andrew  became  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland  and  he  is  held  in  vener- 
ation in  Russia,  as  the  apostle  who,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  first  preached  the 
Gospel  in  that  country. 

ANDREW,  King  of  Naples,  son  of 
Charobert,  King  of  Hungary,  was  as- 
sassinated with  the  connivance  of  his 
queen  in  1345. 

ANDREW  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  in 
1046-1049;  compelled  his  subjects  to  em- 
brace Christianity;  he  was  killed  in  battle 
in  1058. 

ANDREW  II.,  King  of  Hungary,  1205- 
1235.  He  was  in  the  crusades,  and  dis- 
played great  valor  in  battle;  he  attempted 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  died  in  1235. 

ANDREW  III.,  King  of  Hungary 
1290-1301.  He  was  opposed  in  his  claims 
to  the  throne,  and  involved  in  a  civil  war 
during  his  reign;  he  died  in  1301. 

ANDREW,    A(BRAM)    PIATT,    JR., 

an  American  publicists  born  in  Laporte, 
Ind.,  in  1873,  and  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton University  in  1885.  He  took  post-grad- 
uate courses  in  several  universities  in 
Europe  and  became  assistant  professor 
of  economics  at  Harvard  University  in 
1900.  '  From  1908  to  1911  he  was  expert 
assistant  and  editor  of  the  publications  of 
the  National  Monetary  Commission,  and 
from  1909  to  1910  was  director  of  the 
United  States  Mint.  From  1910  to  1912 
he  was  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, and  during  the  same  period  served 
as  treasurer  of  the  American  Red  Cross. 
He  acted  as  inspector-general  in  the 
American  Field  Service  in  France  and 
organized  the  American  Volunteer  Arn- 
bulance  and  Transport  Service.  For  his 
services  he  was  awarded  the  Croix  de 
Guerre  by  the  French  Government  and 
received  other  honors.  He  wrote  much 
on  financial  and  commercial  subjects  and 
published  "Banking  System  and  Currency 
Reform"  (1910) ;  "Purpose  and  Origin 
of  the  Proposed  Banking  Legislation" 
(1911),  etc. 

ANDREWS,  ELISHA  BENJAMIN,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Hinsdale, 
N.  H.,  Jan.  10,  1844;  he  was  graduated 
at  Brown  University,  1870,  and  Newton 
Theological  Seminary,  1874;  President 
of  Brown  University  in  1889-1898;  be- 
came Superintendent  of  Public  Schools 
in  Chicago  in  1898,  and  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska  in  1900;  author 
of  a  "History  of  the  United  States,"  "An 
Honest  Dollar:  a  Plea  for  Bimetallism," 
etc.    He  died  in  1917. 


ANDREWS,  IRENE  OSGOOD  (Mrs. 
John  B.  Andrews),  an  American  social 
worker,  born  in  Big  Rapids,  Mich.,  in 
1879.  She  studied  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  and  at  the  New  York  School 
of  Philanthropy,  carried  on  social  work 
in  Minneapolis,  and  was  special  agent 
for  relief  work  for  the  American  Red 
Cross  in  San  Francisco  in  1906.  In  the 
same  year  she  became  factory  inspector 
for  Wisconsin  and  was  appointed  head 
resident  of  the  Northwestern  University 
Settlement.  She  was  a  member  of  many 
economic  societies  and  wrote  "Minimum 
Wage  Legislation,"  "Economic  Effects 
of  the  War  Upon  Women  and  Children 
in  Great  Britain,"  etc.  She  lectured  ex- 
tensively on  labor  and  economic  topics. 

ANDREYEV,  LEONID,  a  Russian 
author,  born  at  Oryol,  Russia,  1871.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  gymnasium 
at  Oryol  and  St.  Petersburg  University. 


LEONID    ANDREYEV 

He  early  turned  his  attention  to  literature 
and  speedily  achieved  an  international 
reputation.  His  writing  was  brilliant,  bii". 
marked  by  the  morbidity  characteristic 
of  the  Russian  school.  Among  his  well- 
known  works  may  be  mentioned  "Red 
Laughter,"  "Life  of  Man,"  and  "Anathe- 
ma." He  died  suddenly  in  Finland  in 
February,  1919,  from  excitement,  caused 
by  a  Bolshevist  raid  in  the  vicinity  of  his 
residence. 

ANDROMACHE  (an-drom'ak-e),  a 
daughter  of  ^tion,  King  of  Thebes  in 
Cilicia,  and  wife  of  Hector.  After  the 
conquest  of  Troy  she  became  the  prize  of 
Pyrrhus,  son  of  Achilles.  Euripides  has 
made  her  the  chief  character  of  a  tragedy. 


ANDROMEDA 


171 


ANDUJAB 


ANDROMEDA  (an-drom'e-da),  in  clas- 
sical mythology  a  daughter  of  Cepheus, 
King  of  Ethiopia  and  Cassiope.  It  was 
fabled  that  she  was  chained  to  a  rock 
by  order  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  and  then  ex- 
posed to  the  attacks  of  a  monster.  Perseus 
released,  and  afterward  married  her.  On 
her  death  she  was  changed  into  the  con- 
stellation which  bears  her  name. 

In  astronomy,  a  constellation,  fanci- 
fully supposed  to  resemble  a  woman 
chained.  It  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  is  surrounded  by  Cassiopeia,  Lacerta, 
Pegasus,  Pisces,  Triangulum,  and  Per- 
seus. It  contains  the  bright  stars  All- 
mach  and  Mirach,  and  Alpherat  is  on  the 
boundary  line  between  it  and  Pegasus. 
There  is  in  the  girdle  of  Andromeda  a 
fine  elliptic  nebula  visible  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  continually  mistaken  by  the 
uninitiated  for  a  comet.  On  Sept.  21, 
1898,  the  astronomers  of  the  Pulkowa 
Observatory  in  Russia  announced  that 
they  had  discovered  a  stellated  conden- 
sation in  the  center  of  this  nebula,  indi- 
cating that  its  nucleus  is  composed  of 
stars  instead  of  gas,  like  the  matter 
surrounding  it. 

In  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  eicicaceae,  or  heath-worts, 
A  species  (the  A.  polifolia,  or  marsh  an- 
dromeda)  occurs  in  the  bogs  of  Britain. 
It  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  with  beautiful, 
rose-colored  drooping  flowers.  Its  shoots 
poison  sheep,  as  do  those  of  the  A. 
mariana,  which  grows  in  America;  and 
the  A.  ovalifoUa,  of  Nepaul,  acts  with 
similar  effect  upon  goats. 

ANDRONICUS  I.  (Comnenus),  was 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  characters  of 
his  age.  In  his  youth  he  served  against 
the  Turks,  in  1141  was  for  some  time  a 
prisoner,  and  was  afterward  appointed 
to  a  military  command  in  Cilicia,  but 
was  unsuccessful.  Having  engaged  in  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  King 
of  Hungary,  he  was  thrown  into  prison 
by  his  cousin,  the  Emperor  Manuel;  but 
after  12  years  he  succeeded  in  making 
his  escape,  and  reached  Kiev,  the  resi- 
dence of  Prince  Jaroslav.  He  regained 
the  favor  of  his  cousin  by  persuading 
Jaroslav  to  join  him  in  the  invasion  of 
Hungary,  but  soon  incurred  his  displeas- 
ure again,  and  was  sent  in  honorable  ban- 
>2hment  to  Cilicia.  After  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem,  and  his  scandalous  seduction 
of  Theodora,  the  widow  of  Baldwin,  King 
of  Jerusalem,  he  settled  among  the  Turks 
in  Asia  Minor,  with  a  band  of  outlaws, 
but  at  length  made  his  peace  with  the 
Emperor.  After  the  death  of  Manuel  in 
1182,  he  was  recalled  to  become,  first 
guardian,  then  colleague,  of  the  young 
Emperor    Alexius    II.      Soon    after,    he 


caused  the  Empress  mother  to  be 
strangled,  and  afterward  Alexius  himself. 
His  reign,  though  short,  restored  pros- 
perity to  the  provinces ;  but  tyranny  and 
murder  were  its  characteristics  in  the 
capital.  Isaac  Angelus,  one  of  his  rela- 
tives, having  fled  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Sophia  for  sanctuary,  a  crowd  gathered, 
and  a  sudden  insurrection  placed  Isaac 
on  the  throne,  while  Andronicus,  now 
73  years  of  age,  was  put  to  death  by  the 
infuriated  populace  on   Sept.   12,   1185. 

ANDROS,  an  island  of  the  Greek  Archi- 
pelago, the  most  northern  of  the  Cycla- 
des,  separated  from  Euboea  by  a  channel, 
the  Doro  Channel,  6  miles  broad.  The  is- 
land is  25  miles  long,  and  about  10  miles 
in  its  greatest  breadth,  the  area  being 
156  square  miles.  The  soU  is  remarkably 
fertile,  and  wine,  silk,  olives,  and  lemons 
are  produced.  The  chief  town,  Andros, 
is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  eastern  coast. 
Pop.  (1917)   18,035. 

ANDROS  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  the  Bahamas,  lying  between 
lat.  23°  41'  and  25°  10'  N.;  long.  77° 
30'  and  78°  32'  W.  The  principal  island, 
Andros,  is  about  70  miles  long  by  10 
broad,  at  its  broadest  part.  The  interior 
of  the  largest  of  these  islands  is  com- 
posed of  extensive  salt  marshes  and  fresh 
water  swamps,  in  which  are  islands  valu- 
able for  their  timber;  consisting  mostly 
of  cedar  of  superior  quality.  Pop.  about 
8,000. 

ANDROS,  SIR  EDMUND,  an  English 
provincial  governor,  born  in  1637;  was 
Governor  of  New  York  in  1674-1682,  and 
of  New  England,  with  New  York  in- 
cluded, in  1686-1689.  His  harsh  ex- 
ecution of  the  orders  of  the  Duke  of  York 
caused  him  to  be  generally  execrated, 
and,  after  his  attempt  to  deprive  Con- 
necticut of  its  royal  charter,  he  was 
seized  by  the  people  of  Boston  and  sent 
to  England  under  charges.  He  was 
also  Governor  of  Virginia  in  1692-1698, 
and  of  the  Island  of  Jersey  in  1704- 
1706.     He  died  in  1714. 

ANDROSCOGGIN,  a  river  of  the 
United  States;  rises  in  the  W.  of  Maine 
near  the  N.  E.  corner  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, flows  S.  partly  through  New  Hamp- 
shire, then  E.,  re-entering  Maine,  then 
S.  and  S.  E.,  passing  Auburn  and  Bruns- 
wick, and  finally  joins  the  Kennebec  a 
few  miles  above  Bath;  not  navigable. 

ANDUJAR,  a  city  in  the  province  of 
Jaen,  Spain;  on  the  Guadalquivir  river, 
44  miles  N.  E.  of  Cordova.  Here  an  en- 
gagement took  place  between  the  French 
and  Spanish  and  the  convention  of  Baileu 
was  signed,  both  in  1808.  Pop.  about 
17.000. 


ANEGADA 


172 


ANGELES 


ANEGADA  (an-e-ga'da),  the  most 
northerly  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  lying 
E.  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  West  Indies.  It 
contains  about  13  square  miles,  with  a 
scanty  population  of  200,  and  belongs  to 
England.    A  little  cotton  is  grown. 

ANEMOMETER,  an  instrument  de- 
signed to  measure  the  velocity  of  the 
wind.  It  was  invented  by  Wolfins  in 
1709.  The  anemometer  most  commonly 
in  use  consists  of  four  light  metallic 
hemispheres,  called  (from  Dr.  Robinson, 
who  first  employed  them)  Robinson's 
cups,  which  are  made  to  revolve  like  a 
vane  or  weather-cock,  and  are  found 
to  do  so  at  the  rate  of  exactly  one-third 
the  velocity  of  the  wind.  The  result 
is  then  recorded  in  pencil  marks  by  a 
self-registering  apparatus. 

ANEMONE,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  ranunculaceas  or  crow- 
foots. A.  coronaria  and  hortensis  are 
common  garden  flowers. 

In  zoology,  it  is  a  popular  name  given 
to  various  radiated  animals  which  present 
a  superficial  resemblance  to  the  anemone, 
but  really  look  more  like  the  chrysan- 
thenum  or  some  others  of  the  compositse. 
The  anemone,  meaning  the  sea-anemone, 
is  A.  mesembryanthemum,  called  also  the 
bendlet;  the  snake-locked  anemone  is  the 
sagartia  viduata,  and  the  plumose  anem- 
one is  the  actinoloba  dianthus. 

ANEMOSCOPE,  an  instrument  for 
rendering  visible  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  In  that  commonly  used  there  is 
a  vane  exposed  to  the  wind  acting  upon 
an  index  moving  round  a  dial-plate  on 
which  the  32  points  of  the  compass  are 
engraved. 

ANEROID,  not  containing  any  liquid; 
tjsed  chiefly  in  the  expression,  "aneroid 
barometer." 

An  aneroid  barometer  is  a  barometer 
not  containing  a  liquid,  but  constructed 
on  a  totally  different  principle  from  a 
mercurial  barometer.  Various  forms  of 
the  instrument  exist.  One  of  these  con- 
sists of  a  cylindrical  metal  box  exhausted 
of  air,  and  having  its  lid  of  thin  corru- 
gated metal.  As  the  pressure  increases, 
the  lid  which  is  highly  elastic,  and  has  a 
spring  inside,  is  forced  inward;  while, 
again,  as  it  diminishes,  it  is  forced  out- 
ward. Delicate  multiplying  levers  then 
transmit  these  motions  to  an  index  which 
moves  on  a  scale,  and  is  graduated  em- 
pirically by  a  mercurial  barometer.  From 
its  portability  it  is  much  used  for  de- 
termining the  heights  of  mountains. 

ANEURIN  (an-u'rin),  a  poet  and 
prince  of  the  Cambrian  Britons,  who 
flourished  about  600  A.  D.,  author  of  an 


epic  poem,  the  "Gododin,"  relating  thb 
defeat  of  the  Britons  of  Strathclyde  by 
the  Saxons  at  the  battle  of  Cattraeth. 

ANEURISM,  a  morbid  dilatation  of 
the  aorta,  or  one  of  the  other  great 
arteries  of  the  body. 

ANGARA,  a  Siberian  river  which  flows 
into  Lake  Baikal  at  its  N.  extremity,  and 
leaves  it  near  the  S.  W.  end,  latterly  join- 
ing  the  Yenisei  as  the  Lower  Angara  or 
Upper  Tunguska. 

ANGEL,  a  messenger,  one  employed  to 
carry  a  message,  a  locum  tenens,  a  man  of 
business. 

In  a  special  sense  an  angel  is  one  of 
an  order  or  spiritual  beings  superior  to 
man  in  power  and  intelligence,  vast  in 
number,  holy  in  character,  and  thorough- 
ly devoted  to  the  worship  and  service  of 
God,  who  employs  them  as  his  heavenly 
messengers.  Their  existence  is  made 
known  to  us  by  Scripture,  and  is  recog- 
nized also  in  the  Parsee  sacred  books. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  spirit 
which  has  assumed  the  respect  of  some 
human  being. 

Angel  is  likewise  the  name  of  a  beauti- 
ful fish,  which  has  its  body  covered  with 
large  green  scales,  and  the  laminae  above 
the  gills  armed  with  cerulean  spines.  It 
is  one  of  the  chaetodons,  and  occurs  on 
the  coast  of  Carolina.  It  is  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  Angel  Fish  {q.  v.). 

In  numismatics,  an  angel  is  a  gold 
coin,  named  from  the  fact  that  on  one 
side  of  it  was  a  representation  of  the 
Archangel  Michael  in  conflict  with  the 
Dragon.  The  reverse  had  a  ship  with  a 
large  cross  for  the  mast,  the  letter  E 
on  the  right  side,  and  a  rose  on  the  left; 
while  against  the  ship  was  a  shield  with 
the  usual  arms.  It  was  first  struck  in 
France  in  1340,  and  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Edward  IV,  in  1465,  Be- 
tween his  reign  and  that  of  Charles  L 
it  varied  in  value  from  6s.  8d.  to  10s, 

ANGELES,  FELIPE,  a  Mexican  soldief 
who  was  executed  following  a  court-mar- 
tial at  Chihuahua  City,  Mexico,  on  No- 
vember 26,  1919.  Angeles  was  one  of  the 
few  well-trained  Mexican  army  officers. 
He  was  born  in  the  State  of  Hidalgo  in 
1869,  and  studied  military  science  in 
France,  devoting  special  attention  to  ar- 
tillery. He  wrote  a  military  text  book 
which  was  widely  used  in  Mexico  and 
elsewhere.  He  joined  the  revolution  of 
Madero  which  resulted  in  the  abdication 
of  President  Diaz.  Under  the  command 
of  Madero  he  carried  on  important  opera- 
tions against  the  bandit  Zapata.  After 
the  fall  of  Madero  he  refused  to  sup- 
port the  government  of  President  Hu- 
erta  and  was  for  a  time  kept  in  prison. 


ANGEL  FISH 


173 


ANGELO 


He  was  finally  released  on  condition  that 
he  remain  in  France.  When  Huerta  had 
ceased  to  rule,  Angeles  returned  to  Mex- 
ico and  joined  the  armies  of  Carranza 
and  Villa,  When  a  division  arose  be- 
tween these  two  he  remained  with  Villa, 
becoming  chief  of  staff.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  successful  officers  operating 
under  Villa,  and  was  notable  for  his  re- 
gard for  the  laws  of  war.  He  was  cap- 
tured by  Carranza  forces  during  hostili- 
ties between  Villa  and  Carranza,  in  a 
cave  at  San  Tome  where,  with  four  com- 
panions, he  had  taken  refuge.  After 
court-martial,  he  was  sentenced  to  death, 
in  spite  of  pleas  for  clemency.  See 
Mexico. 

ANGEL  FISH,  a  fish  of  the  squalidss, 
or  shark  family,  which  derived  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  its  extended  pectoral 
fins  present  the  appearance  of  wings.  It 
is  called  also  monk-fish,  fiddle-fish, 
shark-ray,  and  kingston.  It  is  found  on 
the  coasts  of  Europe  and  North  America. 

ANGELICA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  umhelliferx,  by  some  bot- 
anists divided  into  two,  angelica  and 
archangelica.  The  species  are  mostly 
herbaceous  and  perennial,  natives  of  the 
temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Wild  angelica 
{A.  sylvestris)  is  a  common  plant  in 
moist  meadows,  by  the  sides  of  brooks, 
and  in  woods  in  Britain  and  throughout 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
garden  angelica  {archangelica  or  arch' 
angelica  officinalis)  is  a  biennial  plant, 
becoming  perennial  when  not  allowed  to 
ripen  its  seeds.  The  whole  plant,  and 
especially  the  root,  is  aromatic  and  bit- 
ter, with  a  pleasant,  somewhat  musky 
color,  and  contains  much  resin  and  es- 
sential oil.  The  garden  angelica  was  at 
one  time  also  much  cultivated  for  the 
blanched  stalks,  which  were  used  as 
celery  now  is.  The  tender  stalks  and 
midribs  of  the  leaves,  candied,  are  still, 
however,  a  well-known  article  of  con- 
fectionery, and  an  agreeable  stomachic; 
the  roots  and  seeds  are  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  gin  and  of  bitters.  The 
roots  are  occasionally  ground  and  made 
into  bread  in  Norway,  and  the  Icelanders 
eat  the  stem  and  roots  raw,  with  butter. 
Several  species  of  angelica  are  natives 
of  North  America. 

ANGELICO,  FRA,  the  commonest  des- 
ignation of  the  great  friar-painter.  Bom 
in  1387  at  Vicchio,  in  the  Tuscan  prov- 
ince of  Mugello,  in  1407  he  entered  the 
Dominican  monastery  at  Fiesole,  in  1436 
he  was  tranferred  to  Florence,  and  in 
1445  was  summoned  by  the  Pope  to 
Rome,  where  he  chiefly  resided  till  his 
death  in  1455.     His  frescoes  are  all  in 


Italy — at  Cortona,  at  Fiesole,  in  the 
Florentine  convent  of  San  Marco,  at 
Orvieto,  and  in  the  Vatican  chapel  of 
Nicholas  V.  Of  his  easel  pictures,  the 
Louvre  possesses  a  splendid  example, 
"The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  and  the 
London  National  Gallery  (since  1860)  a 
"Glory,"  or  Christ  with  265  saints. 

ANGELL,     GEORGE     THORNDIKE, 

an  American  reformer,  born  in  1832. 
He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1846, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar,  1851.  He  has 
been  active  in  promoting  measures  for 
the  prevention  of  crime,  cruelties,  and  the 
adulteration  of  food.  He  founded  and 
was  President  of  the  American  Humane 
Educational  Society.     He  died  in  1909. 

ANGELL,  JAMES  BURRILL,  an 
American  educator  and  diplomatist,  born 
in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  Jan.  7,  1829;  was 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in 
1850.  He  assumed  the  presidency  of  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1866,  and  that 
of  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871. 
He  was  Minister  to  China,  1880-1881, 
and  to  Turkey,  1897-1898.  In  1900  he 
resumed  the  presidency  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.    He  died  in  1916. 

ANGELL,     JAMES    ROWLAND,     an 

American  psychologist,  bom  in  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  in  1858,  the  son  of  James  Bur- 
rill  Angell  {q.  v.).  After  graduating 
from  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1890, 
he  took  post-graduate  courses  at  Har- 
vard and  in  several  German  univer- 
sities, was  instructor  of  philosophy  at  the 
University  of  Minnesota  in  1893,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  assist- 
ant professor  of  psychology  and  director 
of  the  psychological  laboratory  at  the 
University  of  Chicago.  He  became  suc- 
cessively associate  professor,  professor, 
and  head  of  the  department,  and  dean  of 
the  University  faculties,  the  latter  in 
1911.  A  member  of  many  philosophical 
and  psychological  societies,  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Psychological 
Association  in  1906.  In  1914  he  was  exo 
change  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris. 

ANGELL,  NORMAN.  See  LaNE, 
Ralph  Norman  Angell. 

ANGELO  (MICHAEL  ANGELO 
BUONARROTI),  the  most  distinguished 
sculptor,  painter,  and  architect  of  his 
time  and  of  the  modern  world,  was  born 
on  March  6,  1475.  His  father,  Ludovico 
di  Leonardo  Buonarroti  Simoni,  was  a 
poor  gentleman  of  Florence.  When  the 
sculptor  was  bom,  his  father  was 
podesta,  or  mayor,  of  Caprese  and  Chi- 
usi,  in  Tuscany.  He  returned  to  Flor- 
ence when  his  term  of  office  expired,  and 
the  child  was  intrusted  to  a  stonemason's 
wife   at   Settignano.     The   boy's   enthu- 


ANGELO 


174 


ANGELO 


fliasm  for  art  revealed  itself  at  an  early 
age,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  school  of 
Messer  Francesco  di  Urbino  to  learn  the 
elements.     While  yet  only  13  years  of 


MICHAEL   ANGELO 

age,  he  entered  the  bottega  of  Domenico 
Ghirlandajo,  to  whom  he  was  bound  ap- 
prentice for  three  years.  None  was  ever 
more  fortunate  than  Michael  Angelo  in 
the  time  and  place  of  his  birth.  From 
his  boyhood  he  was  familiar  with  the 
masterpieces  of  Donatello,  and  he  joined 
his  contemporaries  in  making  a  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Convent  of  the  Carmine, 
where  he  studiously  copied  the  supreme 
examples  of  Masaccio's  art.  By  Ghir- 
landajo he  was  recommended  to  Lorenzo 
de  Medici;  and  entered  the  school  which 
the  "Magnifico"  had  established  in  his 
garden  on  the  Piazza.  His  talent  was 
not  long  in  arresting  the  notice  of  Lo- 
renzo, who  henceforth  gave  him  a  room 
in  his  house  and  a  seat  at  his  table.  To 
this  period  belong  two  interesting  re- 
liefs. In  the  "Battle  of  the  Centaurs" 
(now  in  the  Casa  Buonarroti  at  Flor- 
ence) the  classical  influence  of  Lorenzo's 
garden  is  strikingly  apparent.  A  mar- 
vellous contrast  to  the  "Centaurs"  is  the 
"Madonna,"  conceived  and  executed  in 
the  spirit  of  Donatello. 

In  1492,  when  Michael  Angelo  had 
spent  some  three  years  in  his  house,  Lo- 
renzo died.  Pietro,  Lorenzo's  son  and 
successor,  retained  for  a  time  the  serv- 
ices of  Michael  Angelo,  but  he  is  said  to 
have  treated  him  with  scant  courtesy; 


and  Michael  Angelo  fled  to  Bologna. 
Nor  did  he  here  wait  long  for  a  patron; 
Gianfrancesco  Aldrovandi  commissioned 
him  to  execute  a  statue.  In  Bologna 
the  sculptor  lingered  for  a  year;  then 
he  once  more  (in  1495)  returned  to  Flor- 
ence. It  was  during  this  sojourn  in  his 
native  city  that  he  fashioned  the  marble 
"Cupid,"  to  which  he  owed  his  first  intro- 
duction to  Rome.  Baldassare  del  Mila- 
nese persuaded  him  to  give  the  work  the 
air  of  an  antique  by  burial,  and  dispatch 
it  to  Rome.  Here  it  was  purchased  by 
Cardinal  San  Giorgio,  who,  though  he 
speedily  discovered  the  fraud  which  had 
been  put  upon  him,  was  quick  to  deted; 
the  talent  of  the  sculptor  who  had 
tricked  him.  He  therefore  summoned 
him  to  Rome,  and  on  June  25,  1496, 
Michael  Angelo  arrived  for  the  first  time 
in  the  Eternal  City.  The  influence  of 
Rome  and  the  antique  is  easily  discern- 
ible in  the  "Bacchus,"  now  in  the  Na- 
tional Museum  at  Florence.  To  the 
same  period  belongs  the  exquisite 
"Cupid"  of  the  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum. The  "Pieta,"  which  is  now  in  St. 
Peter's,  was  executed  in  1497,  but  pre- 
sents an  amazing  contrast. 

For  four  years  the  sculptor  remained 
in  Rome,  perpetually  urged  to  return  to 
Florence  by  his  father,  who,  though  he 
objected  to  his  son's  craft  as  unbefitting 
his  station,  was  nothing  loath  to  profit 
by  the  wealth  which  was  the  reward  of 
his  artistic  success.  Michael  Angelo 
went  back;  and  Soderini,  who  was  then 
gonfaloniere,  permitted  him  to  convert 
into  a  statue  the  colossal  block  of  mar- 
ble upon  which  Agostino  d' Antonio  had 
been  at  work  many  years  before,  and 
out  of  the  irregular  block  grew  the  cele- 
brated "David."  His  "David"  is  the 
Gothic  treatment  of  a  classic  theme. 
The  influence  of  the  antique  is  obvious, 
but  the  personal  touch  of  the  sculptor 
is  also  apparent.  In  1504  it  was  placed 
upon  its  pedestal  in  the  Piazza  de'  Si- 
gnori,  whence  it  was  removed  in  1873  to 
the  Academy  of  Arts.  A  second  "David" 
(this  time  of  bronze)  was  commissioned 
and  sent  to  France,  where  all  trace  of 
it  is  lost.  The  sculptor  also  designed 
two  marble  reliefs,  one  of  which  passed 
into  the  possession  of  Sir  George  Beau- 
mont, and  is  now  at  Burlington  House. 
The  "Holy  Family  of  the  Tribune"  and 
the  "Manchester  Madonna,"  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  belong  to  the  same  time, 
and  prove  that  Michael  Angelo  had  not 
wholly  neglected  the  art  of  painting. 
The  zeal  of  Soderini,  the  gonfaloniere,  in 
the  cause  of  art  inspired  the  scheme  of 
decorating  the  Great  Hall  of  the  Council. 
For  one  wall  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was 
commissioned  to  design  a  fresco;  a  sec- 


ANGELO 


175 


ANGILBERT 


ond  was  intrusted  to  Michael  Angelo. 
The  latter  chose  as  his  subject  an  inci- 
dent in  the  war  of  Pisa,  and  executed  a 
cartoon  which  Vasari,  with  devout  ex- 
aggeration, proclaims  to  have  been  of 
divine  rather  than  of  human  origin. 
The  fresco  was  never  completed,  and  on 
the  return  of  the  Medici  to  Florence  the 
cartoon  was  removed  to  the  hall  of  their 
palace,  to  which  painters  v^^ere  permitted 
unrestrained  access.  The  result  was 
that  over-zealous  admirers  of  Michael 
Angelo  cut  the  cartoon  to  pieces. 

In  1503  Julius  II.  succeeded  to  the 
pontificate,  and  summoned  Michael  An- 
gelo to  Rome.  The  sculptor  could  as 
little  brook  opposition  as  the  Pope,  and 
their  dealings  were  continually  inter- 
rupted by  bitter  quarrels  and  recrimina- 
tions. The  Pope  commissioned  the  sculp- 
tor to  design  his  tomb.  For  40  years 
Michael  Angelo  clung  to  the  hope  that 
he  would  yet  complete  the  great  monu- 
ment in  honor  of  Pope  Julius  and  his 
own  genius.  But  intrigue  and  spite  were 
too  strong  for  him.  Other  demands  were 
continually  made  upon  his  energy,  and 
the  sublime  statue  of  Moses  is  the  best 
fragment  that  is  left  to  us  of  the  tomb 
of  Julius.  Various  difficulties  arose  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  the  sculptor.  In- 
stead of  being  allowed  to  work  on  the 
monument,  Michael  Angelo  was  ordered 
to  decorate  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  In  1508  Michael  Angelo  began 
this  work  for  which  his  training  had  ill 
adapted  him.  However,  he  set  himself 
resolutely  to  the  toil,^  and  in  four  years 
achieved  a  masterpiece  of  decorative 
design.  Michael  Angelo,  however,  had 
not  forgotten  the  monument  of  Pope 
Julius,  and  no  sooner  had  he  finished 
his  work  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  than  he 
returned   with    eagerness   to    the   tomb. 

In  1513  Pope  Julius  II.  died,  and, 
though  he  had  commanded  the  cardinals, 
Santi  Quattro  and  Aginense,  to  see  that 
his  monument  was  completed  in  accord- 
ance with  his  expressed  wishes,  the  car- 
dinals were  thrifty  men,  and  demanded 
a  more  modest  design.  This  was  fur- 
nished, but  before  the  work  could  be 
undertaken,  Pope  Leo  X.  had  dispatched 
Michael  Angelo  on  business  of  his  own 
to  Florence.  Leo  was  of  the  Medici 
family,  and  professed  no  interest  in  the 
tomb  of  his  predecessor;  his  whole  anx- 
iety was  to  do  honor  to  his  ancestors 
by  the  adornment  of  Florence.  He 
therefore,  commissioned  Michael  Angelo 
to  rebuild  the  facade  of  the  Church  of 
San  Lorenzo  and  enrich  it  with  sculp- 
tured figures.  For  eight  years  Michael 
Angelo  was  forced  to  devote  himself  to 
toil  as  idle  as  that  of  Sisyphus.  The 
sculptor  remained  in  Florence  still  work- 


ing on  the  tomb  of  Julius  and  building 
the  Sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo.  In  1528 
the  unsettled  state  of  his  native  city 
turned  him  again  from  the  practice  of 
his  art.  He  devoted  himself  heart  and 
soul  to  the  science  of  fortification,  and 
when,  in  1529,  Florence  was  besieged, 
Michael  Angelo  was  foremost  in  its  de- 
fense. The  city  was  forced  to  surrender 
in  the  following  year.  He  resumed  his 
work  upon  the  tombs  of  the  Medici,  and 
completed  the  monuments  to  Giuliano  and 
Lorenzo  de  Medici,  which  are  among  the 
greatest  of  his  works.  In  1537  he  began 
to  paint  "The  Last  Judgment"  for  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  which  was  finished  and 
displayed  on  Christmas  Day,  1541,  and 
was  the  master's  last  pictorial  achieve- 
ment. In  the  following  year  he  was 
appointed  architect  of  St.  Peter's.  To 
this  work  he  devoted  his  wonderful  gen- 
ius with  zeal  and  loyalty  and  for  al- 
most all  that  is  best  in  this  remarkable 
edifice  we  are  indebted  to  him.  While 
still  engaged  in  this  work,  he  died  on 
Feb.  18,  1564. 

ANGELUS,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  a  short  form  of  prayer  in  honor 
of  the  incarnation,  consisting  mainly  of 
versicles  and  responses,  the  angelic 
salutation  three  times  repeated,  and  a 
collect,  so  named  from  the  word  with 
which  it  commences,  Angehis  Domini 
(Angel  of  the  Lord).  Hence,  also,  the 
bell  tolled  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and 
in  the  evening  to  indicate  the  time  when 
the  angelus  is  to  be  recited. 

ANGERMAN-ELF,  the  most  beautiful 
river  in  Sweden,  flows  S.  E.  through 
Westerbotten  and  West  Norrland  into 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  at  Hernosand;  navi- 
gable from  Solleftea  downward  (about 
65  miles). 

ANGERS  (an-zha'),  a  town  and  river- 
port  of  France,  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  formerly  of 
the  province  of  Anjou,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Maine,  150  miles  S.  W.  of  Paris. 
Has  an  old  castle,  now  used  as  a  prison, 
a  fine  cathedral  of  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies, with  very  fine  old  painted  win- 
dows; is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a 
school  of  arts  and  manufactures,  the  re- 
mains of  a  hospital  founded  by  Henry 
II.  of  England  in  1155,  etc.;  manufac- 
tures sail  cloth,  hosiery,  leather,  and 
chemicals,  foundries,  etc.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  immense  slate  quarries. 
Pop.  about  85,000. 

ANGILBERT,  ST.  (ang-el-bar'),  the 
most  celebrated  poet  of  his  age,  secre- 
tary and  friend  of  Charlemagne,  whose 
daughter.  Bertha,  he  married.     In  the 


ANGINA  PECTORIS 


176 


ANGLES 


latter  part  of  his  life  he  retired  to  a 
monastery  of  which  he  became  abbot. 
Died  in  814. 

ANGINA  PECTORIS,  the  name  first 
given  by  Dr.  Heberden  in  1768,  and  since 
then  universally  adoptedas  the  designa- 
tion of  a  very  painful  disease,  called  by 
him  also  a  disorder  of  the  breast;  by 
some  others,  spasm  of  the  chest,  or  heart 
stroke,  and  popularly  breast  pang.  It  is 
characterized  by  intense  pain  in  the 
prsecordial  region,  attended  by  a  feeling 
of  suffocation  and  a  fearful  sense  of  im- 
pending death.  These  symptoms  may 
continue  for  a  few  minutes,  half  an  hour, 
or  even  an  hour  or  more.  During  the 
paroxysm  the  pulse  is  low,  with  the  body 
cold,  and  often  covered  with  clammy  per- 
spiration. There  are  several  varieties 
of  it:  an  organic  and  functional  form; 
and  again  a  pure  or  idiopathic  and  a 
complex  or  sympathetic  one  have  been 
recognized.  Angina  is  produced  by  dis- 
ease of  the  heart. 

ANGIOSPERM,  a  term  for  any  plant 
which  has  its  seeds  inclosed  in  a  seed 
vessel.  Exogens  are  divided  into  those 
whose  seeds  are  inclosed  in  a  seed  ves- 
sel, and  those  with  seeds  produced  and 
ripened  without  the  production  of  a  seed 
vessel.  The  former  are  angiosperms, 
and  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the 
species,  the  latter  are  gymnosperms,  and 
chiefly  consist  of  the  coniferte  and  cyca- 
decese. 

ANGLE,  the  point  where  two  lines 
meet,  or  the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a 
point.  Technically,  the  inclination  of 
two  lines  to  one  another.  Angles  may 
be  ranked  under  two  leading  divisions, 
plane  and  solid  angles.  A  plane  angle 
is  the  inclination  of  two  lines  to  one  an- 
other in  a  plane,  which  two  lines  meet 
together.  A  solid  angle  is  that  which  is 
made  by  the  meeting  in  one  point  of 
more  than  two  plane  angles,  which,  how- 
ever, are  not  in  the  same  plane.  Each  of 
the  leading  divisions,  plane  and  solid 
angles,  may  again  be  subdivided  into 
rectilineal,  curvilineal,  and  mixed  angles. 
A  plane  rectilineal  angle  is  the  inclina- 
tion to  each  other  of  two  straight  lines, 
which  meet  together,  but  are  not  in  the 
same  straight  line.  A  curvilineal  angle 
is  the  inclination  to  each  other  of  two 
curved  lines  which  meet  in  a  point.  A 
mixed  angle  is  one  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  a  curve  and  a  straight  line. 

Angles  are  measured  by  arcs,  and  it  is 
immaterial  with  what  radius  the  latter 
are  described.  The  result  is  generally 
stated  in  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds. 
The  point  at  which  the  lines  forming  the 
angle  meet  is  called  the  angular  point 


or  the  vertex  of  the  angle,  and  the  lines 
themselves  the  sides  or  legs  of  the  angle. 

Plane  rectilineal  angles  are  generally 
divided  into  right  and  oblique,  or  into 
right,  obtuse,  and  acute.  When  a 
straight  line  standing  upon  another 
straight  line  makes  the  two  adjacent 
angles  (those  on  the  right  and  left  of  it) 
equal  to  one  another,  each  of  them  is 
called  a  right  angle.  An  oblique  angle 
is  one  which  is  not  a  right  angle.  An 
obtuse  angle  is  that  which  is  greater 
than  one  right  angle,  but  less  than  two. 
An  acute  angle  is  that  which  is  less  than 
a  right  angle:  both  are  oblique.  A 
spherical  angle  is  one  formed  by  the  in- 
tersection or  the  meeting  of  two  great 
circles  of  a  sphere. 

In  mechanics,  there  are  angles  of  di- 
rection, of  friction,  of  repose,  etc. 

Optics  has  angles  of  incidence,  of  re- 
flection, of  refraction,  of  deviation,  of 
polarization,  etc. 

Astronomy  has  angles  of  position,  of 
situation,  of  elevation,  inclination,  de- 
pression, etc. 

ANGLER  FISH,  a  fish  called  also  sea 
devil,  frog,  or  frog  fish;  and  in  Scotland, 
wide-gab,  signifying  wide  mouth.  It  is 
the  lophius  piscdtorius  of  Linnaeus.  It 
has   an   enormous   head,   on   which   are 


ANGLER  FISH 

placed  two  elongated  appendages,  or  fila- 
ments. These,  being  movable,  are  ma- 
neuvered as  if  they  were  bait ;  and  when 
small  fishes  approach  to  examine  them, 
the  angler,  hidden  amid  mud  and  sand, 
seizes  them  at  once;  hence  its  name.  It 
occurs  along  the  British  coasts,  and  is 
three,  or,  occasionally,  five,  feet  long. 

ANGLES,  a  Low  German  tribe,  who,  in 
the  earliest  historical  period,  had  their 
seats  in  the  district  about  Angeln,  in  the 
Duchy  of  Schleswig,  and  who  in  the  5th 
century   and   subsequently  crossed   over 


ANGLESEY 


177 


ANGLING 


to  Britain  along  with  bands  of  Saxons 
and  Jutes  (and  probably  Frisians  also), 
and  colonized  a  great  part  of  what  from 
them  has  received  the  name  of  England, 
as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  lowlands  of 
Scotland.  The  Angles  formed  the 
largest  body  among  the  Germanic  set- 
tlers in  Britain,  and  founded  the  three 
kingdoms  of  East  Anglia,  Mercia,  and 
Northumbria. 

ANGLESEY  (ang'gl-se),  or  ANGLE- 
SEA  ("the  Angles'  island"),  an  island 
and  county  of  north  Wales,  in  the  Irish 
Sea,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Menai  strait;  20  miles  long  and  17 
miles  broad;  area,  275  square  miles.  The 
chief  agricultural  products  are  oats  and 
barley,  wheat,  rye,  potatoes,  and  turnips. 
Numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised. 
Anglesey  yields  a  little  copper,  lead,  sil- 
ver, ochre,  etc.  The  chief  market-towns 
are  Beaumaris,  Holyhead,  Llangefni,  and 
Amlwch.  The  county  returns  one  mem- 
ber to  Parliament.    Pop.  about  51,000. 

ANGLIA,  EAST,  a  kingdom  founded 
by  the  Angles  (q.  v.)  about  the  middle 
of  the  6th  century,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  central  England,  in  what  forms  the 
present  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 
At  first  to  some  extent  dependent  on 
Kent,  and  afterward  on  Mercia,  on  the 
fall  of  the  latter  it  was  attached  to  Wes- 
sex,  without,  however,  losing  its  own 
kings  until  the  time  of  the  Danish  inva- 
sion, when  it  was  seized  by  the  invaders 
and  formed  into  a  Danish  kingdom  under 
Guthrum  (878).  Edward,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Alfred,  after  a  long  strug- 
gle, forced  the  Danes  to  acknowledge 
him  in  921.  Under  him  Wessex  grew  to 
be  England,  and  East  Anglia  was  hence- 
forward part  and  parcel  of  the  king- 
dom. It  was  one  of  the  four  great  earl- 
doms of  the  kingdom  under  Canute. 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH,  THE,  means 
collectively  that  group  of  autonomous 
churches  which  are  in  communion  with, 
or  have  sprung  from,  the  mother  Church 
of  England.  They  are  the  following: 
The  Church  of  Ireland,  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  the  Church  of  Canada,  the 
Church  of  Australia,  the  Indian  Church, 
and  the  Church  of  South  Africa,  which 
are  all  autonomous  bodies  under  the  ju- 
risdiction of  their  own  metropolitans, 
and  not  amenable  to  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  of  the  Church  of  England,  though 
they  all  look  to  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury as  patriarch.  In  addition  to 
these  autonomous  churches  in  connection 
with  the  Anglican  communion,  there  are 
12  missionary  bishops,  representing  the 


English  Church  in  various  remote  re- 
gions of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  and 
three  or  four  representing  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America.  See 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church;  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church. 

ANGLIN,  MARGARET  FRANCES 
MARY,  an  actress  born  in  Ottawa,  Cana- 
da, in  1876.  She  was  educated  in  a  con- 
vent and  studied  at  the  Empire  School 
of  Dramatic  Acting  in  New  York.  She 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  1894. 
Afterward  she  was  leading  lady  with 
many  well-known  actors,  including  E.  H. 
Sothern,  Richard  Mansfield,  and  Henry 
Miller,  and  became  one  of  the  best-liked 
actresses  on  the  American  stage.  She 
visited  Australia  and  other  foreign  coun- 
tries. Among  the  most  important  plays 
in  which  she  appeared  were  "Cyrano  de 
Bergerac,"  "The  Only  Way,"  "The  Great 
Divide,"  "Taming  of  the  Shrew," 
"Twelfth  Night,"  and  revivals  of  several 
Greek  tragedies. 

ANGLING,  the  art  of  catching  fish 
with  a  hook,  or  angle  (Anglo-Saxon 
ongel),  baited  with  worms,  small  fish, 
flies,  etc.  We  find  occasional  allusions 
to  this  pursuit  among  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classical  writers.  The  oldest  work 
on  the  subject  in  English  is  the  "Trea- 
tyse  of  Fysshinge  with  an  Angle," 
printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1496. 
Walton's  inimitable  discourse  on  angling 
was  first  printed  in  1653. 

The  chief  appliances  required  by  an 
angler  are  a  rod,  line,  hooks,  and  baits. 
Rods  are  made  of  various  materials, 
split-bamboo  being  preferred  by  experts. 
In  length  they  may  vary  from  10  feet  to 
more  than  double,  with  a  corresponding 
difference  in  strength — a  rod  for  salmon 
being  necessarily  much  stronger  than 
one  suited  for  ordinary  brook  trout.  The 
reel,  an  apparatus  for  winding  up  the 
line,  is  attached  to  the  rod  near  the 
lower  end,  where  the  hand  grasps  it 
while  fishing.  The  best  are  usually 
made  of  brass,  are  of  simple  construc- 
tion and  so  made  as  to  wind  or  unwind 
freely  and  rapidly.  That  part  of  the 
line  which  passes  along  the  rod  and  is  i 
wound  on  the  reel  is  called  the  reel  line, 
and  may  vary  from  20  to  100  yards  in 
length,  according  to  the  size  of  the  water 
and  the  habits  of  the  fish  angled  for;  it 
is  usually  made  of  twisted  horse  hair 
and  silk,  or  of  oiled  silk  alone.  The  cast- 
ing line,  which  is  attached  to  this,  is 
made  of  the  same  materials,  but  lighter 
and  finer.  To  the  end  of  this  is  tied  a 
piece  of  fine  gut,  on  which  the  hook,  or 
hooks,  are  fixed.  The  casting  or  gut 
lines  should  decrease  in  thickness  from 
the  reel  line  to  the  hooks. 


ANGLO-JAPANESE    TREATY        178 


ANGLO-PERSIAN  TREATY 


The  hook,  of  finely  tempered  steel, 
should  readily  bend  without  breaking, 
and  yet  retain  a  sharp  point.  It  should 
be  long  in  the  shank  and  deep  in  the 
bend;  the  point  straight  and  true  to  the 
level  of  the  shank;  and  the  barb  long. 
Floats  formed  of  cork,  goose  and  swan 
quills,  etc.,  are  often  used  to  buoy  up  the 
hook  so  that  it  may  float  clear  of  the 
bottom.  For  heavy  fish  or  strong 
streams  a  cork  float  is  used;  in  slow 
water  and  for  lighter  fish  quill  floats. 
Baits  may  consist  of  a  great  variety  of 
materials,  natural  or  artificial.  The 
artificial  flies  so  much  used  in  angling 
for  trout  and  salmon  are  composed  of 
hairs,  furs  and  wools,  of  every  variety, 
mingled  with  pieces  of  feathers,  and  se- 
cured together  by  plated  wire,  or  gold 
and  silver  thread,  marking  silk,  wax,  etc. 
Artificial  minnows,  or  other  small  fish, 
are  also  used  by  way  of  bait,  and  are  so 
contrived  as  to  spin  rapidly  when  drawn 
through  the  water  in  order  to  attract 
the  notice  of  the  fish  angled  for. 

ANGLO-JAPANESE      TREATY,      an 

agreement  entered  into  by  England  and 
Japan,  Jan.  30,  1902.  Its  primary  object 
was  the  safeguarding  of  the  interests 
of  both  nations  in  China  and  Korea.  The 
unquestioned  military  primacy  of  Japan 
in  Asia,  together  with  her  close  prox- 
imity to  China  and  Korea,  combined  with 
British  naval  strength,  made  the  alliance 
a  powerful  one.  It  was  declared  in  the 
treaty  that  neither  of  the  contracting 
powers  was  influenced  by  any  designs  of 
aggression  in  the  countries  named,  and  it 
was  promised  that  equal  opportunities 
should  exist  in  China  and  Korea  to  carry 
on  commerce  with  all  nations.  The  pe- 
culiar interests  of  Japan  in  Korea  were 
emphasized,  and  aid  was  promised  by 
each  nation  to  the  other  in  the  event  of 
disorders  arising,  or  if  aggressive  action 
should  be  taken  by  any  other  power  in 
the  countries  named,  and  the  contracting 
parties  agreed  to  make  war  and  conclude 
peace  in  common. 

On  Aug.  12,  1905,  a  new  treaty  was 
signed  at  London  that  superseded  the 
earlier  one.  Nothing  in  the  first  treaty 
was  abrogated,  but  an  additional  pact 
was  made  that  the  sphere  of  mutual  ac- 
tion and  support  should  include  the  re- 
gions of  eastern  Asia  and  of  India.  The 
effect  of  this  superseding  treaty  was  to 
maintain  the  status  quo  in  practically  all 
parts  of  Asia,  with  the  exception  of 
Turkey.  The  treaty  was  to  run  for  a 
period  of  ten  years  and  could  be  abro- 
gated before  the  expiration  of  its  term 
by  either  nation,  on  a  year's  notice  to 
the  other.  The  treaty  in  general  was 
not  objected  to  by  other  nations,  with 


the  possible  exception  of  Russia,  whose 
designs  against  Afghanistan  and  India, 
if  they  existed,  the  treaty  was  evidently 
intended  to  thwart.  This  treaty  was  re- 
newed for  10  years  on  July  13,  1911,  at 
which  time,  at  the  demand  of  Great 
Britain,  a  clause  was  added  providing 
that  neither  of  the  two  parties  was  to  be 
forced  to  go  to  war  with  any  other  power 
with  whom  either  of  the  two  contracting 
parties  might  have  concluded  a  treaty 
of  general  arbitration.  The  Anglo-Jap- 
anese treaty  was  one  of  the  reasons  why 
Japan  eventually  entered  the  World  War 
on  the  side  of  the  Allies. 

ANGLO-PERSIAN       TREATY,       an 

agreement  entered  into  Aug.  9,  1919,  at 
Teheran,  capital  of  Persia,  between  Great 
Britain  and  Persia  in  regard  to  the  fu- 
ture relation  of  the  two  countries.  The 
text  of  the  documents  was  published 
in  England  on  Aug.  16.  There  were  two 
main  features  of  the  instrument:  one 
was  an  agreement  on  the  part  of  Great 
Britain  to  furnish,  at  Persia's  expense, 
military  officers,  munitions,  and  equip- 
ment for  an  army  that  should  maintain 
order  in  Persia  and  on  her  frontiers. 
The  second  offered  a  loan  to  Persia  of 
£2,000,000,  which  was  to  be  redeemable 
in  20  years  and  take  priority  over  all 
other  debts,  except  a  previous  loan  for  a 
smaller  amount.  The  loan  was  to  bear 
interest  at  7  per  cent.,  and  as  collateral 
Persia  pledged  her  customs  receipts.  Ac- 
companying the  agreement,  and  practi- 
cally a  part  of  it,  were  letters  from  the 
British  representative  offering  to  aid 
Persia  in  recovering  her  war  claims,  and 
in  the  adjustment  of  her  boundaries. 

Considerable  criticism  arose  in  other 
countries  as  soon  as  the  terms  of  the 
agreement  were  made  known.  The  treaty 
was  strongly  attacked  in  the  French 
press,  which  claimed  that  Great  Britain 
had  obtained  a  virtual  protectorate  over 
Persia.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the 
treaty  had  been  concluded  without  first 
having  been  submitted  to  the  League  of 
Nations.  It  was  alleged  that  Persian 
sovereignty  had  been  practically  de- 
stroyed. In  commercial  circles  the 
agreement  was  looked  at  askance  as  an 
attempt  to  assure  British  control  over 
the  Persian  oil  fields  and  other  great 
natural  resources.  British  officials,  how- 
ever, asserted  that  Persian  independence 
was  not  jeopardized  by  the  agreement, 
and  denied  any  purpose  of  creating  a 
protectorate.  The  Persian  Foreign  Min- 
ister, speaking  in  behalf  of  his  govern- 
ment, declared  that  the  independence  of 
Persia  was  not  imperilled  by  the  agree- 
ment, and  that  it  gave  Great  Britain  no 
permanent  rights  or  monopolies. 


ANGLO-SAXON 


179 


ANGOULEME 


ANGLO-SAXON,  pertaining  to  the 
Anglo-Saxons  or  one  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race — that  is,  of  the  mingled  Anglo-Sax- 
ons and  other  Teutonic  tribes  from  whom 
the  English,  the  Lowland  Scotch,  a  great 
proportion  of  the  present  inhabitants  of 
i  Ulster,  and  the  mass  of  the  population 
in  the  United  States  and  various  British 
colonies  sprung. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  lan- 
guage originally  snoken  by  the  race. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  did  not  pass 
directly  into  the  English.  The  Norman 
conquest  introduced  a  new  element  into 
the  language,  and  produced  temporary 
confusion.  When  this  began  to  pass 
away,  and  it  became  evident  that  the 
tongue  of  the  conquered  rather  than  that 
of  the  conquerors  was  destined  ultimately 
to  prevail,  it  was  not  the  old  Anglo- 
Saxon,  pure  and  simple,  which  remained. 
There  came  in  place  of  it  various  dia- 
lects, especially  a  midland,  a  northern 
and  a  southern  one.  It  was  a  mixed  dia- 
lect, mainly  midland,  but  also  slightly 
southern,  which  with  Chaucer,  in  the  14th 
century,  became  the  standard  language; 
and  at  last,  by  a  series  of  insensible 
changes,  developed  into  the  modern  Eng- 
lish tongue. 

ANGOLA,  a  name  formerly  given  to 
the  west  African  coast  from  Cape  Lopez 
to  Benguela,  but  now  applied  to  the  Por- 
tuguese west  African  possessions,  ex- 
tending from  the  Kongo  river  southward 
to  the  Cunene,  which,  at  its  mouth,  notes 
the  boundary  between  the  Portuguese 
and  former  German  territories.  This 
region  is  divided  into  9  districts.  Capi- 
tal, St.  Paul  de  Loanda.  Portuguese  in- 
fluence extends  some  1,500  miles  inland. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  almost  500,000 
square  miles.  Estimates  of  the  popula- 
tion vary  from  2,200,000  to  4,200,000. 
There  are  over  800  miles  of  railroads. 
The  coast  strip  is  level,  hot  and  un- 
healthy, but  beyond  is  hilly  country.  The 
main  rivers  are  the  Kwango  running  N. 
to  the  Kongo,  and  the  Coanza  and  Cu- 
nene, running  W.  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
country  is  well  watered,  and  has  a  luxu- 
riant vegetation  of  the  tropical  African 
type.  Yams,  tobacco,  indigo,  rice,  cotton, 
and  sugar  are  freely  produced.  Wax, 
Buffalo  hides,  ivory,  copal  gum,  and 
palm  oil  are  exported.  Iron  is  found  in 
the  mountains;  and  copper,  lead,  sulphur, 
and  petroleum  are  obtained.  Horses  and 
camels  cannot  live  here;  the  ox  is  ridden, 
but  the  burden-bearers  are  usually  men. 
■  Angola  was  long  notorious  for  its  great 
slave  trade.  The  natives  are  Kongo  ne- 
groes, and  belong  to  the  great  Bantu 
stock.  The  Portuguese  under  Diego  Cam 
discovered  this  coast,  in  1486,  and  soon 
began  to  settle  in  it;  but  St.  Paul  de 
13— Vol.  I — Cyc 


Loanda  was  not  built  till  1578.  In  the 
course  of  the  war  of  1914-1918,  the  Brit- 
ish in  their  west  African  campaign 
forced  the  Germans  to  seek  refuge  in 
Angola,  where  they  were  interned. 

ANGORA,  a  town  in  the  interior  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  215  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Constantinople,  with  considerable  re- 
mains of  Byzantine  architecture,  and  rel- 
ics of  earlier  times,  both  Greek  and 
Roman,  such  as  the  remnants  of  the 
Monumentum  Ancyranum,  raised  in 
honor  of  the  Emperor  Augustus.  All  the 
animals  of  this  region  are  long-haired, 
especially  the  goats,  sheep,  and  cats.  This 
hair  forms  an  important  export  as  well 
as  the  fabric  called  camlet,  here  manu- 
factured from  it;  other  exports  being 
goats'  skins,  dye  stuffs,  gums,  honey  and 
wax,  etc.    Pop.  about  35,000. 

ANGORA  CAT,  the  large  and  long- 
haired white  variety  of  the  common  cat, 
said  to  belong  originally  to  Angora.  It 
has  a  superb  coat  of  long  silky  hair  and 
a  long  bushy  tail. 

ANGORA  GOAT,  a  variety  of  the 
common  goat  with  long,  silky  hair.  There 
are  two  or  three  varieties  of  the  breed. 
The  animal's  coat  is  composed  of  two 
sorts  of  material — one  hairy,  short,  and 
close  to  the  skin;  the  other  longer  and 
woolly,  farther  from  the  skin.  "The  lat- 
ter is  the  most  plentiful  and  most  valu- 
able. Of  this  goat's  hair,  often  called 
camel's  wool,  camlets  are  extensively 
manufactured  here.  The  Angora  goat  is 
bred  for  his  hair,  called  Mohair  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Cape  Colony,  and 
has  also  been  introduced  into  Australia. 

ANGOSTURA,  or  CIUDAD  BOLIVAR, 

city  and  capital  of  the  state  of  Bolivar, 
Venezuela;  on  the  Orinoco  river;  263 
miles  S.  E.  of  Caracas.  It  has  consider- 
able export  trade  in  cotton,  indigo,  coffee, 
tobacco,  cattle,  etc.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

ANGOSTURA  BARK,  the  aromatic, 
bitter  medicinal  bark  obtained  chiefly 
from  galipea  officinalis,  a  tree  of  10  to 
20  feet  high,  growing  in  the  northern 
regions  of  South  America;  natural  order 
rutaceae.  The  bark  is  valuable  as  a  tonic 
and  febrifuge. 

ANGOULEME  (an-go-lam'),  the  capi- 
tal of  the  French  department  of  Cha- 
rente,  and  formerly  the  province  of  An- 
goumois,  83  miles  N.  E.  of  Bordeaux  by 
rail.  It  contains  a  fine  Romanesque 
cathedral  (1136),  and  a  striking  hotel  de 
ville,  with  which  is  incorporated  the  rem- 
nant of  the  ancient  castle  of  Angouleme, 
where    was    bom    the   celebrated    Mar- 


ANGOULEME 


180 


ANIMAL 


guerite  of  Navarre.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  machinery,  paper,  and  wire,  and 
a  brisk  trade  in  brandy.  Pop.  about 
40,000. 

ANGOULEME,  LOUIS  ANTOINE  DE 
BOURBON,  DUG  D',  the  eldest  son 
of  Charles  X.  of  France,  and  Dauphin 
during  his  father's  reign,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles, Aug.  6,  1775.  At  the  Revolution 
he  retired  from  France  with  his  father, 
and  after  abortive  military  operations 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  French  emigres 
in  1792,  lived  with  the  royal  exiles  on  the 
Continent,  and  later  in  England.  In 
1799  he  married  his  cousin,  Marie 
Therese,  the  only  daughter  of  Louis  XVI. 
and  Marie  Antoinette.  Louis  XVIIL  ap- 
pointed him  lieutenant-general  of  the 
kingdom;  and,  when  Napoleon  returned 
from  Elba,  he  made  a  weak  attempt  to 
oppose  him,  but,  deserted  by  his  troops, 
was  forced  to  surrender.  In  1823  he 
led  the  French  army  of  invasion  into 
Spain.  On  the  revolution  in  July,  1830, 
he  signed,  with  his  father,  an  abdication 
in  favor  of  his  nephew,  the  Due  de  Bor- 
deaux; and  when  the  Chambers  declared 
the  family  of  Charles  X.  to  have  for- 
feited the  throne,  he  accompanied  him 
into  exile,  to  Holyrood,  to  Prague,  and 
to  Gorz,  where  he  died  June  3,  1844. 

ANGRA,  the  capital  of  the  Azores,  a 
seaport  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the 
S.  coast  of  the  island  of  Terceira.  It  is 
a  station  for  ships  between  Portugal  and 
Brazil  and  the  East  Indies.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  governor-general  and  of  a 
bishop;  has  fine  churches,  and  is  strong- 
ly fortified.  Pop.  about  12,000.  There 
is  a  considerable  export  of  wine,  cheese, 
honey,  and  flax. 

ANGRA-PEQUENA  (an'gra-pe-ka'- 
na),  a  bay  on  the  S.  W.  coast  of  Africa. 
It  gives  name  to  the  southern  littoral  of 
Great  Namaqualand,  extending  200  miles 
from  26°  S.  lat.  to  the  Orange  river,  or 
Cape  Colony,  and  reaching  90  miles  in- 
land. In  1883  Angra-Pequefia  was  ceded 
by  a  Namaqua  chieftain  to  Liideritz,  a 
Bremen  merchant;  and  next  year  it  was 
taken  under  German  protection,  with 
all  the  coast  to  the  N.  as  far  as  Cape 
Frio,  except  Walfisch  Bay,  which  belongs 
to  England.  It  formed  the  beginning  of 
what  later  became  German  Southwest 
Africa.  The  Germans  called  it  Liideritz 
Bay  and  the  surrounding  country  Liider- 
itzland.  Together  with  the  rest  of  Ger- 
man Southwest  Africa  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  by  the  decision  of  the 
Peace  Conference  of  May  7,  1919,  as- 
sumed a  mandate  over  this  former  Ger- 
man possession.  During  the  World  War 
it  had  been  one  of  the  landing  points 


for  the  forces  sent  from  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  to  invade  German  South- 
west Africa. 

ANHALT,  a  former  duchy  of  north 
Germany,  almost  surrounded  by  Prussia; 
area  888  square  miles.  All  sorts  of 
grain,  wheat  especially,  are  grown  in 
abundance;  also,  flax,  rape,  potatoes,  to- 
bacco, hops,  and  fruit.  The  inhabitants 
are  principally  occupied  in  agriculture, 
though  there  are  some  iron  works  and 
manufactures  of  woolens,  linens,  beet- 
sugar,  tobacco,  etc.  The  former  Dukes 
of  Anhalt  trace  their  origin  to  Bernard 
(1170-1212),  son  of  Albert  the  Bear.  In 
common  with  the  other  German  states, 
Anhalt,  in  November,  1918,  was  declared 
a  republic.  Pop.  about  350,000.  The 
chief  towns  are  Dessau  (pop.  about 
60,000),  Bernburg  (pop.  about  35,000), 
Kothen,  and  Zerbst. 

ANHYDRIDE,  or  anhydrous  acid,  a 
chemical  substance  formed  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  an  acid  radical  for  the  whole 
of  the  hydrogen  in  one  or  two  molecules 
of  water.  By  the  action  of  water  they 
are  converted  into  acids. 

ANHYDRITE,  an  anhydrous  calcium 
sulphate,  classed  by  Dana  under  his 
celestite  group.  It  is  divided  by  Dana 
into  Var.  1.  Ordinary:  (a)  crystallized; 
(b)  fibrous;  (c)  fine  granular;  (d)  scaly 
granular,  under  which  is  ranked  vulpin- 
ite.  Var.  2.  Pseudomorphous.  It  occurs 
in  various  parts  of  Europe  and  in  North 
America. 

ANI,  the  name  given  to  the  birds  be- 
longing to  the  genus  crotophaga,  and  in- 
deed to  those  ranked  under  the  sub-fam- 
ily CrotophagmcB,  a  division  of  the  Cu- 
culidae,  or  cuckoos;  the  typical  anis,  those 
of  the  genus  crotophagse,  are  found  in 
South  America,  the  West  Indies  and 
Florida.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
our  blackbird. 

ANILINE.  See  Dyeing. 

ANIMAL,  an  organized  and  sentient 
living  being.  Life  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  natural  history  was  attributed  almost 
exclusively  to  animals.  With  the  prog 
ress  of  science,  however,  it  was  extended 
to  plants.  In  the  case  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals and  plants  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
assigning  the  individual  to  one  of  the 
two  great  kingdoms  of  organic  nature, 
but  in  their  lowest  manifestations,  the 
vegetable  and  animal  _  kingdoms  are 
brought  into  such  immediate  contact  that 
it  becomes  almost  impossible  to  assign 
them  precise  limits,  and  to  say  with  cer- 
tainty where  the  one  begins  and  the 
other  ends. 


ANIMAL 


181 


ANISE 


With  regard  to  internal  structure  no 
line  of  demarkation  can  be  laid  down, 
all  plants  and  animals  being,  in  this  re- 
spect, fundamentally  similar;  that  is, 
alike  composed  of  molecular,  cellular,  and 
fibrous  tissues.  Neither  are  the  chemi- 
cal characters  of  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  more  distinct.  Animals  con- 
tain in  their  tissue  and  fluids  a  larger 
proportion  of  nitrogen  than  plants,  while 
plants  are  richer  in  carbonaceous  com- 
pounds than  the  former.  Power  of  mo- 
tion, again,  though  broadly  distinctive 
of  animals,  cannot  be  said  to  be  abso- 
lutely characteristic  of  them.  Thus 
many  animals,  as  oysters,  sponges,  cor- 
als, etc.,  in  their  mature  condition  are 
rooted  or  fixed,  while  the  embryos  of 
many  plants,  together  with  numerous 
fully  developed  forms,  are  endowed  with 
locomotive  power  by  means  of  vibratile, 
hair-like   processes   called   cilia. 

The  distinctive  points  between  animals 
and  plants  which  are  most  to  be  relied 
on  are  those  derived  from  the  nature 
and  mode  of  assimilation  of  the  food. 
Plants  feed  on  inorganic  matters,  consist- 
ing of  water,  ammonia,  carbonic  acid, 
and  mineral  matters.  They  can  only 
take  in  food  which  is  presented  to  them 
in  a  liquid  or  gaseous  state.  The  excep- 
tions to  these  rules  are  found  chiefly  in 
the  case  of  plants  which  live  parasiti- 
cally  on  other  plants  or  on  animals,  in 
which  cases  the  plajit  may  be  said  to 
feed  on  organic  matters,  represented  by 
juices  of  their  hosts.  Animals,  on  the 
contrary,  require  organized  matters  for 
food.  They  feed  either  upon  plants  or 
upon  other  animals.  Animals  require  a 
due  supply  of  oxygen  gas  for  their  sus- 
tenance, this  gas  being  used  in  respira- 
tion. Plants,  on  the  contrary,  require 
carbonic  acid.  The  animal  exhales  or 
gives  out  carbonic  acid  as  the  part  result 
of  its  tissue  waste,  while  the  plant  tak- 
ing in  this  gas  is  enabled  to  decompose 
it  into  its  constituent  carbon  and  oxygen. 
The  plant  retains  the  former  for  the  uses 
of  its  economy,  and  liberates  the  oxygen, 
which  is  thus  restored  to  the  atmosphere 
for  the  use  of  the  animal.  Animals  re- 
ceive their  food  into  the  interior  of  their 
bodies,  and  assimilation  takes  place  in 
their  internal  surfaces.  Plants,  on  the 
other  hand,  receive  their  food  into  their 
external  surfaces,  and  assimilation  is  ef- 
fected in  the  external  parts,  as  are  ex- 
emplified in  the  leaf  surfaces  under  the 
influence  of  sunlight.  All  animals  pos- 
sess a  certain  amount  of  heat  or  tem- 
perature which  is  necessary  for  the  per- 
formance of  vital  action.  The  only 
classes  of  animals  in  which  a  constantly 
elevated  temperature  is  kept  up  are 
birds  and  mammals. 


ANIMAL  CHEMISTRY,  the  depart- 
ment of  organic  chemistry  which  investi- 
gates the  composition  of  the  fluids  and 
the  solids  of  animals,  and  the  chemical 
action  that  takes  place  in  animal  bodies. 

ANIMALCULE,  a  general  name  given 
to  many  forms  of  animal  life  from  their 
minute  size. 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM,  one  of  the  three 
great  kingdoms  of  visible  nature,  the  two 
other  being  the  vegetable  and  the  min- 
eral kingdoms.  Prof.  Owen,  in  his  "Pal- 
eontology," adopts  the  following  classifi- 
cation :  Kingdom  I.,  protozoa.  Kingdom 
II.,  animalia.  Sub-kingdom  I.,  inverte- 
brata:  Province  1,  radiata;  2,  articulata; 
3,  moUusca.  Sub-kingdom  II.,  vertebrata. 
Prof.  Huxlej'',  writing  in  1869,  divided 
the  animal  kingdom  in  eight  groups  ar- 
ranged thus: 

Vertebrata, 

MOLLUSCA,  ANNULOSA, 

MOLLUSCOIDA,  ANNULOIDA, 

ccelenterata,  infusoria, 

Protozoa. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM,  a  science, 
or  art,  so  called  because  it  was  believed 
that  it  taught  the  method  of  producing 
on  persons  of  susceptible  organization  ef- 
fects somewhat  similar  to  those  which  a 
magnet  exerts  upon  iron. 

ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY,  the  study 
of  mind  as  it  is  found  in  animals  below 
man.  It  is  sometimes  called  comparative 
psychology,  although  that  term  more 
probably  belongs  in  the  comparative 
study  including  man.  The  study  is  car- 
ried on  in  general  by  the  observation  of 
the  behavior  of  animals  under  various 
conditions,  in  the  study  of  their  nervous 
structure,  and  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  facts  derived  in  these  studies  as  in- 
dicators of  mind. 

ANIMAL  WORSHIP.     See  Religion. 

.^NIO,  now  ANIENE  or  TEVERONE, 
a  river  in  Italy,  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber, 
which  it  enters  above  Rome,  renowned 
for  the  valley  through  which  it  flows, 
where  stand  the  remains  of  the  villas  of 
Maecenas  and  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  Its 
famous  waterfalls  at  Tivoli  now  furnish 
valuable  electric  energy  which  is  trans- 
mitted to  Rome. 

ANISE,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  the 
pimpinella  anisum.  It  is  cultivated  in 
southern  Europe  and  in  Germany  for 
the  sake  of  the  seeds,  which  are  ex- 
ported. They  are  aromatic  and  carmi- 
native. 

Oil  of  anise  is  a  solution  of  anise  cam- 
phor.    The    camphor    is    obtained    pure 


ANJOU 


182 


ANN  ABBOB 


from  alcohol  by  pressure  and  crystalliza- 
tion. In  pharmacy  it  is  used  as  a  stimu- 
lant, aromatic,  and  carminative. 

ANJOU  (an-zho'),  an  ancient  province 
of  France,  now  forming  the  department 
of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  parts  of  the  de- 
partments of  Indre-et-Loire,  Mayenne, 
and  Sarthe;  area,  about  3,000  square 
miles.  In  1060  the  province  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  house  of  Gatinais,  of 
which  sprang  Count  Godfrey  V.,  who,  in 
1127,  married  Matilda,  daughter  of 
Henry  I.  of  England,  and  so  became  the 
ancestor  of  the  Plantagenet  kings.  Anjou 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Eng- 
lish kings  up  to  1204,  when  John  lost  it 
to  the  French  King,  Philip  Augustus.  In 
1226  Louis  VIII.  bestowed  the  province 
on  his  brother  Charles;  but  in  1328  it 
was  reunited  to  the  French  crown.  John 
I.  raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  ducal  peer- 
age, and  gave  it  to  his  son  Louis.  Hence- 
forth it  remained  separate  from  the 
French  crown  till  1480,  when  it  fell  to 
Louis  XI.  The  last  Duke  of  Anjou  was 
the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  Philip  V. 
of  Spain. 

ANKOBAB,  the  former  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Shoa,  in  Abyssinia;  is  built 
8,200  feet  above  sea-level.    Pop.  2,000. 

ANN,  ST.,  a  name  applied  to  a  num- 
ber of  places  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  The  best  known  and  most  worthy 
of  notice  are  (1)  St.  Ann  Shoals,  off  the 
S.  part  of  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  ex- 
tending from  Cape  Shilling  to  Sherboro 
Island,  a  distance  of  between  30  and  40 
miles.  (2)  St.  Ann  (Cape),  the  extreme 
N.  W.  point  of  Sherboro  Island,  coast  of 
Sierra  Leone;  lat.  T  34'  N.;  long.,  12° 
57'  W.;  having  close  by  a  group  of  is- 
lands called  Turtk  Islands.  (3)  St. 
Ann's,  a  town,  river,  and  bay,  Jamaica, 
on  the  N.  coast;  the  latter  in  lat.  18°  20' 
N.;  long.  77°  13'  W.  (4)  A  cape  or  head- 
land on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  Africa,  about 
35  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  South  Cape  Blanco, 
near  Arguin,  and  within  the  bank  of  that 
name:  lat.  20°  30'  N.;  long.  17°  0'  W. 
(5)  A  lake,  Upper  Canada,  20  miles 
long,  and  20  broad,  about  45  miles  N.  of 
Lake  Superior,  with  which  it  has  com- 
munication by  the  Nipigon  river.  (5)  A 
harbor  on  the  E.  side  of  Cape  Breton, 
British  America;  lat.  46°  21'  N.;  long. 
60°  27'  W. 

ANNA  COMNENA,  daughter  of  Alex- 
ius  Comnenus  I.,  Byzantine  emperor. 
She  was  born  in  1083,  and  died  in  1148. 
After  her  father's  death  she  endeavored 
to  secure  the  succession  to  her  husband, 
Nicephorus  Briennius,  but  was  baffled 
by  his  want  of  energy  and  ambition.  She 
wrote   (in  Greek)    a  life  of  her  father, 


Alexius,  which,  in  the  midst  of  much  ful- 
some panegyric,  contains  some  valuable 
and  interesting  information. 

ANNA  IVANOVNA  (-wan-o'na), 
Empress  of  Russia,  born  in  1693;  the 
daughter  of  Ivan,  the  elder  half-brother 
of  Peter  the  Great.  She  was  married  in 
1710  to  the  Duke  of  Courland,  in  the 
following  year  was  left  a  widow,  and,  in 
1730  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Czars 
on  the  condition,  proposed  by  the  Senate, 
that  she  would  limit  the  absolute  power 
of  the  czars,  and  do  nothing  without  the 
advice  of  the  Council.  This  promise  she 
did  not  keep.  She  chose  as  her  favorite, 
Ernest  John  von  Biren  or  Biron,  who 
was  soon  all-powerful  in  Russia.  Lead- 
ing nobles  were  executed  and  thousands 
of  men  were  sent  to  Siberia.  In  1737 
Anna  forced  the  Courlanders  to  choose 
Biren  as  their  duke,  and  nominated  him 
at  her  death  Regent  of  the  Empire  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  her  grand-nephew, 
Prince  Ivan  of  Brunswick.  Anna  died 
in  1740. 

ANNAM.  See  Anam, 

ANNAPOLIS,  city,  port  of  entry,  capi- 
tal of  the  State  of  Maryland,  and  county- 
seat  of  Anne  Arundel  co.;  on  the  Severn 
river,  near  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  several 
railroads;  40  miles  E.  of  Washington, 
D.  C.  It  is  in  a  fruit  and  berry-growing 
region;  has  oyster-packing  plants,  ma- 
rine railway,  glass  factory,  a  National 
bank,  daily,  weekly,  and  other  periodi- 
cals; and  is  widely  known  as  the  seat  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  The 
city  also  contains  St.  John's  College,  sev- 
eral State  buildings,  convent,  a  house 
of  Redemptorist  Fathers,  residences  of 
many  naval  officers  and  of  families  of 
officers  on  sea  duty,  and  bronze  statues 
of  General  John  de  Kalb  and  Chief  Jus- 
tice Roger  B.  Taney.  The  city  was 
founded  in  1649;  was  first  named  Provi- 
dence; and  received  a  city  charter  and 
its  present  name,  in  honor  of  Queen 
Anne,  in  1708.  The  first  Federal  Consti- 
tutional  Convention  was  held  here  in 
1786,  and  Washington  surrendered  his 
commission  in  the  army  in  the  Senate 
room  of  the  State  House.  Pop.  (1910) 
8,609;    (1920)    11,214. 

ANN  ABBOB,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Washtenaw  co.,  Mich.;  on  the  Huron 
river  and  the  Michigan  Central  rail- 
road ;  38  miles  W.  of  Detroit.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region;  has  National  banks, 
high  school,  manufactories  of  farming 
implements,  woolen  goods,  furniture, 
carriages,  and  organs,  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  periodicals,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  University  of  Michigan.  Pop.  (1910) 
14,817;   (1920)  19,516. 


ANNATO 


183 


ANNISTON 


ANNATO,  or  ARNOTTO,  an  orange- 
red  coloring  matter,  obtained  from  the 
pulp  surrounding  the  seeds  of  bixa  orel- 
lana,  a  shrub  native  to  tropical  America, 
and  cultivated  in  Guiana,  St.  Domingo, 
and  the  East  Indies,  It  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  dye  for  silk  and  cotton  goods, 
but  it  is  much  used  in  medicine  for  ting- 
ing plasters  and  ointments,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  farmers  for  giving  a 
rich  color  to  cheese. 

ANNE  BOLEYN.    See  BOLEYN,  Anne. 

ANNE  OF  AUSTRIA,  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Madrid 
in  1602,  and  in  1615  was  married  to 
Louis  XIII.  of  France.  Richelieu,  fear- 
ing the  influence  of  her  foreign  connec- 
tions, did  everything  he  could  to  humble 
her.  In  1643  her  husband  died,  and  she 
was  left  regent,  but  placed  under  the 
control  of  a  council.  The  parliament  in- 
trusted her  with  full  sovereign  rights 
during  the  minority  of  her  son,  Louis 
XIV.  She  incurred  the  hatred  of  the 
nobles  by  her  boundless  confidence  in 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  was  forced  to  flee 
from  Paris  during  the  wars  of  the 
Fronde.  She  ultimately  quelled  all  op- 
position, and  was  able,  in  1661,  to  trans- 
mit to  her  son,  unimpaired,  the  royal 
authority.     She  died  in  1666. 

ANNE,  QUEEN  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 
AND  IRELAND,  was  bom  at  Twicken- 
ham, near  London,  Feb.  6,  1664;  the  sec- 
ond daughter  of  James  II.,  then  Duke  of 
York,  and  Anne  Hyde,  his  first  wife, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  In 
1683  she  was  married  to  Prince  George, 
brother  to  King  Christian  V.  of  Den- 
mark. On  the  arrival  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  1688,  Anne  wished  to  remain 
with  her  father;  but  she  was  prevailed 
upon  by  Lord  Churchill  (afterward 
Duke  of  Marlborough)  and  his  wife  to 
join  the  triumphant  party.  After  the 
death  of  William  III.,  in  1702,  she 
ascended  the  English  throne.  Her  char- 
acter was  essentially  weak,  and  she  was 
governed  first  by  Marlborough  and  his 
wife,  and  afterward  by  Mrs.  Masham. 
Most  of  the  principal  events  of  her  reign 
are  connected  with  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession.  The  only  important  ac- 
quisition that  England  made  by  it  was 
Gibraltar,  captured  in  1704.  Another 
very  important  event  was  the  union  of 
England  and  Scotland,  under  the  name 
of  Great  Britain,  in  1707.  She  died  in 
1714.  The  reign  of  Anne  was  distin- 
guished for  the  number  of  admirable 
writers  who  flourished  at  this  time,  such 
as  Pope,  Swift,  and  Addison. 

ANNEALINGr,  a  process  to  which  many 
articles  of  metal  and  glass  are  subjected 


after  making,  in  order  to  render  them 
more  tenacious,  and  which  consists  in 
heating  them  and  allowing  them  to  cool 
slowly. 

ANNELIDA,  a  class  of  animals  belong- 
ing to  the  sulj-kingdom  articulata,  the 
annulosa  of  some  naturalists.  They  are 
sometimes  called  red-blooded  worms,  be- 
ing the  only  invertebrated  animals  pos- 
sessing this  character.  They  are  soft- 
bodied  animals,  mostly  living  in  the 
water,  sometimes  in  moist  earth,  but 
never  parasitically  within  the  bodies  of 
other  animals;  the  higher  ones  posses- 
sing limbs,  though  of  a  rudimentary 
character,  which  makes  them  resemble 
centipedes;  while  the  lower  ones,  like 
the  leeches,  are  whoUv  destitute  of  these 
appendages.  The  respiration  is  effected 
by  external  branchiae,  by  internal  vesi- 
cles, or  by  the  skin  itself.  Contractile 
vessels  supply  the  place  of  a  heart.  The 
nervous  system  consists  of  a  single  or 
double  ventral  cord,  furnished  with  gan- 
glia at  intervals,  and  surrounding  the 
oesophagus  above. 

ANNEXATION,  the  term  applied  to 
the  acquisition  by  a  country  of  terri- 
tory which  was  formerly  independent  or 
was  possessed  by  another  country.  The 
term  is  applied  more  properly  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  adjoining  territory,  but  has 
come  to  be  used  in  a  broader  sense,  and 
is  now  applied  to  any  territory  added  to 
an  existing  state.  Among  the  most  not- 
able annexations  are  those  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  Germany  in  1870;  of  Cali- 
fornia to  the  United  States,  as  a  result 
of  the  Mexican  War;  of  the  South 
African  states  as  a  result  of  the 
Boer  War;  and  the  changes  of  ter- 
ritory resulting  from  the  defeat  of 
Germany  in  the  World  War.  The  in- 
habitants of  annexed  territory  are  ab- 
solved from  allegiance  to  their  former 
sovereign.  Titles  to  property  are  not 
affected,  except  in  the  substitution  of  the 
new  sovereign  for  the  old.  Annexation 
is  brought  about  by  treaty,  by  proclama- 
tion, or  by  legislative  act.  It  may  be 
made  complete  in  spite  of  _  the  active  or 
passive  opposition  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  territory  affected. 

ANNISTON,  a  city  of  Calhoun  co.  in 
Alabama,  on  the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville, and  the  Southern  railroads;  about 
60  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Birmingham.  It  is 
in  one  of  the  most  important  coal  and 
iron  mining  regions  of  the  country;  is  a 
trade  center  for  cotton  and  agricultural 
products;  and  is  noted  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  iron  and  steel,  cotton  goods, 
bricks,  cordage,  and  other  articles.  An- 
niston  is  the  seat  of  Alabama  Presbyte- 


ANNO  DOMINI 


184 


ANODYNE 


tian  College  and  Barber  Memorial  Semi- 
nary and  the  Noble  Female  Institute; 
is  a  popular  summer  and  winter  resort; 
and  has  National  banks  and  daily  and 
weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1910)  12,794; 
,fl920)  17,734. 

ANNO  DOMINI,  A.  D.,  the  year  of 
Our  Lord,  of  grace,  of  the  incarnation,  of 
the  circumcision,  and  of  the  Saviour's 
crucifixion.  The  Christian  era  began 
Jan.  1,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  year 
of  the  194th  Olympiad,  the  753d  year  of 
the  building  of  Rome,  and  in  4714  of  the 
Julian  period.  This  era  was  invented 
by  a  monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  about 
532.  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the 
6th  century,  and  ordered  to  be  used  by 
bishops  by  the  Council  of  Chelsea  in 
816,  but  was  not  generally  employed 
for  several  centuries.  Charles  III.  of 
Germany  was  the  first  who  added  "in 
the  year  of  our  Lord"  to  his  reign,  in 
879. 

ANNONAY  (an-o-na),  a  town  in 
southern  France,  department  of  Ardeche, 
37  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Lyons,  in  a  pictur- 
esque situation.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant town  of  Ardeche,  manufacturing 
paper  and  glove  leather  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, also  cloth,  felt,  silk  stuffs,^  gloves, 
hosiery,  etc.  There  is  an  obelisk  in  mem- 
cry  of  Joseph  Montgolfier  of  balloon 
fame,  a  native  of  the  town.  Pop.  about 
17,500. 

ANNUAL,  in  botany,  a  plant  that 
springs  from  seed,  grows  up,  produces 
seed,  and  then  dies,  all  within  a  single 
year  or  season. 

ANNUITY,  a  fixed  sum  of  money 
paid  yearly.  In  the  United  States  the 
granting  of  annuities  is  conducted  by  pri- 
vate companies  or  corporations. 

Under  the  Roman  law  annuities  were 
sometimes  granted  by  will,  the  obliga- 
tion of  paying  them  being  imposed  upon 
the  heir.  Borrowers  in  the  Middle  Ages 
v/ere  frequently  obliged  to  grant  annui- 
ties in  lieu  of  interest,  the  exaction  of 
which  by  creditors  was  forbidden  as 
usury;  and  the  practice  received  the 
papal  sanction  in  the  15th  century. 

^  ANNULOIDA,  in  Huxley's  classifica- 
tion, one  of  the  eight  primary  groups 
into  which  he  divides  the  animal  king- 
dom. He  places  it  between  the  annulosa 
£nd  the  infusoria.  He  includes  under  it 
(1)  the  trematoda,  or  flukes;  (2)  the 
tRniada,  or  tape-worms  and  bladder- 
worms;  (3)  the  turbellaria;  (4)  the 
acanthocephala;  (5)  the  nematoidea,  or 
thread-worms;  and  (6)  the  rotifera,  or 
wheel  animalcules. 


ANNULOSA,  a  sub-kingdom  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  corresponding  to  Cu- 
vier's  articulata.  Annulosa,  signifying 
ringed,  is  decidedly  better,  for  the  ani- 
mals ranked  under  this  sub-kingdom  have 
their  skeleton,  which  is  external,  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  rings.  They  are  di- 
vided into  chaetognatha,  annelida,  Crus- 
tacea, arachnida,  myriapoda,  and  insecta. 
The  last  four  are  further  grouped  to- 
gether under  the  designation  arthro- 
poda. 

ANNUNCIATION,  the  declaration  of 
the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  in- 
forming her  that  she  was  to  become  the 
mother  of  our  Lord,  Annunciation  or 
Lady  Day  is  celebrated  on  the  25th  of 
March.  The  Italian  order  of  Knights  of 
the  Annunciation,  now  the  highest  Ital- 
ian order,  was  instituted  by  Amadeus 
VI.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  in  1360.  The  king  is 
always  Grand  Master.  The  decoration  of 
the  Order  consists  of  a  golden  shield 
suspended  to  a  chain  or  collar  of  roses 
and  knots,  the  letters  F.  E.  R.  T.  being 
inscribed  on  the  roses,  and  standing  for 
fortitudo  ejus  Rhodum  tenuit  (its  brav- 
ery held  Rhodes).  There  are  two  orders 
of  nuns  of  the  Annunciation,  French  and 
Italian. 

ANNUNZIO,     aABRIELE     D'.       See 

D'Annunzio,  (Jabriele. 

ANOA,  a  sub-genus  of  ruminating 
animals.  The  typical  species  is  the  A. 
depressicornis,  a  quadruped  resembling  a 
small  buffalo,  found  gregarious  in  the 
mountains  of  the  island  of  Celebes. 

ANOBIUM,  a  genus  of  beetles  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Ptinidje.  It  contains 
the  well  known  death  watch  insects,  A. 
striatum,  A.  tesselatum,  etc. 

ANODE,  the  name  given  by  Faraday 
to  what  is  called  by  Daniell  the  zincode, 
and  by  various  other  writers  the  positive 
pole  of  an  electric  battery;  or,  more 
precisely,  the  "way"  or  path  by  which 
the  electric  current  passes  out  and  enters 
the  electrolyte  on  its  way  to  the  other 
pole.  It  is  a  platinum  plate  occupying 
the  same  place  in  the  decomposing  cell 
that  a  zinc  plate  does  in  an  ordinary  cell 
of  a  battery.  The  other  plate  corre- 
sponding to  the  second  platinum  one  in 
an  ordinary  cell  is  called  by  Faraday 
the  cathode  or  kathode,  by  Daniell  the 
platinode,  and  by  many  other  writers 
the  negative  pole.  At  the  positive  pole 
appears  one  element  of  the  decomposed 
body,  called  anione,  and  at  the  negative 
the  other  element,  termed  katione. 

ANODYNE,  a  medicine  which  allevi- 
ates pain,  though,  if  given  in  too  large 
doses,  it  induces  stupor.     Opium  is  so- 


ANOMALURE 


185 


ANSELL 


porific  and  anodyne;  while  belladonna  is 
anodyne    and    anti-spasmodic. 

ANOMALURE,  a  genus  of  rodent 
animals  inhabitating  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa,  resembling  the  flying-squirrels, 
but  having  the  under  surface  of  the  tail 
"furnished  for  some  distance  from  the 
roots  with  a  series  of  large  horny  scales, 
which,  when  pressed  against  the  trunk  of 
a  tree,  may  subserve  the  same  purpose 
as  those  instruments  with  which  a  man 
climbs  up  a  telegraph  pole  to  set  the 
wires." 

ANOMURA,  a  sub-order  of  decapod 
crustaceans,  intermediate  between  Tna- 
crura  and  hrachyura,  differing  from  the 
former  in  the  absence  of  an  abdominal 
fan-shaped  fin,  as  also  of  natatory  feet; 
and  from  the  latter  in  generally  pos- 
sessing appendages  attached  to  the  pen- 
ultimate segment  of  their  abdomen.  The 
sub-order  is  divided  into  the  families 
paguridse,  hippidse,  raninidse,  homoli- 
dse,  and  dr<ymiidse.  Its  best  known  repre- 
sentatives are  the  hermit  crabs  ipaguri- 
dss. 

ANONA,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of 
the  natural  order  anonaceas.  A.  squa- 
mosa (sweet  sop)  grows  in  the  West  In- 
dian islands,  and  yields  an  edible  fruit 
having  a  thick,  sweet,  luscious  pulp.  A. 
muHcata  (sour  sop)  is  cultivated  in  the 
West  and  East  Indies;  it  produces  a 
large  pear-shaped  fruit,  of  a  greenish 
color,  containing  an  agreeable,  slightly 
acid  pulp.  The  genus  produces  other 
edible  fruits,  as  the  common  custard  ap- 
ple or  bullock's  heart,  from  A.  reticulata., 
and  the  cherimoyer  of  Peru,  A.  cheri- 
molia. 

ANONACE.ffi,  an  order  of  exogenous 
plants  classed  by  Lindley  under  his  ra- 
nales,  or  ranal  alliance.  They  have  six 
petals,  hypogynous  stamina  generally  in- 
definite in  number,  numerous  ovaries,  and 
a  many  carpeled,  succulent,  or  dry  fruit, 
and  alternate  simple  leaves  without  stip- 
ules. They  are  trees  or  shrubs  occurring 
in  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  In 
1846  Lindley  estimated  the  known  species 
at  300.  Most  have  a  powerful  aromatic 
taste  and  smell,  and  the  flowers  of  some 
are  highly  fragrant.  Some  have  a  suc- 
culent and  eatable  fruit. 

ANOPLOTHERIUM,  an  extinct  genus 
of  the  ungulata  or  hoofed  quadrupeds, 
forming  the  type  of  a  distinct^  family, 
which  were  in  many  respects  interme- 
diate between  the  swine  and  the  true 
ruminants.  These  animals  were  pig-like 
in  form,  but  possessed  long  tails,  and 
had  a  cleft  hoof,  with  two  rudin-'-^ntary 
toes. 


ANOPLXJRA,  an  aberrant  order  of 
insects,  sometimes  termed,  from  their 
parasitic  habits,  parasitica  or  epizoa. 
They  have  six  legs,  no  wings,  and  either 
two  simple  eyes  or  none.  They  are  para- 
sitic upon  mammals  and  birds,  and  are 
generally  termed  lice.  There  are  two 
sub-orders:  (1)  Haustellata,  or  rhyn- 
cota,  having  a  mouth  with  a  tubular,  very 
short,  fleshy  haustellum,  and  (2)  mandi- 
bulata,  or  mallophaga,  in  which  the 
mouth  is  provided  with  two  horny  man- 
dibles. 

ANOSMIA,  a  disease  consisting  in  a 
diminution  or  destruction  of  the  sense  of 
smell,  sometimes  constitutional,  but  most 
frequently  caused  by  strong  and  re- 
peated stimulants,  as  snuff,  applied  to 
the  olfactory  nerves. 

ANSELL,  SAMUEL  TILDEN,  an 
American  soldier  and  lawyer,  born  in 
North  Carolina  in  1875.  He  studied  at 
the  Harvard  Law  School  and  at  the  Law 
School  of  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina. In  1895  he  entered  West  Point, 
gradu?*^^ing  in  1899.  He  saw  service  in 
the  Philippines  and  assisted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  civil  government  in  the 
islands.  In  1902  he  became  instructor 
of  law  and  history  at  West  Point,  in 
which  position  he  served  first  for  two 
years  and  later  for  four  years  more. 
During  his  service  at  West  Point  he  was 
assiduous  in  bringing  about  a  liberaliza- 
tion of  court-martial  methods  and  these 
efforts  continued  throughout  his  military 
career.  It  was  largely  through  his 
efforts  that  Congress  enacted  a  more 
liberal  military  code.  In  1912  he  be- 
came senior  assistant  in  the  office  of 
the  Judge-Advocate-General.  He  drafted 
a  large  part  of  all  legislation  enacted 
which  put  the  United  States  on  a  war 
footing  at  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War.  In  August,  1917,  he  became  head 
of  the  office  of  the  Judge-Advocate-CJen- 
eral.  In  October  of  that  year  he  was 
promoted  to  be  a  Brigadier-GeneraL 
While  he  held  this  office  he  labored  to 
establish  a  legal  supervision  of  courts- 
martial. 

During  the  World  War  he  visited  all  the 
Allied  armies  of  Europe  in  order  to  ob- 
serve the  administration  of  military  jus- 
tice. He  exerted  great  influence  toward 
the  improvement  of  business  methods  of 
the  War  Department  and  the  simplifica- 
tion of  army  organization.  At  the  end 
of  the  war  he  was  awarded  the  Distin- 
guished Service  Medal  in  recognition  of 
his  services  as  Acting  Judge-Advocate 
of  the  Army.  He  resigned  on  July  21, 
1919,  and  entered  upon  the  practice  of 
law. 


ANSELM  OF  CANTERBTJBY        186 


ANT 


ANSELM  OF  CANTERBURY,  ST.,  a 

scholastic  philosopher,  bom  at  or  near 
Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  in  1033.  In  1060  he 
entered  the  monastery  of  Bee  in  Nor- 
mandy of  which,  in  1078,  he  became  ab- 
bot. It  was  then  the  most  famous  mon- 
astic school.  His  friend  Lanfranc,  who 
had  gone  to  England,  and  become  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  died  in  1089;  and 
the  diocese  remained  four  years  without 
a  successor,  till  in  1093  Anselm  was  ap- 
pointed. He  was  distinguished  both  as 
a  churchman  and  a  philosopher.  His 
numerous  embroilments  with  William 
Rufus  and  his  successor,  and  the  unbend- 
ing spirit  which  he  displayed  in  these, 
even  when  subjected  to  banishment,  indi- 
cate the  resoluteness  of  his  character. 
Anselm  was  a  second  Augustine,  superior 
to  all  his  contemporaries  in  sagacity  and 
dialectical  skill,  and  equal  to  the  most 
eminent  in  virtue  and  piety.  He  sought 
to  reduce  the  truths  of  religion  into  the 
form  of  a  connected  series  of  reasonings. 
It  was  for  this  purpose  he  wrote  his 
"Monologion."  In  his  "Proslogion,"  he 
strove  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of 
God.  His  "Cur  Deus  Homo"  (English 
translation  by  Prout,  1887)  argues  the 
necessity  of  the  Incarnation,  all  subse- 
quent speculation  on  which  it  was  pro- 
foundly influenced.  Besides  his  philosoph- 
ical treatise,  his  "Meditations  and  Let- 
ters" have  come  down  to  us,  revealing 
his  humble,  fervent  faith.  His  works 
first  supplied  the  impulse  to  justify 
Scripture  and  the  Church  by  reason.  He 
died  April  21,  1109,  and  was  buried  next 
to  Lanfranc  at  Canterbury.  In  1494  he 
was  canonized. 

ANSGAR,  or  ANSHAR,  called  the 
Apostle  of  the  Norths  was  bom  in  801 
in  Picardy,  and  took  the  monastic  vows 
in  boyhood.  In  the  midst  of  many  diffi- 
culties he  labored  as  a  missionary  in 
Denmark  and  Sweden;  dying  in  864  or 
865,  with  the  reputation  of  having  under- 
taken, if  not  the  first,  the  most  success- 
ful, attempts  for  the  propagation  of 
Christianity  in  the  North. 

ANSON,  GEORGE,  LORD,  a  cele- 
brated English  navigator,  born  in  1697; 
became  a  commander  in  1722,  and  cap- 
tain in  1724.  In  1740  he  was  made  com- 
mander of  a  fleet  sent  to  the  South  Sea, 
directed  against  the  trade  and  colonies  of 
Spain.  The  expedition  consisted  of  five 
men-of-war  and  three  smaller  vessels. 
After  many  stirring  adventures  he 
reached  the  coast  of  Peru,  made  several 
prizes,  and  captured  and  burned  the  city 
of  Paita.  His  squadron  was  now  reduced 
to  one  ship,  the  "Centurion,"  but  with  it 
he  took  the  Spanish  treasure  galleon 
from  Acapulco,  and  arrived  in  England  in 


1744,  with  treasure  to  the  amount  of 
£500,000,  having  circumnavigated  the 
globe  in  three  years  and  nine  months.  His 
adventures  and  discoveries  are  described 
in  "Anson's  Voyage."  He  was  made  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue,  and  not  long  after 
rear-admiral  of  the  white.  His  victory 
over  the  French  admiral,  Jonquiere,  near 
Cape  Finisterre  in  1747,  raised  him  to 
the  peerage.    He  died  in  1762. 

ANSONIA,  a  city  in  New  Haven  co., 
Conn.;  on  the  Naugatuck  river  and  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroad;  10  miles  W.  of  New  Haven. 
It  is  widely  noted  for  its  extensive  manu- 
factures of  clocks,  and  brass,  copper,  and 
woolen  goods;  and  has  several  banks,. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and 
memorial  libraries,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  15,152; 
(1920)    17,643. 

ANT,  the  common  name  of  hymeri- 
opterous  (membrane-winged)  insects  of 
various  genera,  of  the  family  Formicidx, 
found  in  most  temperate  and  tropical 
regions.  They  are  small  but  powerful 
insects,  and   have  long   been   noted   for 


CELL  OF  BLACK  NEST-FEEDING  LARV^ 

their  remarkable  intelligence  and  inter- 
esting habits.  They  live  in  communities 
regulated  by  definite  laws,  each  member 
of  the  society  bearing  a  well-defined  and 
separate  part  in  the  work  of  the  colony. 
Each  community  consists  of  males;  of 
females  much  larger  than  the  males;  and 
of  barren  females,  otherwise  called  neu- 
ters, workers,  or  nurses.  The  neuters 
are  wingless,  and  the  males  and  females 
only  acquire  wings  for  their  "nuptial 
flight,"  after  which  the  males  perish, 
and  the  few  females  which  escape  the 
pursuit  of  their  numerous  enemies  divest 
themselves  of  their  wings,  and  either  re- 
turn to  established  nests  or  become  the 
foundresses  of  new  colonies.  The  neu- 
ters perform  all  the  labors  of  the  ant- 
hill or  abode  of  the  community;  they  ex- 
cavate the  galleries,  procure  food,  and 
feed  the  larvae  or  young  ants,  which  are 


ANT 


187 


ANT 


destitute  of  organs  of  motion.  Tn  fine 
weather  they  carefully  convey  them  to 
the  surface  for  the  benefit  of  the  sun's 
heat,  and  carry  them  to  a  place  of  safety 
either  when  bad  weather  is  threatened 
or  the  ant  hill  is  disturbed.  In  like 
manner  they  watch  over  the  safety  of 


A.  Larva,  Black  Ant,  Pupae 

B.  Soldier  of  Black  Ant 

C.  Queen  of  Black  Ant 

D.  Honey  Ant 

the  nymphs  or  pupas  about  to  acquire 
their  perfect  growth.  Some  communities 
possess  a  special  type  of  neuters,  known 
as  "soldiers,"  from  the  duties  that  espe- 
cially fall  upon  them,  and  from  their 
powerful  biting  jaws.  Most  of  American 
ants  form  nests  in  woods,  fields,  or  gar- 
dens, their  abodes  being  generally  in 
the  form  of  small  mounds  rising  above 


the  surface  of  the  ground  and  contain- 
ing numerous  galleries  and  apartments. 
Some  excavate  nests  in  old  tree  trunks. 
Houses  built  by  the  common  wood  ant 
{formica  rufa)  are  frequently  as  large 
as  a  small  hay  cock. 

The  senses  of  ants  are  well  developed. 
They  can  perceive  rays  and  hear  sounds 
for  which  our  '  sense  organs  are  not 
adapted.  They  are  able  to  recognize  the 
members  of  their  own  community,  even 
when  these  are  intoxicated,  or  removed 
from  the  nest  as  larvse  and  brought  up 
separately.  Their  ingenuity  in  econ- 
omizing labor,  e.  g.,  in  dropping  desired 
objects  from  a  height  to  others  waiting 
below — in  overcoming  obstacles,  e.  g.,  by 
themselves  forming  living  bridges  or 
building  more  substantial  inanimate 
ones — in  the  architectural  devices  ex- 
hibited by  their  manifold  nests,  and  in 
many  other  ways — has  become  a  com- 
mon subject  of  deserved  admiration 
though  their  marvelous  powers  are  as- 
sociated with  no  less  striking  limitations, 
in  their  recognition  after  separation  for 
months,  in  their  care  for  the  young  or 
disabled,  as  well  as  in  their  persistent 
enmity  to  competing  species  and  com- 
munities, ants  exhibit  a  considerable 
range  of  emotional  development. 

Some  ants  live  on  animal  food,  very 
quickly  picking  quite  clean  the  skeleton 
of  any  dead  animal  they  may  light  on. 
Others  live  on  saccharine  matter,  being 
very  fond  of  the  sweet  substance,  called 
honey  dew,  which  exudes  from  the  bodies 
of  aphides,  or  plant  lice.  These  they 
sometimes  keep  in  their  nests,  and  some- 
times tend  on  the  plants  where  they 
feed;  sometimes  they  even  superintend 
their  breeding.  By  stroking  the  aphides 
with  their  antennae,  they  cause  them  to 
emit  the  sweet  fluids,  which  the  ants 
then  greedily  sip  up.  Various  other  in- 
sects are  looked  after  by  ants  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  or  are  found  in  their  nests. 
It  has  been  observed  that  some  species, 
like  the  sanguinary  ant  {fwrnica  san- 
guinea),  resort  to  violence  to  obtain 
working  ants  of  other  species  for  their 
own  use,  plundering  the  nests  of  suit- 
able kinds  of  their  larvae  and  pupae, 
which  they  carry  off  to  their  own  nests 
to  be  carefully  reared  and  kept  as  slaves. 
In  temperate  countries  male  and  female 
ants  survive,  at  most  till  autumn,  or  to 
the  commencement  of  cool  weather, 
though  a  very  large  proportion  of  them 
cease  to  exist  long  previous  to  that  time. 
The  neuters  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of 
torpor,  and  of  course  require  no  food. 
The  only  time  they  require  food  is  dur- 
ing the  season  of  activity,  when  they 
have  a  vast  number  of  young  to  feed. 
Some  ants  of  southern  Europe  feed  on 


ANTACID 


188 


ANT   EATER 


grain,  and  store  it  up  in  their  nests  for 
use  when  required.  Some  species  have 
sting's  as  weapons,  others  only  their 
powerful  mandibles,  or  an  acrid  and 
pungent  fluid  (formic  acid)  which  they 
can  emit.  The  name  ant  is  also  given  to 
the  neuropterous  insects  otherwise  called 
i  termites. 

ANTACID,  an  alkali,  or  any  remedy 
for  acidity  in  the  stomach.  The  prin- 
cipal antacids  in  use  are  magnesia,  lime, 
and  their  carbonates,  and  the  carbonates 
of  potash  and  soda. 

ANT^US  (an-te'us),  the  giant  son  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  and  Ge  (the  earth), 
who  was  invincible  so  long  as  he  was  in 
contact  with  the  earth.  Heracles  (Her- 
cules) grasped  him  in  his  arms  and 
stifled  him  suspended  in  the  air. 

ANTALKAXI,  a  substance  which 
neutralizes  an  alkali,  and  is  used  medici- 
nally to  counteract  an  alkaline  tendency 
in  the  system.  All  true  acids  have  this 
power. 

ANTANANARIVO,  the  capital  of 
Madagascar,  situated  in  the  central 
province  of  Imerina.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  metal  work,  cutlery,  silk,  etc., 
and  exports  sugar,  soap,  and  oil.  Pop. 
about  100,000.     (See  Madagascar.) 

ANTARCTICA,  one  of  the  names 
given  to  the  region  around  the  South 
Pole. 

ANTARCTIC    EXPLORATIONS.   See 

Arctic  and  Antarctic  Explorations. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN,  the  ocean  situ- 
ated about,  or  within,  the  Antarctic  Cir- 
cle. The  great  Southern  Ocean  is  that 
part  of  the  ocean  which  surrounds  the 
world  in  one  continuous  band  between 
1h?  latitude  of  40°  S.  and  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  This  band  is  only  partially  inter- 
rupted by  the  southern  prolongation  of 
South  America.  The  northern  portions 
of  this  band  are  often  called  the  South 
Atlantic,  South  Indian,  and  South  Pa- 
cific, while  the  southern  portions  are 
usually  called  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  The 
average  depth  of  the  continuous  ocean 
surrounding  the  South  Polar  Land  is 
about  2  miles;  it  gradually  shoals  to- 
ward Antarctic  Land,  which  in  some 
places  is  met  with  a  short  distance  with- 
in the  Antarctic  Circle,  The  "Challen- 
ger" found  1,800  fathoms  near  the  An- 
tarctic Circle  S.  of  Kerguelen,  but  Ross 
records  a  much  greater  depth  in  the  same 
latitude  S.  of  the  Sandwich  group. 
Only  three  navigators,  Cook,  Weddell,  and 
Ross,  have  crossed  the  70th  parallel  S. 
Of  several  other  expeditions  that  have 


crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle  the  most  not- 
able was  the  "Challenger,"  in  1874,  the 
only  steam  vessel  that  had  visited  these 
seas.  The  majority  of  Antarctic  voyagers 
have  discovered  land  S.  of  the  60th  par- 
allel. Cook  in  71°  S.  and  107°  W.  Bellings- 
hausen discovered  Peter  Island  and  Alex- 
ander Land;  D'Urville  discovered  Adelie 
Land.  Wilkes  found  land  extending  from 
the  100th  to  the  160th  meridian  of  E. 
longitude  between  the  parallels  of  65" 
and  67°  S.  Ross  discovered  Victoria  Land, 
and  in  February,  1841,  sailed  along  its 
coasts  within  sight  of  the  high  mountain 
ranges,  7,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
as  far  as  78°  S.  The  mountain  range 
here  terminated  in  an  active  volcano, 
Mount  Erebus,  12,000  feet  in  height.  His 
farther  progress  was  stopped  by  an  icy 
barrier  150  to  200  feet  in  height,  along 
which  he  sailed  to  the  E.  for  300  miles. 
Till  1895,  Ross  and  D'Urville  alone  suc- 
ceeded in  setting  foot  on  land  within 
the  Antarctic  Circle.  Vegetation  was 
found  on  it  in  1895;  land  animals  have 
not  been  seen.  Whales,  grampuses,  seals, 
penguins,^  petrels,  albatrosses,  and  other 
oceanic  birds  abound.  Diatoms  are  very 
abundant  in  the  surface-waters,  and  their 
dead  f rustules  form  a  pure  white  deposit 
called  diatom  ooze,  about  the  latitude  of 
60°,  outside  the  blue  muds  which  surround 
the  continent.  The  mean  temperature 
both  of  the  air  and  sea,  S.  of  63°  S.,  is 
even  in  summer  below  the  freezing  point 
of  sea  water.  Between  60°  and  63°  S., 
a  sensible  rise  takes  place,  temperature  as 
high  as  38°  F.  being  recorded  both  of  sea 
and  air  in  March.  The  barometric  pres- 
sure within  the  Antarctic  regions  appears 
to  be  low,  considerably  under  29.000 
inches.  The  winds  blow  cyclonically  in 
toward  the  Pole  from  the  Southern  Ocean, 
carrying  with  them  much  moisture.  The 
fall  of  rain  and  snow  is  estimated  as 
about  equal  to  a  rainfall  of  30  inches 
annually.  For  the  latest  results  of  Ant- 
arctic discovery  See  ARCTIC  AND  ANT- 
ARCTIC Explorations. 

ANT  EATER,  English  name  of  the 
animals  belonging  to  the  genus  viyrme- 
coplmga  of  Linnaeus.  ^  They  have  a 
lengthened  muzzle  terminated  by  a  small, 
toothless  mouth,  from  which  they  pro- 
trude a  long,  threadlike  tongue,  covered 
with  viscous  saliva.  This  they  thrust 
into  the  nets  of  termites,  or  those  of  ants 
proper,  sucking  the  animals  which  ad- 
here to  it  into  their  mouths.  Their  claws 
are  strong,  and  are  used  for  tearing  to 
pieces  the  structures  erected  by  the  ter- 
mites. Among  the  species  may  be  enu- 
merated the  M.  jabata,  the  great  or  maned 
ant  eater,  which  has  four  toes  before  and 
five  behind,  and  the  M,  didactyla,  the 


ANTEDILUVIAN 


189 


ANTELOPE 


little  or  two-toed  ant  eater.     Both  are 
South  American. 

The  scaly  ant  eaters  are  of  an  allied 
genus,  manis.  They  derive  their  English 
name  from  the  fact  that  they  are  covered 
with  thick  scales,  which  give  them  the 


ANTELOPE,  the  name  given  to  the 
members  of  a  large  family  of  ruminant 
ungulata  or  hoofed  mammalia,  closely  re- 
sembling the  deer  in  general  appearance, 
but  essentially  different  in  nature  from 
the  latter  animals.    They  are  included 


ANT  EATER 

superficial  appearance  of  reptiles.  The  with  the  sheep  and  oxen  in  the  family 
short-tailed  manis,  M.  pe7itadactyla  of  of  the  cavicornia  or  "hollow-horned" 
Linnaeus,  is  found  in  Bengal  and  the  ruminants.  Their  horns,  unlike  those  of 
Indian  archipelago,  and  M.  tetradactyla  the  deer,  are  not  deciduous,  but  are  per- 
in  Africa.  The  proper  and  scaly  ant 
eaters  edentata,  or  toothless  animals.  To 
the  same  order  belong  the  Cape  ant  eat- 
ers, orycterojnis  capensis. 


SABLE  ANTELOPE 

ANTEDILUVIAN,  before  the  flood  or 
deluge  of  Noah's  time;  relating  to 
what  happened  before  the  deluge.  In 
geology  the  term  has  been  applied  to 
organisms,  traces  of  which  are  found  in 
a  fossil  state  in  formations  preceding 
the  diluvial,  particularly  to  extinct  ani- 
mals such  as  the  paleotherium,  the  mas- 
todon, etc. 


ADDAX   ANTELOPE 

manent;  are  never  branched,  but  are 
often  twisted  spirally,  and  may  be  borne 
by  both  sexes.  They  are  found  in  great- 
est number  and  variety  in  Africa.  Well 
known  species  are  the  chamois  (Euro- 
pean), the  gazelle,  the  addax,  the  eland, 
the  koodoo,  the  gnu,  the  springbok,  the 
sasin  or  Indian  antelope,  and  the  prong- 
buck  of  America. 


ANTENNA 


190 


ANTHONY,  ST.,  FALLS  OF 


ANTENN-ffi,  the  name  given  to  the 
movable  jointed  organs  of  touch  and 
hearing  attached  to  the  heads  of  insects, 
myriapods,  etc.,  and  commonly  called 
horns  or  feelers.  They  present  a  very 
great  variety  of  forms.  The  small  antennae 
of  the  lobster  bear  olfactory  bristles, 
and  have  an  ear  lodged  at  the  base.  And, 
in  short,  there  are  numerous  observations 
to  justify  the  general  statement  that 
in  many  cases  the  antennae  are  sensitive 
to  smell,  sound,  and  probably  taste.  De- 
prived of  its  antennae,  an  ant,  for  in- 
stance, is  peculiarly  helpless. 

ANTEQUEBA  (an-te-ka'ra),  a  city  of 
Andalusia  in  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Malaga,  a  place  of  some  importance  under 
the  Romans,  with  a  ruined  Moorish  castle. 
Manufactures  of  woolen,  leather,  soap, 
etc.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

ANTEVERSION,  a  displacement  for- 
ward of  any  organ.  The  term  is  par- 
ticularly applied  to  a  change  of  position 
of  the  uterus,  in  which  the  organ  is 
bodily  displaced  in  the  pelvic  cavity, 
so  that  the  fundus  is  directed  against  the 
bladder,  and  the  cervix  toward  the 
sacrum. 

ANTHELION,  a  luminous  ring,  or 
rings,  seen  by  an  observer,  especially 
in  Alpine  and  polar  regions,  around  the 
shadow  of  his  head  projected  on  a  cloud 
or  fog  bank,  or  on  grass  covered  with 
dew,  50  or  60  yards  distant,  and  opposite 
the  sun  when  rising  or  setting.  It  is 
due  to  the  refraction  of  light. 

ANTHEM,  originally  a  hymn  sung  in 
alternate  parts,  in  modern  use,  a  sacred 
tune  or  piece  of  music  set  to  words  taken 
from  the  Psalms  or  other  pai'ts  of  the 
Scriptures,  first  introduced  into  church 
service  in  Elizabeth's  reign;  a  developed 
motet.  The  anthem  may  be  for  one,  two 
or  any  number  of  voices,  but  seldom  ex- 
ceeds five  parts,  and  may  or  may  not  have 
an  organ  accompaniment  written  for  it. 

ANTHEMIS,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  asteraceas,  or  composites. 
It  contains  the  Roman  chamomile  {A. 
nobilis).  The  flower  buds  constitute  the 
chamomile  of  the  shops.  Cattle  eat  it 
with  avidity.  As  a  medicine  it  is  tonic 
and  stimulating.  The  true  chamomile 
plant  has  a  fine  smell,  in  this  differing 
from  the  anthemis  cotula,  or  stinking 
chamomile. 

ANTHEMITJS  (an-them'e-us) ,  a  Ro- 
man emperor  of  the  West  (467-472) ; 
son  of  Procopius  and  son-in-law  of 
Marcian,  Emperor  of  the  East.  He  was 
nominated  emperor  by  Leo,  the  Emperor 
of  the  East,  and  became  the  father-in-law 


of  Ricimer.  Subsequently  Ricimer  be- 
came his  enemy,  and,  in  a  war  between 
them,  Anthemius  was  killed. 

ANTHER,  an  organized  body  consti- 
tuting part  of  a  stamen  and  generally 
attached  to  the  apex  of  the  filament. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  composed  of  two  parallel 
lobes  or  cells;  sometimes,  however,  there 
are  four,  and  sometimes  only  one.  The 
cells  are  united  by  the  connective,  and 
contain  pollen.  When  the  time  for  shed- 
ding it  arrives,  the  anthers  burst  gen- 
erally by  a  longitudinal  fissure  from 
the  base  to  the  apex. 

Anther  dust,  the  pollen  from  an  anther. 
It  constitutes  a  yellow  dust,  which,  when 
it  falls  from  the  atmosphere,  has  often 
been  mistaken  for  a  shower  of  sulphur. 

ANTHOCYANIN,  the  blue  color  of 
flowers,  a  pigment  obtained  from  those 
petals  of  flowers  which  are  blue  by  di- 
gesting them  in   spirits   of  wine. 

ANTHOLOGY,  the  name  given  to  sev- 
eral collections  of  short  poems  which 
have  come  down  from  antiquity.  The 
first  who  compiled  a  Greek  anthology  was 
Meleager,  a  Syrian,  about  60  B.  C.  He 
entitled  his  collection,  which  contained 
selections  from  46  poets  besides  many 
pieces  of  his  own,  the  "Garland";  a  con- 
tinuation of  this  work  by  Philip  of 
Thessalonica  in  the  age  of  Tiberius  was 
the  first  entitled  "Anthology."  There  is 
no  ancient  Latin  anthology,  the  oldest 
being  that  of  Scaliger   (1573). 

ANTHON,  CHARLES,  an  American 
classical  scholar,  born  in  New  York  City, 
Nov.  19,  1797.  He  was  for  many  years 
Professor  of  Ancient  Languages  at  Co- 
lumbia College.  A  beautiful  edition  of 
Horace  first  made  him  famous  among 
scholars.  His  best  known  work  was 
an  edition  of  Lempriere's  "Classical 
Dictionary"  (1841).  He  was  also  the 
editor  of  over  50  classical  text-books. 
He  died  July  29,  1867. 

ANTHONY,  ST.,  the  founder  of  mo- 
nastic institutions,  born  near  Heraclea, 
in  Upper  Egypt,  A.  D.  251.  Giving  up  all 
his  property,  he  retired  to  the  desert, 
where  he  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
disciples,  who  thus  formed  the  first  com- 
munity of  monks.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  105.  As  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  he  is  much  esteemed. 

ANTHONY,  ST.,  FALLS  OF,  a  noted 
fall  in  the  Mississippi  river,  now  within 
the  city  limits  of  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
The  perpendicular  fall  is  17  feet,  with 
a  rapid  below  of  58  feet.  An  island 
divides  the  river  into  two  parts.  The 
entire  descent  of  the  stream  for  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  is  65  feet.    The  falls 


ANTHONY                            191  ANTHROPOMORPHISM 

and  surrounding  scenery,  especially  dur-  and  sheep  are  most  commonly  atta*5«d 

ing   the    spring   floods,    are    exceedingly  by   anthrax.     In   the   most   acute    (apo- 

picturesque.  plectiform)    cases,    the    animal    falls   as 

ANTHONY,  SUSAN  BROWNELL,  an  ^^   ^^.  ^^^   received   a    severe   blow   and 

American  reformer,  born  in  South  Adams,  ?^^^  ^"^^  convulsions,  and  death  follows 

Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1820,  of  Quaker  parent-  V^    ^   ^^^   minutes    or   hours.      Anthrax 

age,  taught  school  in  New  York  in  1835-  does  not  readily  attack  man.     It  occurs 

1850.     In  1847  she  first  spoke  in  public,  i"  those  whose  occupations   bring  them 

taking  part  in  the  temperance  movement  i^^?    contact   with    diseased    animals    or 

and   organizing   societies.      In   1852   she  ^"^^^  ^^^^^>  ^^^l'  ^^c- 

assisted  in  organizing  the  Woman's  New  ANTHROPOID,    resembling    man;    a 

York  State  Temperance  Society;  in  1854-  term  applied  especially  to  the  apes,  which 

1855     she     held     conventions,     in     each  approach  the  human  species  in  the  fol- 

county  in  New  York,  in  behalf  of  female  lowing    order:    1st    (most    remote),    the 

suffrage.     In  1857  she  became  a  leader  gibbons;  2d,  the  orangs;  3d,  the  chimpan- 

in    the    anti-slavery    movement,    and    in  zee;   and,  4th    (nearest),  the  gorilla. 

1858   advocated   the   coeducation   of   the  ANTHROPOLOGY,  the  science  of  man 

sexes.     She  was   influential   in   securing  in   the  widest   sense   of  the  term.     The 

the    passage    by    the    New    York   Legis-  word    anthropology   has    been    variously 

lature,  in  1860,  of  the  act  giving  married  defined    as    "The    doctrine    of   anatomy; 

women  the  possession  of  their  earnings,  the  doctrine  of  the  form  and   structure 

and   guardianship   of  their  children.    In  of  the  body  of  man." 

1868,  vdth  Mrs.  E.  C.  Stanton  and  Parker  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  science 

Pillsbury,   she  began  the  publication   of  which  investigates  the  relation  in  which 

the  "Revolution,"  a  paper  devoted  to  the  man  stands  to  the  inferior  animals.     In 

emancipation  of  woman.    Her  last  public  this  sense  ethnology  is  a  cognate  science 

appearance   of  note   was   as   a   delegate  to  anthropology. 

to  the  International  Council  of  Women,  ANTHROPOMETRY,  the  measure- 
in  London,  England,  in  1899.  In  1900  ^^gnt  of  the  human  body  to  discover  its 
her  birthday  was  celebrated  by  an  affect-  exact  dimensions  and  the  proportions 
mg  popular  demonstration  in  Washing-  of  its  parts  for  comparison  with  its 
ton,  D.  C.     She  died  March  13,  1906.  dimensions   at   different   periods,   or   in 

ANTHRACENE,  a  substance  obtained  different  races  or  classes.  Cranial  meas- 
in  the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  Although  urements  have  long  been  adopted  by 
long  known  to  chemists,  it  is  as  the  anthropologists  as  the  basis  of  then- 
source  of  artificial  alizarin  that  it  has  classifications  of  races;  but  the  confor- 
become  of  commercial  value.  Anthracene  nation  of  the  skull  and  the  relation  of  its 
gives  rise  to  a  large  number  of  com-  height  to  its  breadth  vary  so  much 
pounds,  formed  by  replacing  part  of  the  withm  the  same  tribe  as  not  to  be,  of 
hydrogen  which  it  contains  with  chlo-  themselves,  sufficient  data  on  which  to 
rine,  alcohol  radicals,  etc.,  and  accord-  ^®?t,  generalizations.  ,  .  .  ,  ^ , 
ingly  named  chloranthracene,  methyl-  The  French  anthropologists  depend 
anthracene,  and  so  on.  I^^ch  more  on  anthropometry  than  the 

English,   and   have   adopted   a   form   of 

ANTHRACITE,  glance,  or  blind  coal,  schedule  containing  as  many  as  102  dif- 
a  non-bituminous  coal  of  a  shining  luster,  ferent  observations  of  a  single  individual, 
approaching  tc  metallic,  and  which  burns  The  anthropometric  committee  of  the 
without  smoke,  with  a  weak  or  no  flame,  English  Anthropological  Society  dis- 
and  with  intense  heat.  It  consists  of,  tributed  the  average  stature  of  British 
on  an  average,  90  per  cent,  carbon,  3  adult  males  into  racial  elements  as  fol- 
hydrogen  and  5  ashes.  It  has  some  of  lows:  Early  British,  66.6  inches;  Saxon, 
the  properties  of  coke  or  charcoal.  It  67.2;  Scandinavian,  68.3;  Anglian,  68.7. 
is  found  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Similar  detailed  anthropometric  measure- 
Ireland,  and  in  large  quantities  in  the  ments  will  be  seen  in  the  special  anthropo- 
United  States,  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  logical  journals,  French,  English,  and 
See  Coal.  German,  and  in  the  more   scientific   of 

ANTHRAX  (Greek,  a  carbuncle),  the  recent  books  of  travel.    The  French  police 

name  now  generally  used   of  a  widely  systematically     employ     anthropometric 

distributed    and    very    destructive    dis-  methods  for  the  mdentification  of  crimi- 

ease,  most  common  among  sheep  and  cat-  nals,  carefully  recording  for  future  use 

tie.      Besides    its    practical    importance,  the    various    measurements.      See    BER- 

it   has    special   theoretical    interest,    be-  tillon  System. 

cause  it  was  the  first  infectious  disease  ANTHROPOMORPHISM,   the   attrib- 

proved  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  mi-  uting  of  a  human  form  to  God.     When 

croscopic    vegetable   organisms.      Cattle  this   is  really  done  it  is  a  gross  degra- 


ANTI-CHRIST 


192 


ANTIGONUS 


dation  of  the  Divinity  and  is  condemned 
in  Scripture.  But  when  the  only  anthro- 
pomorphism is  the  use  of  metaphorical 
phrases,  such  as  the  arm  of  the  Lord 
(Ps.  Ixxvii:  15),  or  His  eyes  (Ps.  xi:  4), 
of  His  ears  (Ps.  xxxiv:  15),  to  make  ab- 
stract ideas  more  readily  conceivable, 
the  practice  has  the  countenance  of  Scrip- 
ture itself. 

ANTI-CHRIST,  anyone  who  denies 
the  Father  and  the  Son;  or  who  will 
not  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come 
in  the  flesh,  or  who,  leaving  the  Church, 
pretends  to  be  the  Christ  (or  Messiah), 
and  thus  becomes  a  rival  and  enemy 
of  Jesus,  the  true  Christ. 

In  a  special  sense  one  who  should  pre- 
eminently stand  forth  as  the  antagonist 
of  Christ,  and  should  be  a  sufficiently 
prominent  personage  to  become  the  theme 
of  prophecy;  or  if  anti  be  held  to  mean 
instead  of,  then  the  characteristic  of  Anti- 
christ will  be  a  supercession  of  Christ, 
not  an  avowed  antagonism  to  Him. 

ANTICLINAL  LINE  or  AXIS,  in  geol- 
ogy,  the  ridge  of  a  wavelike  curve  made 
by  a  series  of  superimposed  strata,  the 
strata  dipping  from  it  on  either  side  as 
from  the  ridge  of  a  house:  a  synclinal 
line  runs  along  the  trough  of  such  a 
wave. 

ANTICOSTI,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  which  it  divides  into  two 
channels,  with  lighthouses  at  different 
parts  of  the  coast,  and  about  140  miles 
long,  and  30  miles  broad  in  the  center. 
Area,  3,147  square  miles.  Anticosti  has 
two  harbors,  Ellice  bay,  near  the  W. 
end,  and  Fox  bay  in  the  N.  W.  The 
climate  is  severe;  while  the  surface 
is  an  alternation  of  rocks  and  swamps. 
It  is  visited  by  fishermen  in  the  summer, 
but  there  are  hardly  any  inhabitants 
save  lighthouse  keepers  and  a  few  offi- 
cials. The  island,  which  is  attached  to 
the  Canadian  province  of  Quebec,  has 
considerable  salmon,  trout,  cod,  and  her- 
ring fisheries,  and  is  a  resort  for  seal 
and  bear  hunting.  Extensive  peat  depos- 
its are  found  in  Anticosti.  Marl  also 
occurs.  M.  Henri  Menier,  a  French 
manufacturer,  purchased  the  island  in 
1895  as  a  game  preserve.  Pop.  about 
250. 

ANTIETAM,  a  small  river  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Maryland  which  empties 
into  the  Potomac  six  miles  N.  of  Har- 
per's Ferry.  On  Sept.  16  and  17,  1862, 
a  battle  was  fought  on  its  banks  near 
Sharpsburg,  between  the  Federal  army 
of  about  80,000  men,  under  General  Mc- 
Clellan,  and  a  Confederate  army  vari- 
ously reported  at  from  40,000  to  97,000 
men,  under  General  Lee.     The   Federal 


casualties  aggregated  12,469,  and  the 
Confederate  about  11,000.  General  Lee 
recrossed  the  Potomac  on  the  followmg 
day,  and  the  general  consensus  is  that 
the  battle  was  tactically  indecisive. 

ANTIFEBRIN,  acetanilid  (CsH.NO), 
an  aniline  derived  from  acetate  of  ani- 
line at  an  elevated  temperature  by  a  dia- 
lytic  action  in  which  water  is  set  free. 
It  has  been  employed  with  excellent  re- 
sults as  a  pain-reliever  in  neuralgic 
and  rheumatic  affections,  as  a  sedative 
febrifuge  and  antipyretic. 

ANTI-FEDERALISTS,  members  of  a 
political  party,  in  the  United  States, 
which  opposed  the  adoption  and  ratifica- 
tion of  the  constitution,  and  failing  in 
this,  strongly  favored  the  strict  construc- 
tion of  it.  The  strengthening  of  the  Na- 
tional Government  at  the  expense  of  the 
States  was  also  opposed.  Soon  after  the 
close  of  Washington's  first  administra- 
tion (1793)  the  name  of  Anti-Federal 
went  out  of  use,  the  term  Republican, 
and  afterward  Democratic-Republican 
and  Non-Democratic,  alone  taking  its 
place. 

ANTIFRICTION  METAL,  a  name 
given  to  various  alloys  of  tin,  zinc,  cop- 
per, antimony,  lead,  etc.,  which  oppose 
little  resistance  to  motion,  with  great 
resistance  to  the  effects  of  friction,  so 
far  as  concerns  the  wearing  away  of  the 
surfaces  of  contact.  Babbitt's  metal  (50 
parts  tin,  5  antimony,  1  copper)  is  one 
of  them. 

ANTIGO,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  in  Lang- 
lade CO.  It  is  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western railroad  and  on  Spring  Brook 
river.  It  is  the  center  of  an  impor- 
tant agricultural  and  lumbering  region 
and  has  important  industries,  including 
the  manufacture  of  wooden  ware,  flour 
mills,  sawmills,  wagon  works,  etc.  It 
has  a  teachers'  training  school,  a  school 
for  the  blind,  and  a  Carnegie  library. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,196;  (1920)  8,451. 

ANTIGONE  (an-tig'o-ne),  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  daughter  of  CEdipus  and 
Jocasta,  celebrated  for  her  devotion  to 
her  father  and  to  her  brother  Polynices, 
for  burying  whom  against  the  decree  of 
King  Creon  she  suffered  death.  She  is 
heroine  of  Sophocles'  "OEdipus  at  Col- 
onus"  and  his  "Antigone";  also  of  Ra- 
cine's tragedy,  *'The  Hostile   Brothers." 

ANTIGONUS  (an-tig'o-nus) ,  one  of 
the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great,  born 
about  382  B.  C.  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, Antigonus  obtained  Greater  Phry- 
gia.  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia  as  his  domin- 
ion. Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Lysi- 
machus,  alarmed  by  his  ambition,  united 


ANTIGUA 


193 


ANTINOMIANISM 


themselves  against  him;  and  a  long  se- 
ries of  contests  ensued  in  Syria,  Phoeni- 
cia, Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  ending  in 
301  B.  C.  with  the  battle  of  Ipsus  in 
Phrygia,  in  which  Antigonus  was  de- 
feated and  slain. 

ANTIGUA  (an-te'ga),  one  of  the  Brit- 
ish West  Indies,  the  most  important  of 
the  Leeward  group;  28  miles  long,  20 
broad;  area,  108  square  miles;  discovered 
by  Columbus,  1493.  Its  shores  are  high 
and  rocky;  the  surface  is  varied  and  fer- 
tile. The  capital,  St.  John  (pop.  about 
10,000),  is  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  Leeward  Islands.  The  staple  ar- 
ticles of  export  are  sugar,  molasses,  rum. 
Pop.,  including  Barbuda  and  Redonda, 
about  40,000. 

ANTILLES  (an-til'lez),  another  name 
for  the  West  Indian  islands,  not  includ- 
ing the  Bahamas.  Subdivided  into 
Greater  Antilles  and  Lesser  Antilles. 

ANTILOCHUS,  in  Greek  legend,  the 
son  of  Nestor,  who  fell  at  the  siege  of 
Troy  by  the  hand  of  Memnon. 

ANTIMACHUS  (an-tim'a-kus),  a 
Greek  epic  and  elegiac  poet;  flourished 
about  400  B.  c.  His  chief  works  were 
the  epic  "Thebais,"  and  an  elegy  on  his 
dead  love  Lyde. 

ANTI-MASONIC  PARTY,  a  political 
organization  in  opposition  to  Free- 
masonry. In  1826  William  Morgan,  a 
Freemason,  living  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  was 
suspected  of  being  in  league  vnth  other 
Masons  in  preparing  a  revelation  of  Ma- 
sonic secrets.  The  report  that  Morgan, 
who  had  disappeared  suddenly,  had  been 
abducted  and  drowned,  caused  much  ex- 
citement, which  finally  gave  rise  to  a 
political  party.  By  1832  the  party  had 
spread  to  other  States  and  William 
Wirt  was  nominated  for  President,  and 
Amos  Ellmaker  for  Vice-President.  This 
ticket  was  carried  in  Vermont  only.  In 
1832  the  party  nearly  elected  Joseph  Rit- 
ner  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  in 
1835,  through  a  split  in  the  Democratic 
Party,  did  elect  him.  From  then  on  it 
disappeared  as  suddenly  as  it  had  come 
into  existence. 

ANTI-MILITARISM.  See  MILITARISM. 

ANTIMONY,  in  chemistry,  a  triad 
metallic  element,  but  in  some  less  staple 
compounds  it  appears  to  be  pentad.  Sym- 
bol, Sb.;  atomic  weight,  122;  sp.  gr.,  6.8; 
melting  point,  450°.  It  can  be  distilled, 
but  takes  fire  when  strongly  heated  in 
the  air,  forming  SbjOs.  Antimony  is  a 
bright  bluish-white,  brittle,  easily  pul- 
verized metal,  which  occurs  in  Sb^Sn,  and 
as  cervanite,   Sb204;  also  as   valentinite 


and  senarmonite,  Sb^Oa.  The  metal  is  oo- 
tained  by  heating  the  sulphide  with  half 
its  weight  of  metallic  iron,  or  with  potas- 
sium carbonate.  It  is  oxidized  by  nitric 
acid,  forming  SbsOe.  Type  metal  is  an 
alloy  of  lead  with  20  per  c*nt.  of  anti- 
mony. Finely  powdered  antimony  takes 
fire  when  thrown  into  chlorine  gas.  Salts 
of  antimony  are  used  in  medicine,  in  large 
doses  they  are  poisonous.  Antimony  is 
detected  by  the  properties  of  its  sulphide, 
chloride,  and  of  SbHs.  It  is  precipitated 
by  metallic  zinc  and  iron  from  its 
solutions  as  a  black  powder. 

In  mineralogy,  antimony  occurs  native, 
occasionally  alloyed  with  a  minute  por- 
tion of  silver,  iron,  or  arsenic.  It  is  very 
brittle.  It  occurs  in  Sweden,  Germany, 
Austria,  France,  Borneo,  Chile,  Mexico, 
Canada,  and  New  Brunswick. 

In  pharmacy,  black  antimony  consists 
of  native  sulphide  of  antimony  fused  and 
afterward  powdered.  It  is  not  itself  used 
as  a  drug,  but  is  employed  in  preparing 
tartar  emetic,  sulphurated  antimony,  and 
terchloride  of  antimony.  It  is  given  to 
horses  as  an  alterative  powder;  two  parts 
of  sulphur,  one  of  saltpeter,  and  one  of 
black  antimony.  It  is  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  Bengal  signal  lights;  six  parts 
of  saltpeter,  two  of  sulphur,  and  one  of 
black  antimony.  Chloride  of  antimony 
(SbCL)  is  a  solution  used  as  a  caustic 
and  escharotic;  it  is  never  given  in- 
ternally. Sulphurated  antimony  con- 
sists of  a  sulphide  of  antimony  with  a 
small  admixture  of  oxide  of  antimony. 
It  enters  into  the  composition  of  com- 
pound calomel  pills. 

ANTINOMIANISM  (Greek,  anti, 
"against,"  and  noTnos,  "law"),  the  doc- 
trine or  opinion  that  Christians  are  freed 
from  obligation  to  keep  the  law  of  God. 
It  is  generally  regarded,  by  advocates  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  as  a 
monstrous  abuse  and  perversion  of  that 
doctrine,  upon  which  it  usually  professes 
to  be  based.  The  term  was  first  used  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  when  it  was 
applied  by  Luther  to  the  opinions  advo- 
cated by  Johann  Agricola.  Agricola  had 
adopted  the  principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion; but  in  1527  he  found  fault  with 
Melanchthon  for  recommending  the  us« 
of  the  law,  and  particularly  of  the  ten 
commandments,  in  order  to  produce  con- 
viction and  repentance,  which  he  deemed 
inconsistent  with  the  Gospel.  Ten  years 
after,  he  maintained  in  a  disputation  at 
Wittenberg  that,  as  men  are  justified 
simply  by  the  Gospel,  the  law  is  in  no 
way  necessary  for  justification  or  for 
sanctification.  The  Antinomian  contro- 
versy of  this  time,  in  which  Luther  took 
a  very  active  part,  terminated  in  1540, 


ANTINOMY 


194 


ANTIPAROS 


in  a  retractation  by  Agricola;  but  views 
more  extreme  than  his  were  afterward 
advocated  by  some  of  the  English  sec- 
taries of  the  period  of  the  Common- 
wealth; and  without  being  formally  pro- 
fessed by  a  distinct  sect,  antinomianism 
has  been  from  time  to  time  reproduced 
with  various  modifications.  It  ought, 
however,  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
term  has  no  reference  to  the  conduct,  but 
only  to  the  opinions,  of  men;  so  that 
men  who  practically  disregard  and  vio- 
late the  known  law  of  God  are  not,  there- 
fore, antinomians;  and  it  is  certain 
enough  that  men  really  holding  opinions 
more  or  less  antinomian  have  in  many 
cases  been  men  of  moral  life.  Antino- 
mianism usually  originates  in  mistaken 
notions  of  Christian  liberty,  or  in  con- 
fusion of  views  as  to  the  relation  between 
the  moral  law  and  the  Jewish  law  of 
ceremonial  ordinances. 

ANTINOMY,  the  opposition  of  one 
law  or  rule  to  another  law  or  rule;  in  the 
Kantian  philosophy,  that  natural  contra- 
diction which  results  from  the  law  of  rea- 
son, when  passing  the  limits  of  experi- 
ence, we  seek  to  conceive  the  complex 
of  external  phenomena,  or  nature,  as  a 
world  or  cosmos. 

ANTINOTJS  (an-tin'o-us),  a  young 
Bithynian  whom  the  extravagant  love  of 
Hadrian  has  immortalized.  He  drowned 
himself  in  the  Nile  in  122  A.  D.  Hadrian 
set  no  bounds  to  his  grief  for  his  loss. 
He  gave  his  name  to  a  newly-discovered 
star,  erected  temples  in  his  honor,  called 
a  city  after  him,  and  caused  him  to  be 
adored  as  a  god  throughout  the  em- 
pire. Statues,  busts,  etc.,  of  him  are 
numerous. 

ANTIOCH  (an'ti-ok),  a  famous  city 
of  ancient  times,  the  capital  of  the  Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Orontes,  about  21  miles  from  the  sea, 
in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  plain;  founded 
by  Seleucus  Nicator  in  300  B.  c,  and 
named  after  his  father,  Antiochus.  In 
Roman  times  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Syr- 
ian governors,  and  the  center  of  a  wide- 
ly extended  commerce.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  7th  century  it  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  and  in  1098  by  the  Crusaders. 
They  established  the  principality  of  An- 
tioch,  of  which  the  first  ruler  was  Bo- 
hemond,  and  which  lasted  till  1268,  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  Mameluke  Sultan  of 
Egypt.  In  1516  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks.  The  modern  Antioch,  or 
Antakieh,  occupies  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Antioch.  Pop. 
about  30,000.  There  was  another  An- 
tioch, in  Pisidia,  at  which  Paul  preached 
on  his  first  missionary  journey. 


ANTIOCH  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
(non-sectarian)  institution  in  Yellow 
Springs,  O.,  organized  in  1852;  reported 
in  1919:  Professors,  17;  students,  165; 
president,  G.  D.  Black. 

ANTIOCHUS  (an-ti'o-kus),  a  name  of 
several  Grseco-Syrian  kings  of  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Seleucidae. 

ANTIOCHUS  I.,  called  Soter  (savior), 
was  a  son  of  Seleucus,  general  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  founder  of  the  dy- 
nasty. He  was  born  about  B.  C.  324,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  e.  c.  280.  Dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  reign  he  was 
engaged  in  a  protracted  struggle  with 
the  Gauls,  who  had  crossed  from  Europe, 
and  by  whom  he  was  killed  in  battle 
B.  c.  261. 

ANTIOCHUS  II.,  surnamed  Theos 
(god),  succeeded  his  father,  lost  several 
provinces  by  revolt,  and  was  murdered  in 
B.  c.  246  by  Laodice,  his  wife,  whom  he 
had  put  away  to  marry  Berenice,  daugh- 
ter of  Ptolemy. 

ANTIOCHUS  III.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
B.  C.  242,  succeeded  in  B.  c.  223.  The  early 
part  of  his  reign  embraced  a  series  of 
wars,  his  expeditions  extending  to  India, 
over  Asia  Minor,  and  into  Europe,  where 
he  took  possession  of  the  Thracian  Cher- 
sonese. Here  he  encountered  the  Romans, 
who  had  conquered  Philip  V.  of  Mace- 
don.  Antiochus  gained  an  important 
adviser  in  Hannibal,  who  had  fled  for 
refuge  to  his  court.  The  Romans  defeated 
him  by  sea  and  land,  and  he  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Scipio  at  Mount  Sipylus, 
in  Asia  Minor,  B.  c.  190.  He  was  killed 
while  plundering  a  temple  in  Elymais. 

ANTIOCHUS  IV.,  called  Epiphanes, 
youngest  son  of  the  above,  is  chiefly  re- 
markable for  his  attempt  to  extirpate 
the  Jewish  religion,  and  to  establish  in 
its  place  the  polytheism  of  the  Greeks. 
This  led  to  the  insurrection  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, by  which  the  Jews  ultimately 
recovered  their  independence.  He  died 
B.  c.  164. 

ANTIOQUIA  (an-te-6-ke'a),  a  depart- 
ment of  Colombia,  South  America.  It 
has  considerable  mineral  wealth.  Area, 
22,752  square  miles.  Pop.  about  750,000. 
Capital,  Medellin   (pop.  about  50,000). 

ANTIPjEDOBAPIST,  one  who  is  op- 
posed to  the  doctrine  of  infant  baptism. 

ANTIPAROS  (an-tip'ar-os),  one  of 
the  Cyclades  (islands),  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  containing  a  famous  stalac- 
titic  grotto  or  cave.  It  lies  S.  W.  of 
Paros,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 


ANTIPATER 


195 


ANTIPOPE 


narrow  strait,  and  has  an  area  of  10 
square  miles,  and  about  500  inhabitants. 
Its  grotto  is  not  alluded  to  by  any  Greek 
or  Roman  writer,  but  has  been  well 
known  since  1673.  At  a  depth  of  918  feet 
under  the  entrance  the  chief  chamber  is 
reached.  It  is  31  feet  long,  98  wide, 
and  82  high,  and  is  covered  everywhere 
with  the  most  wonderful  stalactite  and 
stalagmite  formations. 

ANTIPATER  (an-tip'a-ter),  a  general 
and  friend  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander,  in  323  B.  C,  the  regency  of 
Macedonia  was  assigned  to  Antipater, 
who  succeeded  in  establishing  the  Mace- 
donian rule  in  Greece  on  a  firm  footing. 
He  died  in  B.  C.  317,  at  an  advanced  age, 

ANTIPATER,  procurator  of  Judea  for 
the  Romans  from  47  to  43  B.  C.  He  re- 
ceived the  appointment  from  Julius 
Caesar;  and  died  from  poison  in  the  last 
mentioned  year.  He  was  the  father  of 
Herod  the  Great, 

ANTIPATHY,  a  special  dislike  ex- 
hibited by  individuals  to  particular  ob- 
jects or  persons,  usually  resulting  from 
physical  or  nervous  organization.  An 
antipathy  is  often  an  unaccountable  re- 
pugnance to  what  people  in  general 
regard  with  no  particular  dislike,  as  cer- 
tain sounds,  smells,  articles  of  food,  etc. 

ANTIPHLOGISTIC  (an-te-flo-jis'tik) , 
a  term  applied  to  medicines  or  methods 
of  treatment  that  are  intended  to  coun- 
teract  inflammation. 

ANTIPHONY,  opposition  or  contra- 
riety of  sound;  also  the  alternate  chant- 
ing or  singing  in  a  cathedral,  or  simi- 
lar service  by  the  choir,  divided  into  two 
parts  for  the  purpose,  and  usually  sit- 
ting upon  opposite  sides.  It  is  sometimes 
used  also  when  the  parts  are  repeated 
instead  of  sung.  Antiphony  differs  from 
symphony,  for  in  the  latter  case  the 
whole  choir  sing  the  same  part.  It  also 
differs  from  responsorium,  in  which  the 
verse  is  spoken  or  sung  by  only  one  per- 
son instead  of  many. 

ANTIPODES  (an-tip'o-dez),  the  name 
given  relatively  to  the  people  or  places 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth. 

ANTIPODES  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
small  uninhabited  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  about  460  miles  S.  E.  of 
New  Zealand ;  so  called  from  being  nearly 
antipodal  to  Greenwich,  England. 

ANTIPOPE,  a  pontiff  elected  in  oppo- 
sition to  one  canonically  chosen.  The 
first  antipopes  were  Felix,  during  the 
pontificate  of  Liberius  (352-366) ;  Ursi- 
nus,  against  Damascus    (366-384) ;   and 

14— Vol.  I— Cyo 


Laurentius,    against    Symmachus     (498- 
514).     During  the  Middle  Ages   several 
emperors     of     Germany    set    up    popes 
against    those    whom    the    Romans    had 
elected  without  consulting  them.     Otho 
the    Great    displaced     successively    two 
Bishops   of   Rome;    and   when   the   rival 
Pope,    Sylvester    III.,   had    expelled    the 
simoniacal   and   profligate    Benedict    IX. 
(1033-1045),  the  latter  was  brought  back 
by  the  German  King,  and  soon  afterward 
sold  his  dignity  to  Gregory  VI.     There 
were  now,  consequently,  three  popes,  but 
their  claims  were  all  set  aside  at  a  coun- 
cil  convened   at   Sutri  by  the   Emperor, 
Henry  III.,  and  a  new  Pope  elected  as 
Clement  II.  in  1046.     Shortly  after.  Pope 
Alexander  II.  found  a  rival  in  Honorius 
II.,  the  nominee  of  the  Emperor;  but  his 
claim  was  ratified  at  a  council  convened 
at  Mantua.     In  1080  the  same  unseemly 
spectacle  was  witnessed,  when  the  Em- 
peror, Henry  IV.,  elevated  to  the  papal 
chair  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the  title 
of  Clement  III.,  in  opposition  to  his  own 
implacable  adversary,  Gregory  VII.    But 
after  the  death  of  Gregory  (1085),  Clem- 
ent was  himself  opposed  successively  by 
Victor   III.    (1086-1088)    and   Urban   II, 
(1088-1099).      Innocent    II.     (1130-1143) 
triumphed  over  the  Antipope  Anacletus 
II.  by  the  help  of  St.  Bernard;  and  Alex- 
ander III.,  during  his  pontificate   (1159- 
1181),  had  to  contend  with  no  fewer  than 
four  successive  antipopes,  the  election  of 
only  one  of  whom,  however,  Victor  V.,  in 
1159,  has  any  canonical  validity.     After 
only  one  of  whom,  however,  Victor  V.,  in 
1305,  and  four  years  later  he  transferred 
his  seat  to  Avignon,  where  his   succes- 
sors reigned  for  nearly  70  years,  losing 
the  while,  by  their  subjection  to  French 
influences,   the   sympathies   of   Germany 
and  England.     The  election  of  Urban  VI. 
in  1378  occasioned  "the  great  schism  of 
the  West,"  which  divided  the  Church  for 
50  years.    He  was  elected  by  the  Romans, 
who  demanded  an  Italian  Pope  after  the 
death  of  Gregory  XI.    The  French  cardi- 
nals, then  a  majority  in  the  curia,  on  the 
plea    that    they    had    elected    the    Pope 
only    under    intimidation,    withdrew    to 
Provence,  and  elected  a  new  Pope  under 
the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  who  was  rec- 
ognized  by   France,   Spain,    Savoy,  and 
Scotland;  while  Italy,  Germany,  England, 
and   the   whole    North    of   Europe,    sup- 
ported Urban  VI.     For  38  years  Chris- 
tian Europe  was  scandalized  by  the  spec- 
tacle of  two  Popes,  one  at  Geneva,  an- 
other at  Rome,  in  turn  hurling  the  most 
awful  anathemas  of  the  Church  at  each 
other,   like   "two   dogs   snarling  over  a 
bone,"  in  Wyclif's  phrase.    At  the  begin- 
ning of  the   15th  century,    an    attempt 
was  made  to  prevail  on  both  the  rivals. 


ANTIPYRETICS 


196 


ANTI-SALOON  LEAGUE 


Gregory  XII.  at  Rome,  and  Benedict 
XIII.  at  Avignon,  to  renounce  their 
claims  with  a  view  to  promote  union,  but 
both  evaded  this  as  long  as  possible.  At 
length,  however,  the  cardinals  attached 
to  either  court  agreed  to  summon  a  gen- 
eral council,  which  met  accordingly  at 
Pisa  in  1409.  The  council  deposed  both 
Popes,  and  constituted  the  separate  bod- 
ies of  cardinals  into  one  conclave  which 
elected  Alexander  V.  to  the  papal  chair. 
The  Council  of  Basel  (1431-1447),  in  its 
struggle  with  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  (1431- 
1447)  for  supremacy,  attempted  to  arro- 
gate to  itself  the  papal  functions,  and 
proceeded  to  elect  Amadeus  of  Savoy 
Pope,  as  Felix  V.  The  attempt,  how- 
ever, failed;  the  Popes  Eugenius  IV.  and 
Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455),  secured  their 
authority,  the  ambitious  council  finally 
dissolved  itself,  and  Felix  V.  resigned  his 
empty  dignity,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  cardinal  by  the  magnanimous 
Pope  himself.  This  was  the  last  occa- 
sion on  which  the  faithful  were  distract- 
ed by  the  sight  of  a  rival  pontiff  within 
Christendom. 

ANTIPYRETICS,  medicines  which  re- 
duce the  temperature  in  fever. 

ANTIPYRINE,  an  alkaloid  exten- 
sively used  in  medicine  as  an  antipyretic, 
and  possessing  the  valuable  property  of 
materially  reducing  the  temperature  of 
the  body  without  the  production  of  any 
distressing  bodily  symptoms. 

ANTIQUES,  a  term  specifically  ap- 
plied to  the  remains  of  ancient  art,  as 
statues,  paintings,  vases,  cameos,  and  the 
like,  and  more  especially  to  the  works 
of  (jrecian  and  Roman  antiquity. 

ANTI-RENT  PARTY,  a  party  which 
gained  some  political  influence  in  New 
York,  and  which  had  its  origin  in  the  re- 
fusal of  tenants,  who  were  dissatisfied 
with  the  patroon  system  in  vogue  in  1839, 
to  pay  rent.  The  matter  was  settled  by 
compromise  in  1850. 

ANTIRRHINUM  (an-ti-ri'num) ,  a 
genus  of  annual  or  perennial  plants  of 
the  natural  order  scrophulariacex,  com- 
monly known  as  snapdragon,  on  account 
of  the  peculiarity  of  the  blossoms,  which, 
by  pressing  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  may  be  made  to  open  and  shut 
like  a  mouth.  They  all  produce  showy 
flowers,  and  are  much  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. Many  varieties  of  some  of  them, 
such  as  the  great  or  common  snap- 
dragon (A.  majus),  have  been  produced 
by  gardeners. 

ANTI-SALOON  LEAGUE,  an  organi- 
zation whose  activities  were  undoubtedly 


the  chief  factor  in  the  promotion  of  na- 
tion-wide prohibition  under  a  Constitu- 
tional Amendment  and  the  Volstead  act 
which  went  into  effect  Jan.  16,  1920.  The 
first  step  was  the  formation  of  the  Anti- 
Saloon  League  of  Ohio,  chiefly  through 
the  labors  of  Dr.  Howard  H.  Russell  at 
Oberlin,  in  1893.  The  basic  idea  was 
that  the  work  so  far  had  all  been  done 
under  moral  and  religious  auspices — by 
the  churches,  the  W.  C.  T.  U.,  and  like 
organizations;  that  the  results  in  the  Pro- 
hibition party  were  of  slow  growth,  and 
that  a  live  organization  was  needed  to 
influence  political  thought  and  action  di- 
rectly. 

The  prime  aim  of  the  League  was  to 
take  the  prohibition  movement  immedi- 
ately into  the  sphere  of  politics.  Up  to 
that  time  the  work  had  been  chiefly  edu- 
cational, and  results  were  slow  in  coming. 
The  League  frankly  declared  the  liquor 
traffic  to  be  a  political  issue — and  started 
out  from  the  beginning  to  attack  it  in 
that  way.  The  only  way  to  get  prohi- 
bition was  by  laws — the  only  way  to  get 
the  laws  was  to  directly  influence  public 
opinion  to  elect  the  men  who  would  make 
them.  The  liquor  interests  had  for  years 
been  doing  this.  The  Anti-Saloon  League 
was  formed  to  fight  the  enemy  with  its 
own  weapons.  To  bring  the  issue  square- 
ly before  the  people — not  so  much  as  a 
moral  and  religious  issue  as  an  economic 
and  political  one — was  the  work  it  set 
itself  to  do.  In  Ohio  it  went  at  once  to 
the  churches  and  asked  the  privilege 
through  its  speakers  and  printed  matter, 
and  general  propaganda,  of  taking  up  the 
temperance  work.  It  became  in  this  way 
a  kind  of  clearing-house  for  all  the  reli- 
gious bodies  who  were  interested.  In  re- 
turn for  their  financial  support  it  under- 
took to  do  the  work  for  one  and  all  of 
them,  as  a  kind  of  collective  executive 
of  the  most  militant  type.  It  began  by 
a  general  canvass  of  all  sections  to  tabu- 
late carefully  the  entire  vote  of  Ohio  for 
or  against  prohibition.  When  a  district 
with  a  preponderance  of  prohibition  sen- 
timent was  found,  it  then  went  to  work 
to  find  the  best  possible  candidate  for  as 
many  offices  as  possible  from  the  Senate 
down  who  was  committed  to  its  side.  By 
active  propaganda  such  men  were  elected, 
until  a  final  majority  in  both  houses  tri- 
umphantly carried  through  the  Eight- 
eenth Amendment. 

A  brother  organization  was  formed  at 
Washington  governmental  headquarters 
in  the  same  year.  Thus  the  very  cita- 
del of  politics  was  attacked  from  the 
start.  Two  years  later  the  work  was  so 
well  founded  that  the  Washington  League 
issued  a  call  for  a  general  Anti-Saloon 
League  movement  throughout  the  nation. 


ANTI-SALOON  LEAGUE 


197 


ANTI-SALOON   LEAGUE 


Five  States  responded  at  once  and  the 
American  Anti-Saloon  League  was  or- 
ganized at  Washington  the  following 
December  18,  the  Ohio  and  Washington 
Leagues  being  the  other  constituents. 
Dr.  Howard  H.  Russell  was  chosen  na- 
tional superintendent,  and  a  weekly  or- 
gan, the  "American  Issue,"  was  estab- 
lished. 

With  this  as  a  starting  point,  the 
cause  spread  rapidly  and  State  after 
State  came  in.  The  work  began  always 
with  effort  for  local  option,  the  motto  of 
the  League  being  "let's  go  a  step  at  a 
time."  It  worked  often  in  co-operation 
with  other  organizations — but  always  in 
the  lead.  It  was  frankly  taken  by  the 
great  Protestant  religious  bodies,  and 
even  by  high  dignitaries  of  the  Roman 
Church,  like  Archbishop  Ireland  and 
Bishop  Spaulding,  as  meaning  business 
from  the  start.  It  was  thus  recognized 
at  once  as  the  factor  of  the  prohibition 
movement  in  politics — a  result-getter — 
and  its  strength  increased  daily.  It  be- 
gan with  local  option  fights,  gradually 
winning  its  local  battles,  till  it  was  en- 
abled to  launch  a  state-wide  campaign. 
To  the  original  "dry"  column — Maine 
1851,  Kansas  1880,  North  Dakota  1889, 
it  added  Oklahoma  1907,  Georgia  1908, 
North  Carolina,  Mississippi,  and  Tennes- 
see 1909,  and  fifteen  other  States  up  to 
the  introduction  of  the  Volstead  act  in 
1918.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
liberally  financed,  ably  managed,  and 
tireless  campaign  of  the  League  contrib- 
uted almost  wholly  to  the  final  promulga- 
tion of  that  resolution. 

From  the  beginning  the  Church  stood 
squarely  behind  it.  Dr.  Francis  Clark, 
the  head  of  the  Christian  Endeavor 
movement,  welcomed  it  at  its  formation 
in  these  words :  "The  League  has  a  plat- 
form wide  enough  and  strong  enough  for 
us  all  to  get  together  on  without  its 
breaking  doviTi."    And  so  it  has  proven. 

The  three  great  divisions  of  the  work 
have  been  agitation,  or  field-work,  legis- 
lation, and  law  enforcement.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  field-work  was  an  organ- 
ized corps  of  highly  developed  speakers 
for  every  State,  kept  constantly  travel- 
ing, speaking  in  the  churches  and  pub- 
lic auditoriums,  whose  activities  were 
redoubled  as  elections  approached.  One 
of  the  taunts  of  its  opponents  is  that 
"the  League  never  sleeps."  It  was  early 
enabled  to  establish  a  printing  plant  at 
Westville,  O.,  costing  $300,000,  which 
for  several  years  past  has  been  turning 
out  five  tons  of  printed  matter  daily.  The 
"American  Issue,"  its  weekly  organ,  with 
National  and  State  editions,  is  printed 
there.  Millions  of  leaflets  and  bulletins 
are  also  sent  out  annually.    In  the  legis- 


lative work  its  lawyers  have  written  most 
of  the  laws  which  have  finally  been 
passed  on  the  liquor  question.  In  very 
few  instances  indeed — so  carefully  have 
these  been  framed — has  any  judicial 
opinion  been  adverse  to  them.  Its  tri- 
umphant work  before  the  war  prepared 
the  country  for  war-time  prohibition; 
was  indeed  the  great  step  toward  that 
end.  Adjustment  would  have  been  far 
more  difficult,  the  situation  indeed  would 
in  some  instances  have  taken  on  a  dan- 
gerous character,  but  that  the  whole 
country  had  hearkened  to  the  voice,  if 
they  had  not  as  an  entire  nation  enlisted 
under  the  banners  of  the  League.  The 
League  had  helped  the  cause  of  prohibi- 
tion signally,  and  prohibition,  so  far  as 
it  has  advanced,  was  a  signal  help  to 
the  nation  in  the  war. 

Taking  advantage  of  its  tremendous 
opportunity,  the  League  so  greatly  ac- 
celerated its  efforts  that  by  the  time 
this  country  actually  entered  the  war  a 
favorable  Congress  was  in  session  at 
Washington.  National  prohibition  was  a 
foregone  conclusion,  and  the  result  came 
quickly. 

As  to  its  general  policy,  the  League 
has  never  claimed  that  local  option  by 
itself  was  conclusive.  A  local  option  vic- 
tory was  always  looked  on  as  simply 
educational — a  sample  of  the  full  ordier 
to  be  delivered  later.  The  League  has 
proclaimed  itself  from  the  first  a  fight- 
ing organization,  which,  starting  with  the 
smallest  beginnings,  has  won  its  great 
battles  through  a  succession  of  small  vic- 
tories. Thorough  organization  and  stren- 
uous action  have  been  its  leading  char- 
acteristics since  its  formation.  Its  own 
statement  of  its  aims  declares:  "The 
League  is  not  another  temperance  society. 
It  is  not  a  rival  of  any  organization, 
but,  as  its  name  implies,  a  league  of  or- 
ganizations. It  is  a  clearing  house  for 
churches  and  temperance  societies.  Its 
primary  function  is  not  the  creation  of 
anti-saloon  sentiment,  but  the  direction 
of  existing  sentiment  to  receive  imme- 
diate results.  Its  platform  is  succinctly 
stated  as  follows: 

"The  League  holds  that  the  saloon 
question  is  something  that  can  and  must 
be  solved,  and  that  the  only  solution  is 
no  saloon.  It  has  found  that  prohibition 
prohibits  better  than  regulation  regu- 
lates. It  stands  for  the  largest  present 
repression  and  the  speediest  ultimate 
suppression  of  the  beverage  liquor  traffic. 
It  wastes  no  time  trying  to  'reform'  the 
traffic,  for  an  institution  which  outrages 
the  divine  law  of  love  will  never  obey 
the  police  regulations  of  men.  It  has  no 
permissive  feature  in  its  creed.  It  is  op- 
posed to  the  license  system  as  vicious  in 


ANTISCORBUTICS 


198 


ANTI-TRADE 


principle,  utterly  inconsistent  with  the 
purpose  of  enlightened  government,  and 
in  practice  a  protection  to  a  traffic  which 
is  inherently  criminal  in  its  nature." 

ANTISCORBUTICS,  remedies  against 
scurvy.  Lemon  juice,  ripe  fruit,  milk, 
salts  of  potash,  green  vegetables,  pota- 
toes, fresh  meat,  and  raw  or  lightly 
boiled  eggs,  are  some  of  the  principal 
antiscorbutics, 

ANTI-SEMITES,  the  modern  oppo- 
nents of  the  Jews  in  Russia,  Rumania, 
Hungary,  and  eastern  Germany.  An 
Anti-Semitic  League  was  formed  in  Ber- 
lin in  1881  to  restrict  the  liberty  of 
Jews  in  Germany.  The  Emperor  inter- 
fered to  stop  the  cowardly  persecution, 
but  not  before  thousands  of  Jews  had 
left  the  country.  The  persecution  in  Rus- 
sia assumed  a  more  brutal  character  than 
in  Germany,  and  thousands  of  Jews  fled 
to  the  United  States,  Spain,  and  else- 
where. In  Hungary  violent  anti-Jewish 
riots  occurred  at  Pesth,  Zala,  and  else- 
where, which  were  not  brought  to  an 
end  until  martial  law  was  proclaimed. 
There  is  a  strong  anti-Semitic  party  feel- 
ing in  France  which  the  Dreyfus  affair 
served  to  foster,  and  it  is  growing  in 
some  quarters  in  England.  Anti-Semi- 
tism has  come  to  the  fore  again  in  the 
form  of  riots  and  attacks  on  Jews  and 
their  property  as  a  result  of  the  World 
War.  This  Avas  especially  true  in  Poland, 
Austria,  Hungary,  Rumania',  and  certain 
sections  of  Germany. 

ANTISEPSIS,  the  exclusion  of  mi- 
crobes or  bacteria  from  wounds,  etc.,  by 
the  use  of  antiseptics  or  other  means  in 
order  to  prevent  putrefaction,  infection, 
or  blood-poisoning. 

ANTISEPTIC,  a  substance  which  has 
the  effect  of  counteracting  the  tendency 
to  putrefaction.  Chemical  agents  used 
for  other  than  their  medicinal  properties. 
Antiseptics  prevent  chemical  change  by 
destroying  the  putrefactive  microbes  or 
bacteria,  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
body  still  in  many  cases  remaining  the 
same;  while  disinfectants  decompose  and 
remove  the  infectious  matter  itself. 

ANTISEPTIC  SURGERY,  treatment 
to  kill  germs  in  accidental  wounds,  and 
surgical  operations.  The  use  of  anti- 
septic dressings  in  surgery  has  become 
universal.  The  deaths  caused  by  wounds 
of  all  kinds  have  greatly  decreased.  In 
wounds  received  on  the  battle-field,  the 
treatment  has  been  especially  successful. 
As  is  known,  the  danger  lies  in  inflam- 
mation and  pus  formation,  which  is 
caused  chiefly  by  two  varieties  of  germs, 
the  staphylococcus  pyogenes.    The  germ 


itself  does  not  do  the  harm,  but  it  secretes 
a  poison  which  causes  inflammation  and 
suppuration.  By  preventing  the  entrance 
of  these  germs  into  bullet  wounds  by  the 
application  of  first-aid  dressings,  which 
soldiers  carry  with  them  and  use  as  soon 
as  they  are  wounded,  and  by  the  thor- 
ough antiseptic  treatment  of  such  wounds 
by  surgeons,  the  inflammation  and  sup- 
puration which  formerly  took  so  many 
lives  have  been  most  effectively  pre- 
vented. In  the  World  War  the  Carrel- 
irrigating  method,  by  which  a  wound  was 
constantly  laved  by  an  antiseptic  fluid, 
met  with  extraordinary  success. 

ANTISPASMODICS,  medicines  which 
prevent  or  allay  spasms.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  valerian,  asafoetida, 
camphor,  ammonia,  alcohol,  ether,  chloro- 
form, etc.  In  all  spasmodic  diseases,  cold 
baths  or  sponging,  sun-baths,  moderate 
exercise,  and  a  plain  but  nutritious  diet 
should  be  employed. 

ANTISTHENES  (an-tis'the-nez),  a 
Greek  philosopher  and  the  founder  of  the 
school  of  Cynics,  born  at  Athens  about 
B.  C.  444.  He  was  first  a  disciple  of 
Gorgias  and  then  of  Socrates.  He  held 
virtue  to  consist  in  complete  self-denial 
and  disregard  of  riches,  honor,  or  pleas- 
ure of  every  kind.  He  himself  lived  as 
a  beggar.  He  died  in  Athens  at  an  ad- 
vanced age. 

ANTITHESIS,  a  sharp  opposition  of 
contrast  between  word  and  word,  clause 
and  clause,  sentence  and  sentence,  or 
sentiment  and  sentiment,  especially  de- 
signed to  impress  the  listener  or  reader. 

ANTITOXINE,  the  name  given  to  a 
remedy  for  diphtheria.  The  diphtheritic 
toxine  produced  by  cultivating  the  bacil- 
lus of  diphtheria  in  broth,  in  the  presence 
of  air,  is  injected  in  increasing  amounts 
into  an  animal,  preferably  the  horse, 
until  it  is  immunized,  or  rendered  insus- 
ceptible to  diphtheria.  The  serum  of  the 
animal  thus  rendered  immune  may  then 
be  injected  into  the  system  of  a  person 
suffering  from  diphtheria,  vdth  generally 
successful  results.  The  decrease  of 
deaths  from  this  disease  since  the  intro- 
duction of  this  remedy  is  remarkable,  and 
in  most  large  cities  it  is  provided  free  to 
all  unable  to  pay  for  the  medicine.  Among 
other  antitoxines  the  most  important  are 
the  antitoxine  of  tetanus  and  the  anti- 
toxine  of  snake  poison. 

ANTI-TRADE,  a  name  given  to  any 
of  the  upper  tropical  winds  which  move 
northward  or  southward  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  trade-winds  which  blow 
beneath  them  in  the  opposite  direction. 
These  great  aerial  currents  descend  to 


ANTIUM 


199 


ANT  LION 


the  surface  after  they  have  passed  the 
limits  of  the  trade-winds,  and  form  the 
S.  W.  or  W.  S.  W.  winds  of  the  N.  tem- 
perate, and  the  N.  W.  or  W.  N.  W.  winds 
of  the  S.  temperate  zones.  It  is  the 
anti-trade  winds  that  are  most  notable 
in  the  meteorology  of  the  United  States. 

ANTITJlff,  a  maritime  city  of  Latium, 
now  Porto  d'Anzio,  near  Rome;  after  a 
long  struggle  for  independence  became  a 
Roman  colony,  at  the  end  of  the  great 
Latin  war,  340-338  B.  C.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Horace,  and  was  a  favorite  retreat 
of  the  emperors  and  wealthy  Romans. 
The  treasures  deposited  in  the  Temple 
of  Fortune  here  were  taken  by  Octavius 
Caesar  during  his  war  with  Antony,  41 

B,  C. 

ANTLERS,  bony  outgrowths  from  the 
frontal  bones  of  almost  all  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  deer  family.  Except  in  the 
reindeer,  they  are  restricted  to  the  males, 
and  are  secondary  sexual  characters  used 


the  year  after  that  of  birth,  the  antlers 
remain  unbranched  conical  "beams."  In 
the  following  spring,  the  previous  growth 


ANTLERS     OF      AMERICAN      RED      DEER      AT 
VARIOUS    STAGES 

as  weapons  in  fighting  for  possession  of 
the  females.  They  appear  as  a  pair  of 
knobs  covered  with  dark  skin,  from 
which  the  bony  tissue  is  developed.    In 


ANTLERS  OF  MATURE  ALASKAN  MOOSE 

having  been  meanwhile  shed,  the  antlers 
grow  to  a  larger  size,  and  from  their  first 
branch  or  "brow."  Year  by  year  the 
number  of  branches  or  tines  increases, 
and  more  than  60  have  been  counted  on 
some  magnificent  heads.  The  soft,  hairy 
skin  which  secures  their  rapid  annual 
growth  is  known  as  the  "velvet,"  and  its 
accidental  injury  affects  the  development 
of  the  antlers.  Growth  ceases  when  the 
blood-supply  is  cut  off  by  the  develop- 
ment of  a  tubercled  burr  at  the  base, 
and  the  deer  then  rub  off  the  dry  skin 
and  leave  the  bone  bare.  The  antlers  are 
shed,  in  many  cases  at  least,  annually 
after  the  breeding  period. 

ANTLIA,  or  ANTLIA  PNET7MATICA, 
one  of^  the  14  southern  constellations 
placed  in  the  heavens  by  Lacaille  in  con- 
nection with  his  work  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  in  1751-1752.  It  is  situated 
between  Vela,  Pyxis,  Hydra,  and  Cen- 
taurus. 

ANT  LION,  the  larva  of  an  insect 
{myrTneleon  obsoletus,  etc.)  of  the  order 
of  neuroptern,  remarkable  for  its  ingen- 
ious methods  of  capturing  ants  and 
other  insects,  on  which  it  feeds,  by  mak- 
ing pitfalls  in  the  sand.  Some  species 
are  common  in  North  America.  The  per- 
fect insect  is  about  an  inch  long,  and  has 
a  general  resemblance  to  the  dragon-fly. 
It  feeds  upon  the  juices  of  insects,  espe- 
cially ants,  in  order  to  obtain  which  it 
cleverly  excavates  a  funnel-shaped  pitfall 
in  sandy  ground,  and  lies  in  wait  at  the 
bottom.  When  insects  approach  too  near 
to  the  edge  of  the  hole,  the  loose  sand 
gives  way,  so  that  they  fall  down  the 
steep  slope.  It  they  do  not  fall  quite  to 
the  bottom,  but  begin  to  scramble  up 
again,  the  ant-lion  throws  sand  upon 
them  by  jerking  his  head,  and  thus  brings 
them  back.  It  employs  its  head  in  the 
same  way  to  eject  their  bodies  from  its 
pit,  after  their  juices  have  been  sucked. 


ANTOFAGASTA 


200 


ANTONIUS 


ANTOFAGASTA,  a  province  in  north- 
em  Chile,  extending  the  whole  width  of 
the  country.  Next  to  the  sparsely  in- 
habited Magallanes  territory  it  is  the 
largest  province  in  the  country,  covering 
an  area  of  46,408  square  miles.  It  was 
ceded  by  Bolivia  to  Chile  in  1884.  It  is 
one  of  the  richest  sections  of  the  world 
in  the  ores  of  precious  metals.  Pop. 
(1917)  205,662.  Antofagasta,  its  capital 
and  principal  seaport,  is  the  terminus  of 
a  railroad  that  extends  to  the  rich  min- 
ing sections  in  the  northeast.  It  also 
ships  much  ore,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  bul- 
lion, and  contains  silver-smelting  works. 
Pop.  about  60,000. 

ANTOMMARCHI,  CARLO  FRAN- 
CESCO (-mar'ke),  an  Italian  physician, 
bom  in  Corsica  in  1780;  was  Professor  of 
Anatomy  at  Florence  when  he  offered 
himself  as  physician  of  Napoleon  at  St. 
Helena.  Napoleon  left  him  a  legacy  of 
100,000  francs.  On  his  retum  to  Europe 
he  published  the  "Demiers  Moments  de 
Napoleon"  (2  vols.,  1823).  He  died  in 
1838. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  TITUS  AURE- 
LIUS  FULVUS,  Roman  emperor,  was 
born  at  Lavinium  near  Rome,  A. 
D.  86.  In  A-  D.  120  he  became  con- 
sul, and  he  was  one  of  the  four 
persons  of  consular  rank  among 
whom  Hadrian  divided  the  supreme  ad- 
ministration of  Italy.  He  then  went  as 
proconsul  to  Asia.  In  A.  D.  138  he  was 
selected  by  that  emperor  as  his  succes- 
sor, and  the  same  year  he  ascended  the 
throne.  The  persecutions  of  the  Chris- 
tians he  speedily  abolished.  In  Britain 
he  extended  the  Roman  dominion,  and 
stopped  the  invasions  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots.  He  died  in  A.  D.  161,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Marcus  Aurelius,  his  adopted 
son. 

ANTONIUS,  MARCUS  (MARK  AN- 
TONY), Roman  triumvir,  bom  83  B.  C, 
was  connected  with  the  family  of  Caesar 
by  his  mother.  Debauchery  and  prodi- 
gality marked  his  youth.  To  escape  his 
creditors  he  went  to  Greece  in  58,  and 
from  hence  followed  the  Consul  Gabinius 
on  a  campaign  in  Syria  as  commander 
of  the  cavalry.  He  served  in  Gaul  under 
Caesar  in  52  and  51.  In  50  he  returned 
to  Rome  to  support  the  interests  of 
Caesar  against  the  aristocraticai  party 
headed  by  Pompey,  and  was  appointed 
tribune.  When  war  broke  out  between 
CsEsar  and  Pompey,  Antony  led  reinforce- 
ments to  Caesar  in  Greece,  and,  in  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  commanded  the 
left  wing.  He  afterward  returned  to  Rome 
with  the  appointment  of  master  of  the 
horse  and   governor  of   Italy    (47).      In 


B.  c.  44  he  became  Caesar's  colleague  in 
the  consulship.  Soon  after  Caesar  was 
assassinated,  and  Antony  would  have 
shared  the  same  fate  had  not  Brutus 
stood  up  in  his  behalf.  Antony,  by  the 
reading  of  Csesar's  will,  and  by  the  ora- 
tion which  he  delivered  over  his  body, 
excited  the  people  to  anger  and  revenge, 
and  the  murderers  were  obliged  to  flee. 
After  several  quarrels  and  reconciliations 
with  Octavianus,  Caesar's  heir  (see  Au- 
gustus, Antony  departed  to  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  which  province  had  been  conferred 
upon  him  against  the  will  of  the  senate. 
But  Cicero  thundered  against  him  in  his 
famous  Philippics;  the  senate  declared  him 
a  public  enemy,  and  intrusted  the  conduct 
of  the  war  against  him  to  Octavianus 
and  the  consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa. 
After  a  campaign  of  varied  fortunes 
Antony  fled  with  his  troops  over  the 
Alps.  Here  he  was  joined  by  Lepidus, 
who  commanded  in  Gaul,  and  through 
whose  mediation  Antony  and  Octavianus 
were  again  reconciled.  It  was  agreed 
that  the  Roman  world  should  be  divided 
among  the  three  conspirators,  who  were 
called  triumvirs.  Antony  was  to  take 
Gaul;  Lepidus,  Spain;  and  Octavianus, 
Africa  and  Sicily.  Antony  and  Octa- 
vianus departed  in  42  for  Macedonia, 
where  the  united  forces  of  their  enemies, 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  formed  a  powerful 
army,  which  was,  however,  speedily  de- 
feated at  Philippi,  Antony  next  visited 
Athens,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Asia. 
In  Cilicia  he  ordered  Cleopatra,  Queen 
of  Egypt,  to  apologize  for  her  insolent 
behavior  to  the  triumviri.  She  appeared 
in  person,  and  her  charms  fettered  him 
forever.  He  followed  her  to  Alexandria, 
where  he  forgot  worldly  affairs,  till  he 
was  aroused  by  a  report  that  hostilities 
had  commenced  in  Italy  between  his  own 
relatives  and  Octavianus.  A  short  war 
followed,  which  was  decided  in  favor  of 
Octavianus  before  the  arrival  of  Antony 
in  Italy.  A  reconciliation  was  effected, 
which  was  sealed  by  the  ^  marriage  of 
Antony  with  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octa- 
vianus. A  new  division  of  the  Roman 
dominions  was  now  made  (in  40),  by 
which  Antony  obtained  the  East,  Octa- 
vianus the  West,  After  his  return  to 
Asia  Antony  gave  himself  up  entirely  to 
Cleopatra,  assuming  the  style  of  an 
Eastern  despot,  and  so  alienating  many 
of  his  adherents.  At  length  war  was 
declared  against  the  Queen  of  Egypt, 
and  Antony  was  deprived  of  his  consul- 
ship and  government.  Antony  lost,  in 
the  naval  battle  at  Actium  (B.  C.  31), 
the  dominion  of  the  world.  He  followed 
Cleopatra  to  Alexandria,  and,  on  the 
arrival  of  Octavianus  his  fleet  and  cav- 
alry deserted,  and  his  infantry  was  de- 


ANTONY  OF  PADUA 


201 


ANUS 


feated.  Deceived  by  a  false  report  which 
Cleopatra  had  disseminated  of  her  death, 
he  fell  upon  his  own  sword  (b.  c.  30). 
On  being  told  that  Cleopatra  was  still 
alive,  he  caused  himself  to  be  carried 
into  her  presence,  that  he  might  die  in 
her  arms. 

ANTONY  OF  PADUA,  ST.,  was 
born  at  Lisbon,  Aug.  15,  1195,  and,  on 
his  father's  side,  was  related  to  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon.  He  was  at  first  an  Augus- 
tinian  monk;  but  in  1220  he  entered  the 
Franciscan  order,  and  became  one  of  its 
most  active  propagators.  He  preached 
in  the  S.  of  France  and  upper  Italy,  and 
died  at  Padua,  June  13,  1231.  He  was 
canonized  by  Gregory  IX.  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  himself  practiced  the  most 
severe  asceticism,  and  opposed  vigorously 
the  movement  for  mitigating  the  severity 
of  the  Franciscan  rule  led  by  Elias  of 
Cortona. 

ANTRIM,  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Ulster.  It  has  an  area  of 
1,176  square  miles,  of  which  about  two- 
thirds  are  cultivated.  It  has  compara- 
tively little  forest  land.  Salt  exists  in 
deposits  and  there  are  small  coal  fields 
in  the  interior.  There  are  also  rich  beds 
of  iron  ore.  The  chief  agricultural  crop 
is  oats.  Fisheries  are  an  important  in- 
dustry. The  chief  manufactures  are 
woolens,  linens,  and  cotton  goods.  The 
principal  towns  are  Lisburn,  Ballymena, 
and  Antrim.  Belfast  was  formerly  the 
capital,  but  in  1898  was  made  a  county 
borough.    Pop.  about  480,000. 

ANT  THRUSH,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain passerine  or  perching  bii'ds  having 
resemblances  to  the  thrushes  and  sup- 
posed to  feed  largely  on  ants.  The  ant 
thrushes  of  the  Old  World  belong  to  the 
genus  pitta.  They  inhabit  southern  and 
southeastern  Asia  and  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago, and  are  birds  of  brilliant  plum- 
age. The  New  World  ant-thrushes  be- 
long to  South  America. 

ANTWERP,  the  chief  port  of  Belgium, 
and  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name  on  the  Scheldt,  about  50  miles  from 
the  open  sea.  It  is  strongly  fortified, 
being  completely  surrounded  on  the  land 
side  by  a  semi-circular  inner  line  of 
fortifications,  the  defenses  being  com- 
pleted by  an  outer  line  of  forts  and  out- 
works. The  cathedral,  with  a  spire  400 
feet  high,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture in  Belgium,  contains  Rubens'  cele- 
brated masterpieces,  the  "Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  the  "Elevation  of  the  Cross," 
and  "  The  Assumption."  The  other 
churches  of  note  are  St.  James',  St.  An- 
drew's, and  St.  Paul's,  all  enriched  with 


paintings  by  Rubens,  Vandyke,  and  other 
masters.  Among  the  other  edifices  of 
note  are  the  exchange,  the  town  hall, 
the  palace,  theater,  academy  of  the  fine 
arts,  picture  and  sculpture  galleries,  etc. 
The  harbor  accommodation  is  extensive 
and  excellent.  Antwerp's  commerce  be- 
fore  the   World    War   was    one   of   the 


THE   CATHEDRAL   AT   ANTWERP,   BELGIUM 

largest  in  Europe,  though  much  of  it 
was  transit.  It  exceeded  $1,200,000,000 
annually.  Antwerp  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  the  8th  century,  and  in  the  11th  and 
12th  it  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity.  The  wars  between  the  Neth- 
erlands and  Spain  greatly  injured  its 
commerce.  In  August,  1914,  the  German 
forces  defeated  the  Belgian  and  British 
troops  defending  the  city  and  occupied 
it  until  the  last  of  October,  1918.  See 
World  War.  Pop.  about  400,000.  The 
province  consists  of  a  fertile  plain  1,093 
square  miles  in  area;  pop.  about  1,000,- 
000. 

ANURA,  or  ANOURA,  an  order  of 
batrachians  which  lose  the  tail  when  they 
reach  maturity,  such  as  the  frogs  and 
toads. 

ANUS,  the  opening  at  the  lower  or  pos- 
terior extremity  of  the  alimentary  canal 
through  which  the  excrement  or  wast^ 


ANZAC 


202 


APE 


products  of  digestion  are  expelled.  With 
regard  to  its  anatomy,  it  is  sufficient  to 
state  that  it  is  kept  firmly  closed  on 
ordinary  occasions  by  the  external  and 
internal  sphincter  muscles,  the  former 
of  which  contracts  the  integument  around 
the  opening,  and,  by  its  attachment  to 
the  coccjrx  behind,  and  to  a  tendinous 
center  in  front,  helps  the  levator  ani 
muscle  in  supporting  the  aperture  dur- 
ing the  expulsive  efforts  that  are  made 
in  the  passage  of  the  faeces  or  intestinal 
evacuations;  while  the  latter,  or  internal 
sphincter,  is  an  aggregation  of  the  cir- 
cular muscular  fibers  of  the  lowest  part 
of  the  rectum,  and  acts  in  contracting 
the  extremity  of  the  tube.  The  integu- 
ment around  the  anus  lies  in  radiating 
plaits,  which  allow  of  its  stretching  with- 
out pain  during  the  passage  of  the  faeces; 
and  the  margin  is  provided  with  a  num- 
ber of  sebaceous  glands. 

ANZAC,  a  name  applied  to  Austra- 
lian and  New  Zealand  troops  in  the  World 
War  and  made  up  of  the  first  letters  of 
their  title,  "Australian  and  New  Zea- 
land Army  Corps." 

AONIA  (a-6'ne-a),  in  ancient  geogra- 
phy a  name  for  part  of  Bceotia  in  Greece, 
containing  Mount  Helicon  and  the  foun- 
tain Aganippe,  both  haunts  of  the  muses. 

AORIST,  the  name  given  to  one  of  the 
tenses  of  the  verb  in  some  languages 
(as  the  Greek)  which  expresses  indefinite 
past  time. 

AORTA,  the  largest  artery  in  the  hu- 
man body,  and  the  main  trunk  of  the 
arterial  system  itself.  It  takes  its  de- 
parture from  the  upper  part  of  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  whence  it  runs 
upward  and  to  the  right,  at  that  part  of 
its  progress  being  called  the  ascending 
aorta;  then  it  turns  to  the  left,  passes 
the  spinal  column,  and  bending  down- 
ward forms  the  arch  of  the  aorta.  Con- 
tinuing its  course  along  the  left  of  the 
spine,  it  is  called  the  descending  aorta. 
Passing  through  the  aperture  in  the  dia- 
phragm into  the  abdomen,  it  becomes  the 
abdominal  aorta.  Finally,  it  bifurcates 
about  the  fourth  pair  of  lumbar  vertebrae, 
and  forms  the  two  primitive  iliac  ar- 
teries. Upward  from  the  heart  the  rami- 
fications are  numerous  and  exceedingly 
important.  The  aorta  has  three  valves 
called  the  sigmoid  or  semi-lunar  valves, 
to  prevent  the  reflux  of  the  blood  into 
the  heart. 

AOSTA  (a-os'ta),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  on  the  Dora  Baltea,  19  miles  from 
the  opening  of  the  great  St.  Bernard 
Pass,  and  80  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Turin 
by  rail.     It  is   surrounded  by  rich  or- 


chards, vineyards,  and  almond  planta- 
tions. It  is  the  ancient  Augusta  Prae- 
toria;  and  several  monuments  of  the 
Roman  times  still  remain.  St.  Bernard 
was  Archdeacon  of  Aosta;  and  here 
Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born.  Near  by  are  the  celebrated  baths 
and  mines  of  St.  Didier.  The  beautiful 
valley  of  Aosta  is  rich  in  woods,  pastures, 
minerals,  and  mineral  walls.  French  is 
generally   spoken.      Pop.    about  7,000. 

AOUDAD,  the  ammotrogus  tragelaphus, 
a  remarkable  species  of  sheep,  with  cer- 
tain affinities  to  the  goats.  It  is  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  with  much  long 
hair  hanging  down  from  the  front  of 
the  neck  and  the  base  of  the  forelegs.  It 
has  long,  powerful  horns,  and  is  fierce  in 
character.  It  inhabits  mountainous  re- 
gions in  Abyssinia  and  Barbary. 

APACHES  (ap-a'chez),  a  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians,  formerly  very 
fierce  and  numerous,  living  in  portions 
of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  and 
belonging  to  the  Athabascan  family. 
Long  after  the  annexation  of  their  ter- 
ritory by  the  United  States  they  con- 
tinued their  raids  in  spite  of  severe  de- 
feats. An  attempt  made  by  the  United 
States  Government  to  confine  the 
Apaches  within  a  reserved  territory  in 
Arizona  led  to  bloodshed  in  1871,  About 
300  now  occupy  a  reservation  at  Fort 
Sill,  Okla.  Their  total  number  is  about 
5,000. 

APARTMENT  HOUSE,  a  structure 
built  to  accommodate  a  number  of  fam- 
ilies each  in  its  own  set  of  rooms,  which 
form  a  separate  dwelling  with  an  en- 
trance of  its  own.  The  term  is  chiefly 
used  in  the  United  States,  though  houses 
of  this  kind  have  long  been  built  in 
Europe. 

APATITE,  a  translucent  but  seldom 
transparent  mineral.  It  passes  through 
various  shades  of  color,  from  white  to 
yellow,  green,  blue,  and  occasionally  red. 
It  is  now  largely  utilized  as  a  source  of 
artificial  phosphate  manures. 

APE,  a  common  name  of  a  number 
of  quadrumanous  animals  inhabiting  the 
Old  World  (Asia  and  the  Asiatic  islands, 
and  Africa),  and  including  a  variety  of 
species.  The  family  includes  the  chim- 
panzee, gorilla,  orang-outang,  etc.,  and 
has  been  divided  into  three  genera,  trog- 
lodytes,  simia,  and   hylobates. 

The  highest  and  most  man-like  mon- 
keys, including  gorilla,  chimpanzee, 
orang-outang,  gibbon,  and  several  other 
species,  are  called  Anthropoid  Apes. 
They  are  all  arboreal,  and  inhabit  Africa, 
southeastern  Asia,  and  the  Malay  Archi- 


APELLES 


203 


APERTTTRE 


pelago.  In  all,  about  a  dozen  species 
have  been  described  with  more  or  less 
definiteness.  It  is  recognized  by  anato- 
mists that  all  the  attempts  to  establish 
a  fundamental  distinction,  on  anatomical 
grounds,  between  the  physical  structure 
of  the  higher  apes  and  that  of  man  are 
futile.  Generic  differences,  indeed,  there 
are  in  abundance,  but  these  establish 
only  a  difference  of  degree,  and  not  of 
kind.  Thus,  in  man,  the  great  toe  is  not 
opposable  to  the  others  for  grasping 
purposes,  the  angle  between  the  face 
and  the  top  of  the  skull  does  not  exceed 
120°,  the  teeth  form  an  uninterrupted 
series,  and  so  on;  while  the  strong  spines 
on  the  back  of  the  gorilla's  neck,  the 
very  marked  eyebrow  ridges  in  gorilla 
and  chimpanzee,  the  especially  long 
arms  of  the  gibbon,  and  the  protruding 
jaws  of  all  of  the  anthropoids,  are  equally 
characteristic  adaptations  to  different 
ways  of  life.  The  difference  of  structure 
between  the  lowest  monkeys  and  the 
higher  are  far  greater  than  those  be- 
tween man  and  any  anthropoid  ape. 

On  the  other  hand,  while  it  is  im- 
possible to  establish  any  fundamental 
distinction  in  physical  structure  between 
homo  and  the  anthropomorpha,  there  is 
among  evolutionists  an  equal  consensus 
of  opinion  as  to  the  impossibility  of  re- 
garding an  ape  of  any  existing  anthro- 
poid species  as  in  the  direct  line  of 
human  ancestry.  As  regards  brain 
structure,  the  most  man-like  ape  is  the 
orang,  while  the  chimpanzee  has  the 
most  closely  related  skull,  the  gorilla  the 
most  human  feet  and  hands,  ttie  gibbon 
the  most  similar  chest. 

APELLES  (a-pel'ez),  the  most  famous 
of  the  painters  of  ancient  Greece  and  of 
antiquity,  was  born  in  the  4th  century 
B.  c,  probably  at  Colophon,  Ephorus  of 
Ephesus  was  his  first  teacher,  but,  at- 
tracted by  the  renown  of  the  Sicyonian 
school,  he  went  and  studied  at  Sicyon.  In 
the  time  of  Philip  he  went  to  Macedonia, 
and  there  a  close  friendship  between  him 
and  Alexander  the  Great  was  established. 
The  most  admired  of  his  pictures  was  that 
of  Venus  rising  from  the  sea  and  wring- 
ing the  water  from  her  dripping  locks. 
His  portrait  of  Alexander  with  a  thun- 
derbolt in  his  hand  was  no  less  cele- 
brated. His  renown  was  at  its  height 
about  B.  c.  330,  and  he  died  about  the 
end  of  the  century. 

APENNINES  (ap'en-Ins),  a  prolong- 
ation of  the  Alps,  forming  the  "backbone 
of  Italy."  Beginning  at  Savona,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  the  Apennines  traverse 
the  whole  of  the  peninsula  and  also  cross 
over  into  Sicily,  the  Strait  of  Messina 
being  regarded  merely  as  a  gap  in  the 


chain.  The  average  height  of  the  moun- 
tains composing  the  range  is  about  4,000 
feet,  and  nowhere  do  they  reach  the 
limits  of  perpetual  snow,  though  some 
summits  exceed  9,000  feet  in  height. 
Monte  Como,  called  also  Gran  Sasso 
d'ltalia  (Great  Rock  of  Italy),  which 
rises  among  the  mountains  of  the  Ab- 
ruzzi,  is  the  loftiest  of  the  chain,  rising 
to  the  height  of  9,541  feet,  Monte  Majella 
(9,151)  being  next.  Monte  Gargano, 
which  puts  out  into  the  Adriatic  from 
the  ankle  of  Italy,  is  a  mountainous  mass 
upward  of  5,000  feet  high,  completely 
separated  from  the  main  chain.  On  the 
Adriatic  side  the  mountains  descend 
more  abruptly  to  the  sea  than  on  the 
W.  or  Mediterranean  side,  and  the 
streams  are  comparatively  short  and 
rapid.  On  the  W.  side  are  the  valleys  of 
the  Amo,  Tiber,  Garigliano,  and  Vol- 
turno,  the  largest  rivers  that  rise  in  the 
Apennines,  and  the  only  ones  of  impor- 
tance in  the  peninsular  portion  of  Italy. 
They  consist  almost  entirely  of  limestone 
rocks,  and  are  exceedingly  rich  in  the 
finest  marbles.  On  the  S.  slopes  volcanic 
masses  are  not  uncommon.  Mount  Ve- 
suvius, the  only  active  volcano  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  is  an  instance.  The 
lower  slopes  are  well  clothed  with  vege- 
tation, the  summits  are  sterile  and  bare. 

APEPI  (ap-a'pe) ,  in  heathen  mythol- 
ogy, the  Great  Serpent  or  Typhon,  the 
embodiment  of  evil. 

APERIENT,  a  medicine  which,  in 
moderate  doses,  gently  but  completely 
opens  the  bowels;  examples,  castor-oil 
Epsom  salts,  senna,  etc. 

APERTURE,  in  anatomy,  zoology, 
botany,  etc.:  (a)  The  aperture  of  a 
univalve  shell  is  the  opening  or  mouth. 
In  mollusks  which  feed  on  vegetable 
matter  it  is  entire;  while  in  those  which 
are  animal  feeders  it  has  a  notch  or 
canal.  In  some  families  it  has  an  oper- 
culum or  cover.  The  margin  of  the 
aperture  is  called  the  peristome,  (b) 
Any  other  opening. 

In  optics,  the  diameter  of  the  object- 
glass  of  a  refracting  telescope,  or  the 
speculum  or  mirror  of  a  reflector.  The 
larger  the  aperture  (i.  e.,  the  area  of  the 
surface  through  which  the  light  is  trans- 
mitted, or  from  which  it  is  reflected), 
the  greater  is  the  power  of  the  telescope 
to  penetrate  into  space  and  consequently 
bear  higher  magnifying  powers.  The 
great  refractor  at  the  United  States  Ob 
servatory  at  Washington  has  an  aperture 
of  26  inches.  In  recent  years  silver- 
glass  parabolic  mirrors  of  the  New- 
tonian form  have  been  constructed 
with    large    apertures    and    short    focal 


APE'S  HILL 


204 


APHRODITE 


length,  thus  rendering  these  instruments 
exceedingly  convenient  for  use.  Sir  W. 
Herschel's  18-inch  metallic  speculum, 
used  for  examining  the  nebulae  and  Milky 
Way,  had  a  focal  length  of  20  feet; 
modei-n  telescopes,  with  silvered-glass 
mirrors,  have  been  constructed  of  the 
same  aperture,  but  with  a  focal  length 
of  not  more  than  seven  feet. 

Angular  aperture  (in  microscopes), 
the  amount  of  light  transmitted  by  the 
objective,  and,  consequently,  the  distinct- 
ness of  the  image  afterward  magnified 
by  the  lenses  forming  the  eye  piece. 
When  an  objective  of  the  large  angular 
.perture  is  employed,  the  more  delicate 
.narkings  of  the  object  utider  examina- 
tion, invisible  when  objectives  of  less 
angular  aperture  are  used,  are  seen  with 
great  distinctness. 

APE'S  HILL  (Arabic,  Jebel  Zatus), 
the  ancient  Abyla,  the  extremity  of  a 
mountain  range  in  the  N.  of  Morocco, 
opposite  Gibraltar;  one  of  the  "Pillars 
of  Hercules." 

APHANIPTERA  (af-an-ip'ter-a) ,  an 
order  of  wingless  insects,  called  by  De 
Geer  suctoria,  and  by  Leach  siphonap- 
tera.  They  have  a  sucker  of  three  pieces, 
and  a  true  metamorphosis.  The  thorax 
is  distinctly  separated  from  the  abdomen, 
and  two  horny  plates  mark  the  spots 
where  in  the  higher  insects  wings  would 
be.    It  contains  the  pulicidse,  or  fleas. 

APHASIA,  in  pathology,  a  symptom  of 
certain  morbid  conditions  of  the  nervous 
system,  in  which  the  patient  loses  the 
power  of  expressing  ideas  by  means  of 
words,  or  loses  the  appropriate  use  of 
words,  the  vocal  organs  the  while  re- 
maining intact  and  the  _  intelligence 
sound.  In  one  form  of  the  disease,  called 
aphemia,  the  patient  can  think  and  write, 
but  cannot  speak;  in  another,  called  agra- 
phia, he  can  think  and  speak,  but  cannot 
express  his  ideas  in  writing.  The  treat- 
ment is  that  of  the  underlying  disease. 

APHELION,  that  part  of  the  orbit  of 
the  earth  or  any  other  planet  in  which 
it  is  at  the  point  remotest  from  the  sun. 

APHIS  (a'fis),  a  genus  of  insects,  the 
typical  one  of  the  family  aphidx.  It 
contains  those  soft  pulpy  little  animals, 
winged  or  wingless,  and  with  long  anten- 
nae, which  are  seen  beneath  the  leaves,  or 
in  curled-up  leaves,  or  in  the  axils  of 
many  plants,  or  even  on  the  roots  of 
some.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
elm,  their  destructive  operations  upon  a 
leaf  raise  a  gall  of  considerable  size. 
The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
gen- rally  called  after  the  plants  on 
which  they  feed,  as  A.  rosse,  the  aphis 


of  the  rose;  A.  fahse,  the  bean  aphis; 
A.  brassicae,  the  cabbage  fly;  A.  humuli, 
the  hopfly.  They  are  exceedingly  prolific, 
but  are  kept  within  bounds  by  various 
insects,  especially  by  the  coccinellidse, 
or  lady  birds,  of  which  they  are  the  ap- 
propriate food.  They  drop  a  fluid  called 
honey-dew,  which  is  so  grateful  to  the  ants 
that  the  latter,  to  receive  it,  tend  them 
like  milch  cows.  The  mode  of  propa- 
gating their  race  is  the  abnormal  one 
described  as  alternation  of  generations, 
metagenesis,  and  parthenogenesis.  The 
winged  aphides,  confessedly  perfect  in- 
sects, bring  forth  a  wingless  race, 
apparently  mere  larvae,  and  which  there- 
fore, it  might  be  thought,  would  be  in- 
capable, while  thus  immature,  of  bring- 
ing forth  young.  In  certain  cases  they 
do  it,  however,  and  their  offspring  are 
winged,  and  as  perfect  as  their  grand- 
parents. This  alternation  of  genera- 
tions, or  metagenesis,  with  its  attendant 
parthenogenesis  (or  birth  from  virgins) 
in  every  second  generation,  goes  on  for 
nine  or  ten  generations  by  which  time 
the  season  is  over.  The  last  aphides  of 
the  year  are  fully  formed  and  winged, 
and  deposit  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in 
spring. 

APHONIA,  in  pathology,  the  greater 
or  less  impairment,  or  the  complete  loss 
of  the  power  of  emitting  vocal  sound. 
The  slightest  and  less  permanent  forms 
often  arise  from  extreme  nervousness, 
fright,  and  hysteria.  Slight  forms  of 
structural  aphonia  are  of  a  catarrhal 
nature,  resulting  from  more  or  less  con- 
gestion and  tumefaction  of  the  mucous 
and  sub-mucous  tissues  of  the  larynx  and 
adjoining  parts. 

APHRODITE  (af-ro-dl'te) ,  one  of 
the  chief  divinities  of  the  Greeks,  the 
goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  so  called  be- 
cause she  was  sprung  from  the  foam 
aphros  of  the  sea.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Hephjestus,  but  she  loved  besides, 
among  gods.  Ares  and  Dionysus,  and 
among  mortals,  Anchises  and  Adonis. 
The  chief  places  of  her  worship  in  Greece 
were  Cyprus  and  Cythera.  In  earlier 
times  the  patroness  of  marriage  and 
maternity,  she  became  later  the  ideal  of 
graceful  womanhood,  and  was  spiritu- 
alized by  Plato  as  Aphrodite  Urania. 
By  others  she  was  degraded  in  Aphrodite 
Pandemos  to  be  the  patroness  of  mere 
sensual  love.  The  worship  of  Aphrodite 
was  originally  the  symbol  of  the  fructify- 
ing powers  of  nature.  Her  cult  was 
introduced  by  the  Phoenicians  into  Cy- 
prus, and  soon  spread  over  all  Greece. 
She  was  originally  identical  with  As- 
tarte,  the  Ashtoreth  of  the  Hebrews. 
By  the  Romans  she  was  identified  with 


APIA 


205 


APIUM 


Venus,  hitherto  one  of  the  least  impor- 
tant Roman  divinities  (see  Venus).  The 
finest  statues  of  the  goddess  that  still 


APHRODITE 

exist  are  those  of  Melos  (Milo)  at  Paris, 
of  Capua  at  Naples,  and  of  the  Medici 
at  Florence. 

APIA  (a'pe-a),  the  principal  town 
ana  commercial  emporium  of  the  Samoan 
Islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean;  on 
the  N.  coast  of  the  island  of  Upolu, 
about  midway  between  the  E.  and  W. 
extremities  of  the  island.  In  March, 
1899,  a  hurricane  swept  the  harbor; 
wrecked  the  United  States  war  vessels 
"Trenton"  (flagship)  and  "Vandalia," 
and  the  German  men-of-war,  "Eber" 
"Adler,"  and  "Olga";  and  drove  the 
United  States  steamer  "Nipsic"  ashore, 
greatly  injured.  The  British  ship  "Cal- 
liope" was  the  only  man-of-war  in  the 
harbor  that  succeeded  in  escaping  to  sea. 
In  1889  the  town  was  the  scene  of  fatal 
riots  growing  out  of  the  struggle  of 
Mataafa  and  Malietoa  Tanus  for  the 
kingship.  In  1900  the  town  came  into 
German  control,  but  as  a  result  of  the 
World  War  is  now  occupied  by  New  Zea- 
land. Pop.,  1,500.   See  Samoan  Islands. 

APIABY,  a  place  for  keeping  bees. 
The  apiary  should  be  well  sheltered  from 
strong  winds,  moisture,  and  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  The  hives  should  face 
the  S.  or  S.  E.,  and  should  be  placed  on 
shelves  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and 


about  the  same  distance  from  each  other. 
The  old  dome-shaped  straw  skep  is  still 
in  general  use  among  the  cottagers  of 
Great  Britain.  Its  cheapness  and  sim- 
plicity of  construction  are  in  its  favor, 
while  it  is  excellent  for  warmth.  It  has 
the  disadvantage  that  its  interior  is  closed 
to  inspection,  and  the  honey  can  only  be 
got  out  by  stupefying  the  bees  with 
smoke  or  chloroform,  or  by  fumigating 
with  sulphur,  which  entails  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  swarm.  Wooden  hives  of 
square,  boxlike  form  are  now  gaining 
general  favor  among  bee  keepers.  They 
usually  consist  of  a  large  breeding  cham- 
ber below  and  two  sliding  removable 
boxes  called  supers  above  for  the  ab- 
straction of  honey  without  disturbing 
the  contents  of  the  main  chamber.  When 
their  stores  of  honey  are  removed  the 
bees  must  be  fed  during  the  winter  and 
part  of  spring  with  syrup  or  with  a 
solution  consisting  of  two  pounds  loaf 
sugar  to  a  pint  of  water.     See  Bee. 

APIOS,  a  Noi-th  American  plant  of  the 
pea  order  (Leguminosse) ,  with  tuberous, 
starchy,  edible  rhizomes.  Attempts  at 
cultivation  have  not  been  to  any  practi- 
cal extent  successful. 

APIS  (a'pis),  in  entomology,  the  typi- 
cal genus  of  the  family  afndsB  and  the 
hymenopterous  tribe  snthophila.  The 
A.  mellifica,  from  Latin  melificus,  a.= 
honey-making  (meZ=honey,  and  facio= 
to  make),  is  the  hive  bee. 

In  astronomy,  a  small  constellation  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere,  first  named  by 
Halley.  It  is  called  also  Musca,  literally 
=the  fly,  but  in  this  case  rendered  "the 
bee." 

APIS,  a  bull  to  which  divine  honors 
were  paid  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who 
regarded  him  as  a  symbol  of  Osiris.  At 
Memphis  he  had  a  splendid  residence, 
containing  extensive  walks  and  courts 
for  his  entertainment,  and  he  was  waited 
upon  by  a  large  train  of  priests,  who 
looked  upon  his  every  movement  as  oracu- 
lar. He  was  not  suffered  to  live  beyond  25 
years,  being  secretly  killed  by  the  priests 
and  thrown  into  a  sacred  well.  Another 
bull,  characterized  by  certain  marks,  as 
a  black  color,  a  triangle  of  white  on  the 
forehead,  a  white  cresent-shaped  spot  on 
the  right  side,  etc.,  was  selected  in  his 
place.  His  birthday  was  annually  cele- 
brated, and  his  death  was  a  season  of 
public  mourning.  Belzoni  found  a  colos- 
sal sarcophagus  of  alabaster,  which  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the 
same  apartment  the  body  of  a  bull,  em- 
balmed in  asphaltum. 

APIUM,  a  genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  including  celery. 


APLACENTAL 


206 


APOGEE 


APLACENTAL,  a  term  applied  to 
those  mammals  in  which  the  young  are 
destitute  of  a  placenta.  The  aplacental 
mammals  comprise  the  monotremata  and 
marsupialia,  the  two  lowest  orders  of 
mammals,  including  the  duck  mole 
{omithorhynchus)  y  the  porcupine  ant- 
eater,  kangaroo,  etc. 

APTjANATIC,  in  optics,  a  term  specif- 
ically applied  to  reflectors,  lenses,  and 
combinations  of  them,  capable  of  trans- 
mitting light  without  spherical  aberra- 
tion. An  aplanatic  lens  is  a  lens  con- 
structed of  different  media  to  correct  the 
effects  of  the  unequal  refrangibility  of 
the  different  rays. 

APO,  a  volcano  in  Mindanao,  Philip- 
pine Islands;  over  10,000  feet  high. 

APOCALYPSE  (a-pok'a-lips),  the 
name  frequently  given  to  the  last  book 
of  the  New  Testament,  in  the  English 
version  called  the  Revelation  of  St.  John 
the  Divine.  It  is  generally  believed  that 
the  Apocalypse  was  written  by  the 
apostle  John  in  his  old  age  (95-97  A.  D.) 
in  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  whither  he  had 
been  banished  by  the  Roman  Emperor 
Domitian. 

APOCALYPTIC  WRITINGS,  writings 
such  as,  like  the  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
their  prototype,  set  forth  in  a  figura- 
tive and  pictorial  manner  the  future 
progress  and  completion  of  the  world's 
history,  especially  in  its  religious  aspect. 
The  two  apocalyptic  books  received  into 
the  canon  of  Scripture  are  the  books  of 
Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse  especially  so- 
called,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  But 
Jewish  and  early  Christian  literature 
produced  numerous  apocalypses  from 
about  170  B.  C.  to  130  A.  D.  The  Book 
of  Enoch  is  the  best  known  of  the  non- 
canonical  Jewish  apocalypses;  it  dates 
from  the  later  Maccabee  period;  another 
is  the  apocalypse  of  Ezra.  The  "Shep- 
herd of  Hermas"  is  the  most  important 
Christian  work  of  this  kind. 

APOCRYPHA  (a-pok'rif-a),  in  the 
early  Christian  Church,  (1)  books  pub- 
lished anonymously;  (2)  those  suitable 
for  private  rather  than  public  reading; 
(3)  those  written  by  an  apostle  or  other 
inspired  author,  but  not  regarded  as 
part  of  Scripture;  (4)  the  works  of 
heretics. 

In  English  now,  the  following  14 
books:  I,  1  Esdras;  II,  2  Esdras;  III, 
Tobit;IV.  Judith;  V.  Additions  to  Esther; 
VI,  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon;  VII,  Ec- 
clesiasticus,  called  also  the  Wisdom  of 
Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach;  VIII,  Baruch; 
!X,  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children; 
X,  The  History  of  Susanna;  XI,  Bel  and 
the  Dragon;  XII,  The  Prayer  of  Manas- 


seh.  King  of  Juda;  XIII,  1  Macaabees; 
and  XIV,  2  Maccabees.  Most  of  the 
above-mentioned  books  were  composed 
during  the  two  centuries  immediately 
preceding  the  birth  of  Christ,  though 
some  were  penned,  or  at  least  interpo- 
lated, at  a  later  period.  They  were 
written  not  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaean,  but 
in  Greek;  and  the  Jews  never  accorded 
them  a  place  in  the  Old  Testament  canon. 
They  were  inserted  in  the  SeptuagTnt, 
and  thence  passed  to  the  Latin  Vulgate. 
The  Christian  fathers  are  divided  in 
sentiment  as  to  their  value  and  the  re- 
lation they  stood  to  the  canonical  Old 
Testament  books.  The  question  whether 
or  not  they  were  inspired  remained  an 
open  one  till  the  Reformation.  Wyclif, 
Luther,  and  Calvin  were  against  them. 
The  Council  of  Trent,  on  April  8,  1546, 
placed  them  on  an  equal  level  with  Scrip- 
ture, anathematizing  all  who  held  the 
contrary  opinion.  Portions  of  them  are 
in  the  New  as  well  as  in  the  Old  Lec- 
tionary  of  the  English  Church.  The 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  the 
formulated  creed  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  regards  them  as  simply  human 
writings.  The  several  apocryphal  books 
are  of  unequal  merit;  I  Maccabees  is  a 
highly  valuable  history;  while  Bel  and 
the  Dragon  is  a  rnonstrous  fable.  They 
throw  much  light  on  the  religious  opin- 
ions and  the  political  state  of  the  Jews 
before  the  advent  of  Christ.  The  Greek 
Church  prohibits  their  use. 

APOCYNACE^  (ap-5-sin-as'e-i),  an 
order  of  plants,  the  English  dog-banes. 
Of  100  known  genera  only  one,  vinca, 
is  found  in  England;  the  rest  are  to  be 
found  in  warmer  countries. 

APOD  A,  in  zoology  (1)  Aristotle's 
third  section  of  zootoka,  or  air-breathing 
vivipara.  It  included  the  whales,  which 
the  Stagirite,  with  remarkable  scientific 
accuracy,  ranked  with  the  warm-blooded 
quadrupeds;  (2)  the  second  order  of  the 
class  amphibia,  or  batrachia.  The  body 
is  like  that  of  an  earthworm,  and  is 
quite  destitute  of  feet.  The  order  con- 
tains but  one  family,  the  cseciliadse;  (3) 
according  to  Prof.  Max  Miiller,  a  group 
of  fishes  belonging  to  the  sub-order  phy- 
sostomata.  It  is  so  called  because  the 
ventral  fins  are  wanting.  It  contains 
three  families,  the  tnurmnidse,  or  eels,  the 
gymnotidse,  and  the  symbranchidx. 

APODAL  FISHES,  the  name  applied 
to  such  malacopterous  fishes  as  want 
ventral  fins.  They  constitute  a  small 
natural  family,  of  which  the  common  eel 
is  an  example. 

APOGEE,  that  point  in  the  orbit  of 
the  moon  or  a  planet  where  it  is  at  its 


APOLLINARIS  WATER 


207 


APONEUROSIS 


greatest  distance  from  the  earth;  prop- 
erly this  particular  part  of  the  moon's 
orbit. 

APOLLINABIS  WATER,  a  natural 
aerated  water,  belonging  to  the  class  of 
acidulated  soda  waters,  and  derived  from 
the  Apollinarisbrunnen,  a  spring  in  the 
valley  of  the  _Ahr,  near  the  Rhine,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia. 

APOLLO,  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and 
Leto  (Latona),  who  being  persecuted  by 
the  jealousy  of  Hera  (Juno),  after  tedi- 
ous wanderings  and  nine  days'  labor  was 
delivered  to  him  and  his  twin  sister, 
Artemis  (Diana),  on  the  island  of  Delos. 


XHE  APOLLO  BELVEDERE  IN  THE  VATICAN, 
ROME 

Skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  he  slew  the 
serpent  Python  on  the  fifth  day  after 
his  birth;  afterward,  with  his  sister 
Artemis,  he  killed  the  children  of  Niobe. 
He  aided  Zeus  in  the  war  with  the  Titans 
and  the  giants.  He  destroyed  the  Cy- 
elopedes,  because  they  forged  the  thun- 
derbolts with  which  Zeus  killed  his  son 
and  favorite,  Asklepios  (^sculapius). 
According  to  some  traditions  he  invented 
the  lyre,  though  this  is  generally  as- 
cribed to  Hermes  (Mercury).  Apollo 
was  originally  the  sun-god;  and  though 
in  Homer  he  appears  distinct  from  Helios 
(the  sun),  yet  his  real  nature  is  hinted 
at  even  here  by  the  epithet  Phoebus,  that 
is,  the  radiant  or  beaming.  In  later  times 
the  view  was  almost  universal  that  Apol- 


lo and  Helios  were  identical.  From  be- 
ing the  god  of  light  and  purity  in  a  phys- 
ical sense  he  gradually  became  the  god 
of  moral  and  spiritual  light  and  purity, 
the  source  of  all  intelectual,  social,  and 
political  progress.  He  thus  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  god  of  song  and  proph- 
ecy, the  god  that  wards  off  and  heals 
bodily  suffering  and  disease,  the  institu- 
tor  and  guardian  of  civil  and  political 
order,  and  the  founder  of  cities.  His 
worship  was  introduced  at  Rome  at  an 
early  period,  probably  in  the  time  of  the 
Tarquins.  Among  the  ancient  statues  of 
Apollo  that  have  come  down  to  us,  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  one  called  the 
Apollo  Belvedere,  from  the  Belvedere  gal- 
lery in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  This  statue 
was  found  in  the  ruins  of  Antium  in 
1503,  and  was  purchased  by  Pope  Julius 
II.  It  is  now  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  a 
Greek  statue  of  the  3d  century  B.  c,  and 
dates  probably  from  the  reign  of  Nero. 

APOLLODORUS,  a  Greek  writer  who 
flourished  140  B.  C.  Among  the  numer- 
ous works  he  wrote  on  various  subjects, 
the  only  one  extant  is  his  "Bibliotheca," 
which  contains  a  concise  account  of  the 
mythology  of  Greece  down  to  the  heroic 
age, 

APOLLONIUS  OF  RHODES,  a  Greek 
poet,  born  in  Egypt,  but  long  residing  at 
Rhodes,  where  he  founded  a  school  of 
rhetoric.  He  afterward  became  keeper 
of  the  famous  library  of  Alexandria,  B. 
C.  149.  He  wrote  a  poem  called  "Argo- 
nautica,"  which  is  still  extant. 

APOLLOS,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  who 
learned  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  at 
Ephesus  from  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  be- 
came a  preacher  of  the  gospel  in  Achaia 
and  Corinth,  and  an  assistant  of  Paul  in 
his  missionary  work.  Some  have  re- 
garded him  as  the  author  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Jews. 

APOLOGETICS,  the  department  of 
theology  which  treats  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  evidences  and  defense  of  the 
doctrines  of  a  faith.  Christian  apolo- 
getics, generally  called  simply  apolo- 
getics, treats  of  the  evidenc«s  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  seeks  to  establish  the  truth 
of  the  Bible  and  the  doctrines  educed 
from  it. 

APONEUROSIS,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
of  certain  grayish-white  shining  mem- 
branes, composed  of  interlacing  fibers, 
sometimes  continuous  with  the  muscular 
fiber,  and  differing  from  tendons  merely 
in  having  a  flat  form.  They  serve  sev- 
eral purposes,  sometimes  attaching  the 
muscles  to  the  bones,  sometimes  sur- 
rounding the  muscle  and  preventing  its 
displacement,  etc. 


APOPHYGE 


208 


APOSTOLIC 


APOPHYGE  (ap-of'e-ge  or  ap'6-fig), 
in  architecture,  the  small  curve  at  the  top 
of  a  column  by  which  its  shaft  joins  its 
capital.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  spring 
of  the  column.  Originally  it  was  the 
ring  which  bound  the  extremities  of 
wooden  pillars  to  keep  them  from  split- 
ting, imitated  in  stone-work.  The  same 
name  is  given  to  the  corresponding  con- 
cavity connecting  the  bottom  of  a  pillar 
with  the  fillet  at  its  base. 

APOPHYLLITE  (ap-of'il-It) ,  a  tetrag- 
onal mineral,  called  also  ichthyophthal- 
mite,  classed  by  Dana  as  the  type  of  an 
apophylite  group  of  unisilicates.  Color, 
white  or  grayish;  occasionally  with 
greenish,  yellowish,  rose-red  or  flesh-red 
tint.  It  is  generally  transparent;  is  brit- 
tle, and  has  feeble  double  refraction.  It 
is  "hydrated  calceopotassic  silicate."  It 
occurs  chiefly  in  amygdaloid,  though  oc- 
casionally in  granite  and  gneiss.  It  is 
found  at  Ratho,  near  Edinburgh,  and  in 
Fife,  Dumbarton  and  Inverness-shires. 
It  occurs  in  Europe,  in  India,  in  Siberia, 
in  America,  in  Australia  and  elsewhere. 

APOPLEXY,  a  serious  malady,  coming 
on  so  suddenly  and  so  violently  that  an- 
ciently anyone  affected  by  it  was  said  to 
be  attonitus  (thunderstruck),  or  sider- 
atus  (planet-struck).  The  disease  now 
described  is  properly  called  cerebral 
apoplexy,  the  cerebrum  or  brain  being 
the  part  chiefly  affected. 

APOSTLE,  one  who  is  sent  off  or  away 
from;  one  sent  on  some  important  mis- 
sion; a  messenger;  a  missionary.  The 
name  given,  in  the  Christian  Church,  to 
the  12  men  whom  Jesus  selected  from 
His  disciples  as  the  best  instructed  in 
His  doctrines,  and  the  fittest  instru- 
ments for  the  propagation  of  his  reli- 
gion. Their  names  were  as  follows:  Si- 
mon Peter  (Greek  of  Caiphas,  the  rock), 
and  Andrew,  his  brother;  James  the 
greater,  and  John,  his  brother,  who  were 
sons  of  Zebedee;  Philip  of  Bethsaida, 
Bartholomew,  Thomas,  Matthew;  James, 
the  son  of  Alpheus;  commonly  called 
James  the  less;  Lebbeus,  his  brother, 
who  was  surnamed  Thaddeus,  and  was 
called  Judas,  or  Jude,  Simon  the  Canaan- 
ite,  and  Judas  Iscariot.  Of  this  num- 
ber, Simon  Peter,  John,  James  the 
greater,  and  Andrew  were  fisher- 
men; and  Matthew,  a  publican  or  tax- 
gatherer.  When  the  apostles  were  re- 
duced to  11  by  the  suicide  of  Judas,  who 
had  betrayed  Christ,  they  chose  Matthias 
by  lot,  on  the  proposition  of  St.  Peter. 
Soon  after,  their  number  became  13,  by 
the  miraculous  vocation  of  Saul,  who, 
under  the  name  of  Paul,  became  one  of 
the    most    zealous    propagators    of    the 


Christian  faith.  The  Bible  gives  the 
name  of  apostle  to  Barnabas  also,  who 
accompanied  Paul  on  his  missions  (Acts, 
xiv:  13),  and  Paul  bestows  it  also  on 
Andronicus  and  Junia,  his  relations  and 
companions  in  prison.  In  a  still  wider 
sense,  preachers  who  first  taught  Chris- 
tianity in  heathen  countries,  are  some- 
times termed  apostles;  e.  g.,  St.  Denis, 
the  apostle  of  the  Gauls;  St.  Boniface, 
the  apostle  of  Germany;  the  monk  Au- 
gustine, the  apostle  of  England;  the 
Jesuit  Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies;  Adalbert  of  Prague,  the  apostle 
of  Prussia  proper.  Paul  was  the  only 
apostle  who  had  received  a  scientific  edu- 
cation; the  others  were  mechanics.  Peter, 
Andrew,  and  John  are  called  in  the 
Scriptures  (Acts  iv:  13),  homines  sine 
Uteris  idiotx.  Peter  employed  his  dis- 
ciple St.  Mark  in  writing  the  Gospel 
which  bears  his  name. 

APOSTLES'  ISLANDS,  or  THE 
TWELVE  APOSTLES,  a  group  of  27 
islands  in  Lake  Superior.  They  belong 
to  Wisconsin.  The  principal  islands  of 
the  group  are  He  au  Chene,  Stockton, 
Bear,  Madeline,  and  Outer.  They  have 
an  area  of  200  squate  miles.  Brown 
sandstone  is  exported,  and  the  islands 
are  covered  with  a  rich  growth  of  tim- 
ber. La  Pointe,  on  Madeline  island,  for- 
merly the  county-seat  of  Ashland  county, 
Wis.,  was  settled  by  the  French  in  1680. 

APOSTOLIC,  or  APOSTOLICAL,  per- 
taining or  relating  to  the  apostles. 

Apostolic  Church. — The  Church  in  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  constituted  accord- 
ing to  their  design.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  four  churches  of  Rome, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  and 
is  claimed  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  occasionally  by  the  Episco- 
palians. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Cano-ns. — 
A  collection  of  regulations  attributed  to 
the  apostles,  but  generally  supposed  to  be 
spurious.  They  appeared  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury; are  divided  into  eight  books,  and 
consist  of  rules  and  precepts  relating  to 
the  duty  of  Christians,  and  particularly 
to  the  ceremonies  and  discipline  of  the 
Church. 

Apostolic  Delegate. — A  permanent  rep- 
resentative of  the  Pope  in  a  foreign 
country.  It  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  the  word  ablegate,  the  latter  mean- 
ing a  temporary  representative  of  the 
Pope  for  some  special  function. 

Apostolic  Fathers. — The  Christian 
writers  who,  during  any  part  of  their 
lives,  were  contemporary  with  the 
apostles.  There  are  five — Clement,  Bar- 
nabas, Hermas,  Ignatius,  Polycarp. 


APOSTOLICS 


209 


APOTHEOSIS 


Apostolic  King. — A  title  granted  by 
the  Pope  to  the  Kings  of  Hungary,  first 
conferred  on  St.  Stephen,  the  founder  of 
the  royal  line  of  Hungary,  on  account 
of  what  he  accomplished  in  the  spread 
of  Christianity. 

Apostolic  See. — The  see  of  the  Popes 
or  Bishops  of  Rome;  so  called  because 
the  Popes  profess  themselves  the  succes- 
sors of  St.  Peter,  its  founder. 

Apostolic  Succession. — The  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  bishops,  and, 
through  them,  of  priests  and  deacons 
(these  three  orders  of  ministers  being 
called  the  apostolical  orders),  in  the 
Church  by  regular  ordination  from  the 
first  apostles  down  to  the  present  day. 
All  Episcopal  churches  hold  theoretically, 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and 
many  members  of  the  English  Church 
strictly,  that  such  succession  is  essential 
to  the  officiating  priest,  in  order  that 
grace  may  be  communicated  through  his 
administrations. 

APOSTOLICS,  APOSTOLICI,  or  APOS- 
TOLIC BRETHREN,  the  name  given 
to  certain  sects  who  professed  to  imitate 
the  manners  and  practice  of  the  apostles. 
The  last  and  most  important  of  these 
sects  was  founded  about  1260  by  Gerhard 
Segarelli  of  Parma.  They  went  bare- 
footed, clothed  in  white,  with  long  beard, 
disheveled  hair,  and  bare  heads,  accom- 
panied by  women  called  spiritual  sisters, 
begging,  preaching  and  singing,  through- 
out Italy,  Switzerland,  and  France;  an- 
nounced the  coming  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  and  of  purer  times;  denounced 
the  papacy,  and  its  corrupt  and  worldly 
church;  and  inculcated  the  complete  re- 
nunciation of  all  worldly  ties,  of  prop- 
erty, settled  abode,  marriage,  etc.  This 
society  was  formally  abolished  (1286) 
by  Honorius  IV.  In  1300  Segarelli  was 
burned  as  a  heretic,  but  another  chief 
apostle  appeared — Dolcino,  a  learned 
man  of  Milan.  In  self-defense  they  sta- 
tioned themselves  in  fortified  places 
whence  they  might  resist  attacks.  After 
having  devastated  a  large  tract  of  coun- 
try belonging  to  Milan  they  were  sub- 
dued, A.  D.  1307,  by  the  troops  of  Bishop 
Raynerius,  in  their  fortress  Zebello,  in 
Vercelli,  and  almost  all  destroyed.  Dol- 
cino was  burned.  The  survivors  after- 
ward appeared  in  Lombardy  and  in  the 
south  of  France  as  late  as  1368. 

APOTHECARY,  the  name  formerly 
given  in  England  and  Ireland  to  mem- 
bers of  an  inferior  branch  of  the  medical 
profession.  The  apothecary  was  in  Eng- 
land a  licentiate  of  the  Apothecaries'  So- 
ciety of  London;  in  Ireland,  a  licentiate 
of  the  Apothecaries'  Hall  of  Ireland.  Up 
to  a  comparatively  recent  period,  how- 


ever, no  inconsiderable  proportion  of 
those  who  practiced  as  apothecaries,  at 
any  rate  in  England,  were  persons  prac- 
ticing without  any  license.  The  licensed 
apothecary  frequently  kept  a  shop  in 
which  he  sold  drugs  and  made  up  medi- 
cal  prescriptions,  in  this  respect  competr 
ing  with  the  chemist  and  druggist.  But 
he  was  entitled  to  attend  sick  persons, 
and  prescribe  for  them;  and  though  it 
was  the  almost  universal  practice  of 
apothecaries  to  charge  their  patients 
only  for  medicines  supplied,  they  had  the 
alternative  of  charging  for  their  attend- 
ances, but  could  not  charge  for  both.  The 
term  apothecary  has  been  long  in  dis- 
use. 

Anciently,  the  apothecaries  were  not 
distinguishable  from  the  grocers  (the 
surgeons  being,  in  like  manner,  undistin- 
guishable  from  the  barbers)  ;  and  it  was 
not  till  1617,  in  the  13th  year  of  James 
I.,  that  these  bodies  were  formed  into 
two  distinct  corporations.  A  statute  of 
1815  enacted  that  no  person  should  prac- 
tice as  an  apothecary,  or  act  as  an  as- 
sistant to  an  apothecary,  in  any  part  of 
England  or  Wales,  unless  he  had  been 
examined  by  a  court  of  examiners,  and 
had  received  therefrom  a  certificate.  An 
act  of  1874  amended  the  act  of  1815,  and 
gave  the  Apothecaries'  Society  power  to 
co-operate  with  other  medical  licensing 
bodies  in  granting  licenses. 

APOTHECIUM,  the  scutella  or  shields 
constituting  the  fructification  of  some 
lichens.  They  are  little  colored  cups  or 
lines  with  a  hard  disk,  surrounded  by  a 
rim,  and  containing  asci  or  tubes  filled 
with  sporules. 

Also  the  cases  in  which  the  organs  of 
reproduction  in  the  algacese,  or  sea 
weeds,  are  contained. 

APOTHEOSIS,  a  deification;  the  plac- 
ing of  a  prince  or  other  distinguished 
person  among  the  heathen  deities.  It 
was  one  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras, 
which  he  had  borrowed  from  the  Chal- 
dees,  that  virtuous  persons,  after  their 
death,  were  raised  into  the  order  of  the 
gods.  The  Romans,  for  several  centuries, 
deified  none  but  Romulus,  and  first  imi- 
tated the  Greeks  in  the  fashion  of  fre- 
quent apotheosis  after  the  time  of 
Augustus  Caesar.  From  this  period  apo- 
theosis was  regulated  by  the  decrees  of 
the  senate.  It  became  at  last  so  frequent 
as  to  be  an  object  of  contempt.  The  pe- 
riod of  the  Roman  emperors,  so  rich  in 
crime  and  folly,  offers  the  most  infamous 
instances  of  apotheosis.  After  Csesar, 
the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  emperors 
were  deified.  The  same  hand  which  had 
murdered  a  predecessor  often  placed  him 
among  the  gods. 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS        210 


AFPENISICIXI9 


APPALACHIAN    MOUNTAINS    (ap- 

pa-la'-che-an),  also  called  Alleghenies, 
a  vast  mountain  range  in  North  America, 
extending  for  1,300  miles  from  Cape 
Gaspe,  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
S.  W.  to  Alabama.  The  system  has  been 
divided  into  three  great  sections:  the 
northern  (including  the  Adirondacks,  the 
Green  Mountains,  the  White  Mountains, 
etc.),  from  Cape  Gaspe  to  New  York; 
the  central  (including  a  large  portion  of 
the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Alleghenies  proper, 
the  numerous  lesser  ranges),  from  New 
York  to  the  valley  of  the  New  river ;  and 
the  southern  (including  the  continuation 
of  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Black  Mountains, 
the  Smoky  Mountains,  etc.),  from  the 
New  river  southward.  The  chain  con- 
sists of  several  ranges  generally  parallel 
to  each  other,  the  altitude  of  the  individ- 
ual mountains  increasing  on  approaching 
the  South.  The  highest  peaks  rise  over 
6,600  feet  (not  one  at  all  approaching  the 
snow  level),  but  the  mean  height  is  about 
2,500  feet.  Lake  Champlain  is  the  only 
lake  of  great  importance  in  the  system, 
but  numerous  rivers  of  considerable  size 
take  their  rise  here.  Magnetite,  hema- 
tite, and  other  iron  ores  occur  in  great 
abundance,  and  the  coal  measures  are 
among  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
Gold,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  are  also 
found,  while  marble,  limestone,  fire  clay, 
gypsum,  and  salt  abound.  The  forests 
yield  large  quantities  of  valuable  timber, 
such  as  sugar  maple,  white  birch,  beech, 
ash,  oak,  cherry  tree,  white  poplar,  white 
and  yellow  pine,  etc. 

APPALACHICOLA  (-chi-co-la),  a 
river  of  the  United  States,  formed  by  the 
Chattahoochee  and  Flint  rivers,  which 
unite  near  the  northern  border  of  Flor- 
ida; length,  about  100  miles;  flows  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  navigable. 

APPABITION,  according  to  9  brief 
held  by  some,  a  disembodied  spirit  mani- 
festing itself  to  mortal  sight;  according 
0  the  common  theory  an  illusion  invol- 
antarily  generated,  by  means  of  which  fig- 
ures or  forms,  not  present  to  the  actual 
sense,  are  nevertheless  depictured  with 
a  vividness  and  intensity  sufficient  to 
create  a  temporary  belief  of  their  reality. 
Such  illusions  are  now  generally  held  to 
result  from  an  overexcited  brain,  a 
strong  imagination,  or  some  bodily  mal- 
ady. This  theory  explains  satisfactorily 
a  large  majority  of  the  stories  of  ap- 
paritions. Belief  in  spirits,  visible  and 
invisible,  still  persists,  and  an  increase 
in  the  followers  of  spiritualism  has  been 
noted  since  the  European  War  of  1914- 
1918. 

APPEAL,  an  application  for  the  trans- 
fer of  a  cause  or  suit  from  an  inferior 


to  a  superior  court  or  judge.  It  differs 
from  a  writ  of  error  in  two  respects:  (1) 
That  an  appeal  may  be  brought  on  any 
interlocutory  matter,  but  a  writ  of  error 
only  on  a  definite  judgment.  (2)  That 
on  writs  of  error,  the  superior  court  pro- 
nounces the  judgment,  while  on  appeals 
it  gives  directions  to  the  court  below  to 
rectify  its  decree.  (Blackstone's  "Com- 
mentaries," book  iii,  ch.  4.) 

In  the  United  States,  the  distinction 
between  an  appeal,  which  originated  in 
the  civil  law,  and  a  writ  of  error,  which 
is  of  common  law  origin,  is  that  the  for- 
mer carries  the  whole  case  for  review  by 
the  higher  court,  including  both  the  facts 
and  the  law;  while  the  latter  removes 
only  questions  of  law.  An  act  of  Con- 
gress of  1875  provides  that  the  judg- 
ments and  decrees  of  the  Circuit  Courts 
of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  re-ex- 
amined in  the  Supreme  Court  unless  the 
matter  in  dispute  shall  exceed  the  sum  or 
value  of  $5,000,  exclusive  of  costs.  No 
judgment,  decree  or  order  of  a  circuit  or 
district  court,  in  any  civil  action  at  law 
or  in  equity,  shall  be  reviewed  in  the  Su- 
preme Court  on  writ  of  error  or  appeal, 
unless  the  writ  of  error  is  brought,  or 
the  appeal  is  taken,  within  two  years 
after  the  entry  of  such  judgment,  decree, 
or  order;  save  in  the  case  of  infants, 
insane  persons,  and  imprisoned  persons, 
when  the  period  is  two  years,  exclusive  of 
this  term  of  disability.  An  appeal  from 
a  district  court  to  a  circuit  court  of  the 
United  States  must  be  taken  within  one 
year.  An  appeal  from  the  district  coui't 
in  admiralty  to  the  circuit  court  must  be 
made  immediately  after  the  decree,  in 
open  court,  before  the  adjournment  sine 
die;  and  it  should  be  taken  to  the  next 
succeeding  circuit  court.  An  appeal  may 
be  taken  from  the  State  courts  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  in 
cases  involving  the  validity  of  a  treaty 
or  statute  of,  or  authorized  under,  the 
United  States;  on  the  ground  of  repug- 
nance to  the  constitution,  etc. 

APPENDICITIS,  a  disease  caused  by 
inflammation,  suppuration,  and  conse- 
quent gangrene  in  the  tissue  of  the  ver- 
miform appendix,  usually  due  to  insufii- 
cient  circulation  of  blood  in  the  part  itself. 
The  interior  of  the  appendix  is  big  enough 
to  admit  only  a  medium  sized  darning 
needle.  The  interior  caliber  of  the  ap- 
pendix is,  however,  often  found  dilated 
and  containing  foreign  material.  The 
common  belief  that  appendicitis  is  caused 
by  the  introduction  of  a  grape  or  orange 
seed  or  some  other  seed  into  the  appendix 
is  practically  erroneous,  since  such 
causes  are  extremely  rare.  It  is  true, 
nevertheless,  that  occasionally  seeds,  bits 


APPENDIX    VERMIFORMIS        211 


APPIUS 


of  bone,  small  shot,  gallstones,  beans, 
pins  and  other  objects  have  caused  fatal 
perforation  of  the  appendix. 

The  appendix  is  an  organ  which  ap- 
pears to  have  no  actual  use  in  the  pres- 
ent machinery  of  man,  but  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  man's  development  it  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  a  large  pouch  which 
played  an  important  part  in  the  digestive 
operations  of  the  human  system.  By  ages 
of  disuse  it  has  gradually  shrunk  to  its 
present  dimensions,  and  is  known  to 
»;ience  as  a  vestigral  organ.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  delicate  and  vital  parts  of 
the  body,  in  the  peritoneal  cavity,  usually 
to  the  right  of  the  center  of  the  abdomen, 
but  in  rare  instances  it  has  been  found 
on  the  left  side,  and,  still  more  rarely, 
otherwise  placed. 

Until  a  comparatively  recent  period 
the  frequent  and  fatal  part  played  by 
the  vermiform  appendix  in  peritoneal 
disorders,  and  especially  in  septic  peri- 
tonitis, has  not  been  understood  by  the 
medical  profession.  When  ^  it  was  once 
proved  that  the  poison  which  produced 
septic  peritonitis  came  from  the  breaking 
down  and  consequent  perforation  or  from 
abscess  of  the  appendix  the  very  root  of 
one  of  man's  worst  ailments  was  laid 
bare.  Further  practice  established  be- 
yond a  doubt  that  in  a  large  majority  of 
cases  the  appendix  could  be  removed  by 
a  single  surgical  operation  and  the  pa- 
tient restored  to  vigorous  health  if  the 
disease  was  discovered  in  time  and  cor- 
rectly diagnosed.  The  surgeons  now  re- 
gard the  operation  itself  as  one  of  the 
most  simple,  but  to  obtain  the  best  re- 
sults it  should  take  place  within  a  few 
hours  after  the  patient  begins  to  suffer 
from  the  disease. 

Appendicitis  usually  occurs  between 
the  ages  of  10  and  50  years.  It  is  rare 
above  or  below  those  ages.  It  is  more 
frequent  among  males  than  females, 
the  exact  proportion  being  unknown. 

APPENDIX    VERMIPORMIS,     a 

worm-like  rudimentary  process,  which 
hangs  from  the  caecum  or  first  part  of 
the  large  intestine.  It  is  from  three  to 
six  inches  in  length,  the  upper  end  open- 
ing into  the  csecum  and  the  lower  end  be- 
ing closed.  It  lies  in  the  abdominal 
cavity  just  above  the  right  groin  and  its 
functions  are  unknown. 

APPENZELL,  a  canton  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  northeastern  part  of  that 
country.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  beautiful 
Alpine  scenery,  and  has  excellent  pas- 
ture land,  but  little  agriculture.  The 
Sitter  is  the  chief  river.  The  canton  is 
composed  of  two  half  cantons,  Ausser- 
rhoden  and  Innerrhoden.  Each  has  an 
independent  local  government.     The  lat- 

15— Vol.  I— Cyo 


ter  is  almost  entirely  Roman  Catholic, 
while  the  former  is  Protestant.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  canton  is  Trogen  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  2,500.  Innerrhoden  has 
a  population  of  about  15,000,  and 
Ausserrhoden  about  60,000. 

APPEBCEPTION,  a  psychological 
term  denoting  the  mental  act  and  faculty 
of  writing  or  relating  ideas  or  other 
mental  states  in  groups  or  larger  wholes 
of  any  part.  A  particular  object  or  idea 
is  said  to  be  apperceived  when  it  is  taken 
up  into  an  earlier  complex  mental  state 
and  put  into  appropriate  connection  with 
its  parts.  It  goes  further  than  Associa- 
tion OF  Ideas  (q.  v.),  since  it  recognizes 
the  fact  that  the  mind  proceeds  accord- 
ing to  a  more  or  less  systematic  plan  and 
selects  its  materials  and  thus  involves 
constructive  imagination;  while  associa- 
tion deals  with  a  more  or  less  mechanical 
revival  of  ideas,  according  to  their  acci- 
dental contiguities  and  resemblances. 

APPIAN  WAY,  the  great  Roman 
highway  constructed  by  Appius  Claudius, 
from  Rome  to  Capua,  and  afterward  ex- 
tended to  Brundusium,  and  finished  B.  C. 
312. 

APPIUS,  CLAUDIUS  (ap'e-us),  sur- 
named  Caecus,  or  the  Blind,  an  ancient 
Roman,  elected  censor  B.  c.  312,  which 
office  he  held  four  years.  While  in  this 
position  he  made  every  effort  to  weaken 
the  power  of  the  plebs,  and  constructed 
the  road  and  aqueduct  named  after  him. 
He  was  subsequently  twice  consul,  and 
once  dictator.  In  his  old  age  he  became 
blind.  He  is  the  earliest  Roman  wi'iter 
of  prose  and  verse  whose  name  we  know. 

APPIUS    CLAUDIUS  CRASSINUS,  a 

Roman  decemvir  (451  to  449  F  c).  Be- 
ing passionately  in  love  with  Virginia, 
daughter  of  Virginius,  a  respectable 
plebeian  absent  with  the  army,  he  per- 
suaded M.  Claudius,  his  client,  to  gain 
possession  of  her,  under  the  pretense 
that  she  was  the  daughter  of  one  of  his 
slaves.  The  people  compelled  him  to  set 
her  at  liberty;  but  Claudius  summoned 
her  before  the  tribunal  of  Appius,  who 
decided  that  the  pretended  slave  should 
be  given  up  to  her  master.  A  fearful 
disturbance  arose,  and  the  decemvir  was 
compelled  to  leave  Virginia  in  the  hands 
of  her  family.  Virginius,  hurriedly  re- 
called from  the  army,  appeared  and 
claimed  his  daughter;  but,  after  another 
mock  trial,  she  was  again  adjudged  to 
be  the  property  of  Marcus  Claudius.  To 
save  his  daughter  from  dishonor  Vii*- 
ginius  slew  her.  The  army  returned  to 
Rome  with  Virginius,  who  had  carried 
the    news   to    them,   and   the    decemviri 


APPLE 


212 


APPORTIONMENT   BILL 


were  deposed.  Appius  Claudius  died  in 
prison,  by  his  own  hand,  according  to 
Livy. 

APPLE,  the  fruit  of  the  pyrus  malus, 
a  species  of  the  genus  pyrus.  All  the 
different  kinds  of  apple  trees  now  in  cul- 
tivation are  usually  regarded  as  mere 
varieties  of  the  one  species  which,  in  its 
wild  state,  is  known  as  the  crab  tree, 
pynis  acerba.  The  Romans  are  said  to 
have  had  22  varieties  of  the  pyrus  malus, 
or  cultivated  apple  tree.  At  the  present 
time  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  dif- 
fused and  valuable  of  all  fruit  trees. 
About  1,000  varieties  are  cultivated  in 
the  United  States,  where  the  cultivation 
of  the  fruit  on  an  extensive  scale  has 
become  one  of  the  most  profitable  indus- 
tries. 

The  appleis  regarded  by  botanists  asthe 
type  of  the  kind  of  fruit  to  which  they 
have  applied  the  term  pome.  The  eat- 
able part  has  a  more  or  less  aromatic, 
sweet,  or  sub-acid  taste,  and  contains 
starch,  grape-sugar,  and  malic  acid. 
Malic  acid,  extracted  from  the  apple,  has 
long  been  used  in  medicine,  and  is  large- 
ly employed  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing. 

APPLETON,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Outagamie  co..  Wis.,  on  the  Fox  river 
and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
railroads;  25  miles  S.  W.  of  Green  Bay. 
It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Lake 
Winnebago  and  on  the  Green  Bay  water- 
way, on  a  plateau  70  feet  above  the  river, 
and  near  the  Grand  Chute  rapTds,  whence 
it  derives  excellent  power  for  manufac- 
turing. The  principal  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  farm  implements,  furni- 
ture, paper,  flour,  pulp,  machinery,  and 
woolen  and  knit  goods.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Lawrence  University  (Methodist-Episco- 
pal), and  has  university  and  public- 
school  libraries,  National  banks,  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910) 
16,773;  (1920)  19,561. 

APPOGGIATTJRA,  in  music,  a  small 
additional  note  of  embellishment  in  pre- 
ceding the  note  to  which  it  is  attached, 
and  taking  away  from  the  principal  note 
a  portion  of  its  time. 

APPOLD,  JOHN  GEORGE,  an  English 
mechanician  and  inventor  of  automatic 
machinery,  born  in  1800.  He  invented  a 
centrifugal  pump  and  a  brake  which  was 
used  in  laying  the  Atlantic  cable.  He 
died  Aug.  31,  1865. 

APPOMATTOX    COURT    HOUSE,    a 

village  in  Appomattox  co.,  Va.,  20 
miles  E.  of  Lynchburg.  Here,  on  April 
9,  1865,  General  Lee  surrendered  to  Gen- 
eral Grant,  and  thus  virtually  concluded 
the  Civil  War. 


APPONYI,  ALBERT,  COUNT,  Hun- 
garian statesman,  born  1846.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  universities  of 
Vienna  and  Budapest.  In  1872  he  en- 
tered Parliament,  and  by  his  eloquence 
and  gift  of  leadership  soon  became  the 
head  of  the  Conservative  National  Party^ 
In  1899  he  joined  the  ranks  of  the  Liber- 


COUNT   ALBERT    APPONYI 

als;  he  was  chosen  President  of  the 
Reichstag  in  1901  and  was  speaker  of 
the  Chamber  from  1902  to  1904.  In  1906 
he  became  Minister  of  Public  Education, 
and  held  that  office  till  1910.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1904  as  a  delegate 
to  the  World's  Peace  Conference  at  St. 
Louis,  and  again  in  1911,  when  he  lec- 
tured on  international  law.  He  was  a 
pronounced  opponent  of  Count  Tisza,  for 
many  years  perhaps  the  most  sinister 
figure  in  Hungarian  public  life.  In  1920 
he  was  head  of  the  Hungarian  peace 
delegation  which  visited  Paris  to  receive 
the  Allied  peace  terms. 

APPORTIONMENT  BILL,  a  bill 
adopted  by  the  United  States  Congress 
every  10  years,  and  directly  after  the 
completion  of  the  Federal  census,  which 
determines  the  number  of  members  that 
each  State  is  entitled  to  send  to  the  Na- 
tional House  of  Representatives,  and  pro- 
vides for  the  necessary  reorganization  of 
the  Congressional  electoral  districts.  The 
apportionment  based  on  enumeration  of 
1910  provided  one  representative  for 
every  211,887  of  population. 


APPRENTICESHIP 


213 


APSIDES 


APPRENTICESHIP,  in  law,  a  con- 
tract by  which  a  person  who  understands 
some  art,  trade,  or  business,  and  called 
master,  undertakes  to  teach  the  same 
to  another  person,  commonly  a  minor, 
and  called  the  apprentice,  who,  on  his 
part,  is  bound  to  serve  the  master,  during 
a  definite  period  of  time,  in  such  art, 
trade,  or  business.  At  common  law,  an 
infant  may  bind  himself  apprentice  by 
indenture,  because  it  is  for  his  benefit. 
But  this  contract,  on  account  of  its  lia- 
bility to  abuse,  has  been  regulated  by 
statute  in  the  United  States,  and  is  not 
binding  upon  the  infant  unless  entered 
into  by  him  with  the  consent  of  the 
parent  or  guardian,  or  by  the  parent  or 
guardian  for  him,  with  his  consent.  The 
contract  need  not  specify  the  particular 
trade  to  be  taught,  but  is  sufficient  if  it 
be  a  contract  to  teach  such  manual  occu- 
pation or  branch  of  business  as  shall  be 
found  best  suited  to  the  genius  or  ca- 
pacity of  the  apprentice.  This  contract 
must  generally  be  entered  into  by  inden- 
ture or  deed.  The  master  must  not  abuse 
his  authority,  either  by  bad  treatment, 
or  by  subjecting  his  apprentice  to  menial 
employments  unconnected  with  the  busi- 
ness he  has  to  learn;  but  he  may  correct 
him  with  moderation  for  negligence  and 
misbehavior.  He  cannot  dismiss  his  ap- 
prentice except  by  consent  of  all  the  par- 
ties to  the  indenture.  He  cannot  remove 
the  apprentice  out  of  the  State  under  the 
laws  of  which  he  was  apprenticed,  unless 
such  removal  is  provided  for  in  the  con- 
tract, or  may  be  implied  in  its  nature; 
and  if  he  do  so  remove  him,  the  contract 
ceases  to  be  obligatory.  An  infant  ap- 
prentice is  not  capable  in  law  of  consent- 
ing to  his  own  discharge.  After  the  ap- 
prenticeship is  at  an  end,  the  master 
cannot  retain  the  apprentice  on  the 
ground  that  he  has  not  fulfilled  his  con- 
tract, unless  especially  authorized  by 
statute.  An  apprentice  is  bound  to  obey 
his  master  in  all  his  lawful  commands, 
take  care  of  his  property,  and  promote 
his  interests,  endeavor  to  learn  his  trade 
or  business,  and  perform  all  the  coven- 
ants in  his  indenture  not  contrary  to  law. 
He  must  not  leave  his  master's  service 
during  the  term  of  the  apprenticeship. 

APRICOT,  a  fruit,  that  of  the  jyrunus 
arTneniaca;  also  the  tree  on  which  it 
grows.  It  is  wild  in  Africa  and  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  also  in  China  and  some 
other  countries.  It  is  esteemed  only  sec- 
ond to  the  peach. 

APRIL,  the  fourth  month  of  the  year. 
It  was  called  Ooster,  or  Easter  month, 
by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  Grass  month 
by  the  Dutch. 


APRON,  a  platform  of  plank  at  the 
entrance  of  a  dock.  The  apron  in  ship- 
building is  a  piece  of  curved  wood  placed 
behind  the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  and 
above  the  foremost  end  of  the  keel,  to 
strengthen  the  stem.  The  apron  also  for- 
merly was  a  piece  of  sheet  lead  used  in 
covering  the  vent  of  a  cannon. 

APSE,  a  portion  of  any  building  form- 
ing a  termination  or  projection  semi-cir- 
cular or  polygonal  in  plan,  and  having 
a  roof  forming  externally  a  semi-dome 
or  semi-cone,  or  having  ridges  corre- 
sponding to  the  angles  of  the  polygon ;  es- 
pecially such  a  semi-circular  or  polygonal 
recess  projecting  from  the  eastern  end 
of  the  choir  or  chancel  of  a  church,  in 
which  the  altar  is  placed.  The  apse  was 
developed  from  the  somewhat  similar 
part  of  the  Roman  basilicse,  in  which  the 
magistrate  (prsetor)  sat. 

APSIDES,  the  plural  of  Apse  or  Apsis  ; 
in  astronomy,  the  two  points  in  the  el- 
liptic orbit  of  a  planet  where  it  is  at  the 
greatest  and  the  least  distance  respec- 
tively from  the  body  around  which  it  re- 
volves. The  moon  moving  in  an  elliptic 
orbit  around  the  earth,  which  is  situated 
in  one  of  the  foci,  is  at  what  was  ancient- 
ly called  its  higher  apse  when  it  is  in 
apogee,  and  at  its  lower  one  when  it  is  in 
perigee.  Similarly,  the  primary  planets, 
including  the  earth  and  comets,  moving 
in  elliptic  orbits  around  the  sun,  which  is 
situated  in  one  of  the  foci,  pass  through 
their  higher  apse  when  they  are  in  aphel- 
ion, and  their  lower  one  when  in  peri- 
helion. It  is  the  same  with  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter  when  they  are  in  the  apojove 
and  perijove. 

The  line  of  the  apsides  is  the  line  con- 
necting the  two  apsides  of  a  primary 
or  secondary  planet.  Were  it  not  for  a 
motion  of  the  apsides,  it  would  exactly 
coincide  with  the  major  or  longer  axis  of 
the  ellipse. 

The  progression  of  the  moon's  apsides 
is  a  slow  movement  in  the  position  of  the 
apsides  of  the  moon,  produced  by  the  per- 
turbing attraction  of  other  heavenly  bod- 
ies. It  is  about  three  degrees  of  angular 
motion,  in  one  revolution  of  the  moon, 
and  in  the  same  direction  as  her  progres- 
sion in  her  orbit.  The  apsides  of  the 
primary  planets  are  also,  to  a  certain 
extent,  perturbed. 

The  revolution  of  the  moon's  apsides  is 
the  movement  of  the  apsides  around  the 
entire  circumference  of  the  ellipse,  which 
takes  place  in  3,232.5753  mean  solar 
days,  or  about  nine  years. 

A  libration  in  planetary  apsides  is  a 
movement  sometimes  forward  and  some- 
times backward  in  the  apsides  of  Venus 


APSLEY  STRAIT 


214 


AQUATIC  ANIMALS 


and  Mercury,  from  perturbations  caused 
by  other  heavenly  bodies. 

APSLEY  STRAIT,  a  narrow  channel 
between  Melville  and  Bathurst  Islands, 
off  the  N.  coast  of  Australia.  It  is  about 
40  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  vary- 
ing from  2  to  5  miles. 

APTERYX,  a  genus  of  birds,  the  typ- 
ical one  of  the  family  apierygidse.  Two 
species  are  known — the  A.  australis  and 
A.  mantelli,  both  from  New  Zealand.  The 
natives  call  the  former  Kiwikiwi,  which 
is  an  imitation  of  their  peculiar  cry.  The 
A.  australis  is  somewhat  less  in  size  than 
an  ordinary  goose.  It  runs  when  pur- 
sued, shelters  itself  in  holes,  and  defends 
itself  vdth  its  long  bill;  but  unable  as  it 
is  to  fly,  it  is  destined  to  become  extinct. 

APULEIUS,  LUCIUS  (ap-u-le'us),  a 
famous  Latin  satirist  and  writer  of  fic- 
tion; lived  in  the  2d  century,  and  was  a 
native  of  northern  Africa.  Having  in- 
herited an  ample  fortune,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  study  and  travel;  attending  first 
the  schools  of  Carthage,  then  the  Athe- 
nian schools  of  philosophy.  His  principal 
work  is  "Metamorphosis"  or  "The  Golden 
Ass,"  which  includes  the  charming  epi- 
logue of  "Cupid  and  Psyche";  well 
known  also  is  his  witty  "Apology,"  a  de- 
fense against  a  charge  of  sorcery 
brought  by  the  sons  of  a  widow  twice  his 
age  whom  he  married. 

APULIA  (ap-ii'le-a),  a  region  of  an- 
cient Italy  along  the  Adriatic.  In  most 
ancient  times,  three  distinct  nations  dwelt 
here — the  Messapians,  or  Sallentines,  the 
Peucetians  and  the  Dauni,  or  Apulians. 
The  old  Latin  traditions  speak  of 
Daunus,  a  King  of  the  Apulians,  who 
was  expelled  from  Illyria,  and  retired  to 
this  part  of  Italy.  According  to  the  tra- 
dition which  conducts  the  wandering  he- 
roes of  the  Trojan  war  to  Italy,  Diomed 
settled  in  Apulia,  was  supported  by 
Daunus  in  a  war  with  the  Messapians, 
whom  he  subdued,  and  was  afterward 
treacherously  killed  by  his  ally.  Aufidus, 
a  river  of  Apulia,  has  been  celebrated  by 
Horace,  born  at  Venusia,  in  this  terri- 
tory. The  second  Funic  War  was  carried 
on  in  Apulia.  Cannae,  famous  for  the 
defeat  of  the  Romans,  is  in  this  region. 
The  modern  department  of  Apulia  con- 
sists of  three  provinces:  Bari  delle 
Puglie,  Foggia,  and  Lecce.  The  chief  oc- 
cupation of  its  inhabitants  is  the  raising 
of  domestic  animals.  Chief  towns: 
Bari,  Brindisi,  Foggia,  Lecce.  Area, 
7,376  square  miles;  pop.  about  2',500,000. 

APURE  (a-po'ra),  a  navigable  river  of 
Venezuela,  formed  by  the  junction  of  sev- 
eral streams  which  rise  in  the  Andes  of 
Colombia;  it  falls  into  the  Orinoco. 


APURIMAC  (a-po-re-mak'),  a  river  of 
South  America,  which  rises  in  the  Andes 
of  Peru;  and  being  augmented  by  the 
Pampes  and  other  streams  forms  the 
Ucayale  which,  after  it  is  joined  by  the 
Maranon,  forms  the  Amazon.  From  it  a 
department  of  Peru  receives  its  name. 
Area,  8,187  square  miles;  pop.  about  200,- 
000.  Capital,  Abancay.  It  produces  cof- 
fee, cocoa,  rubber  and  sugar,  and  has 
gold  and  silver  mines. 

APUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  entomos- 
tracans,  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
apodidss.  They  have  the  carapace  of  one 
piece,  and  completely  enveloping  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  animal.  They  have 
about  60  pairs  of  feet. 

AQUA,  a  word  much  used  in  pharmacy 
and  old  chemistry.  Aqua  fortis  (^strong 
water),  a  weak  and  impure  nitric  acid. 
It  has  the  power  of  eating  into  steel  and 
copper,  and  hence  is  used  by  engravers, 
etchers,  etc.  Aqua  regia,  or  aqua  regalis, 
a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids  with  the  power  of  dissolving  gold 
and  other  noble  metals. 

AQUAMARINE,  a  name  given  to 
some  of  the  finest  varieties  of  beryl  of  a 
sea-green  oi  pale  blue  color.  Varieties 
of  topaz  are  also  so  called. 

AQUARIUM,  an  artificial  tank,  pond, 
or  vessel,  filled  with  salt  or  fresh  water, 
and  used,  in  the  former  case  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  alive  marine  ani- 
mals in  circumstances  which  render  it 
easy  to  study  their  habits,  and  in  the 
latter  for  cultivating  aquatic  plants. 

AQUARIUS,  in  astronomy,  the  11th 
of  the  12  ancient  zodiacal  constellations, 
now  generally  called  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 
It  is  generally  quoted  as  "Aquarius,  the 
Water-bearer." 

AQUATIC  ANIMALS,  animals  living 
in  or  about  water.  It  is  worth  noting 
that  the  home  of  almost  all  the  simpler 
animals  is  distinctly  and  necessarily 
aquatic.  While  a  few  of  the  protozoa, 
such  as  one  of  the  amoebae,  occur  in  damp 
places  on  land,  or  within  other  organ- 
isms, the  vast  majority  live  freely  in  the 
water,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
sponges,  ccelenterates,  and  echinoderms. 
Although  the  great  majority  of  crusta- 
ceans are  aquatic,  a  few,  such  as  the 
wood-louse  and  land  crab,  are  modified 
for  life  ashore.  The  crowd  of  insects, 
spiders,  and  myriapods  are  of  course 
terrestrial  or  aerial,  though  here  also 
the  habits  of  some  adult  forms,  and  the 
life  of  some  of  the  young  are  distinctly 
aquatic.  Among  mollusks  also  there  is 
an  equally  familiar  occurrence  of  both 
aquatic  and  terrestrial  habit,  while  nu- 


AQUATIC  PLANTS 


215 


AQUEDUCT 


merous  forms  illustrate  the  transition 
from  the  former  to  the  latter.  The  as- 
cidians  are  exclusively  marine.  Some 
fishes  have  a  limited  povirer  of  life  out  of 
the  water,  the  double-breathing  dipnoi 
being  in  this  connecflon  especially  in- 
structive. Among  many  amphibians,  the 
transition  from  water  to  terra  firma  is 
seen  in  the  individual  life-history,  when 
the  fish-like  gilled  tadpole  becomes  the 
lunged  gill-less  frog.  The  instance  of  the 
gilled  axolotl  becoming,  in  the  absence  of 
sufficient  water,  the  gill-less  amblystoma, 
forcibly  illustrates  the  importance  of  the 
medium  as  a  factor  in  evolution.  Among 
reptiles  there  are  numerous  aquatic 
forms — chelonians,  lizards,  snakes,  and 
crocodiles,  though  the  absence  of  any  gill 
respiration  marks  the  progressive  general 
adaptation  to  terrestrial  life.  While  an 
emphatically  terrestrial  amphibian  like 
the  tree  frog  seeks  a  watery  hole  for  the 
rearing  of  the  young  gill-breathing  tad- 
poles, the  habit  is  reversed  in  such  rep- 
tiles as  the  sea  turtle,  which,  having  re- 
turned to  the  more  primitive  aquatic 
home,  yet  revisits  the  land  for  egg-laying 
purposes.  Among  mammals  the  sea  cow, 
the  seal,  and  the  whale  are  familiar  illus- 
trations of  very  different  types  which 
have  returned  to  the  primeval  watery 
home  and  aquatic  habit,  with  consequent 
change  of  structure. 

In  the  more  thoroughly  aquatic  ani- 
mals, which  have  remained  in  the  prim- 
itive environment,  and  have  not  merely 
returned  to  it,  the  blood  is  usually  pviri- 
fied  by  being  spread  out  on  feathery  gills 
which  catch  the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the 
water;  while  in  terrestrial  forms  which 
have  betaken  themselves  to  an  aquatic 
life,  the  ordinary  direct  "air  breathing" 
is  still  accomplished  at  the  surface  of 
the  water,  or,  in  some  isolated  cases  of 
insects  and  spiders,  by  means  of  the  air 
(entangled  in  their  hairs,  or  even  con- 
veyed into  their  submerged  homes.  The 
genuinely  aquatic  animals  are  known  to 
have  a  body  temperature  not  much 
higher  than  that  of  the  surrounding 
medium,  and  often  survive  even  the 
freezing  of  the  water;  while  the  higher 
warm-blooded  vertebrates  which  have  re- 
turned to  the  aquatic  habit,  various  modi- 
fications, such  as  thick  fur  and  plumage, 
waterproof  varnish,  formation  of  blub- 
ber, serve  as  protections  against  the  cold. 

AQUATIC  PLANTS,  plants  growing 
in  or  belonging  to  water.  The  presence 
of  water  is  not  only  essential  to  the  ac- 
tive life  of  all  organisms,  but  is  pecul- 
iarly necessary  for  plants  which  are  for 
the  most  part  dependent  for  food  supply 
on  matter  dissolved  in  water,  as  well  as 
on  the  carbonic  anhydride  mingled  with 


the  surrounding  medium.  Numerous 
plants  are,  moreover,  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word  aquatic,  having  never  ac- 
quired or  having  lost  all  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  soil.  The  simplest  plants 
or  algae  are  almost  all  aquatic,  though 
many  occur  in  damp  situations  on  land, 
or  on  other  organisms,  while  others  re- 
main for  long  periods  quiescent  in  com- 
parative dryness.  Many  algae  are  abso- 
lutely isolated  in  the  water,  while  others 
are  more  or  less  intimately  fixed  to  some 
solid  substratum.  Some  rhizocarps, 
such  as  salvinia,  are  aquatic,  with  leaves 
rising  to  the  surface,  while  others  are 
land  or  marsh  plants,  like  the  higher 
horse-tails  and  club-mosses. 

Among  the  flowering  plants,  or  phan- 
erogams, a  return  to  aquatic  life  is  ex- 
hibited by  numerous,  though  exceptional 
cases,  while  a  very  large  number  grow 
in  moist  situations,  and  have  a  semi- 
aquatic  habit.  The  simple  monocotyle- 
dons, known  as  helohiese,  or  marsh  lilies, 
are  more  or  less  strictly  water-plants. 
The  arrowhead  (sagittaria) ,  and  other 
alismaceas;  the  butomis  of  the  marshes; 
hydrocharis,  with  floating  kidney-shaped 
leaves;  the  water  soldier  (stratiotes) , 
with  narrow  submerged  leaves;  and 
the  Canadian  pond  weed  (aimcJiaris) , 
Among  dicotyledons,  the  white  water 
buttercup  (ranmiculus  aquatilis) ,  with 
its  slightly  divided  floating,  and  much 
dissected  submerged  leaves;  the  yellow 
and  white  water-lilies  (nymphiea) ;  the 
sacred  lotus  flower  of  the  Ganges  and 
Nile  {nelumbium) ;  the  gigantic  Victorut 
regia  of  tropical  South  America ;  and  the 
insectivorous  bladderwort  or  utricularia, 
are  among  the  most  familiar  aquatic 
forms. 

AQUATINT,  a  method  of  etching  on 
copper  by  which  a  beautiful  effect  is 
produced,  resembling  a  fine  drawing  in 
sepia  or  Indian  ink.  The  special  char- 
acter of  the  effect  is  the  result  of  sprink- 
ling finely  powdered  resin  or  mastic  over 
the  plate,  and  causing  this  to  adhere  by 
heat,  the  design  being  previously  etched, 
or  being  now  traced  out.  The  nitric  acid 
(aqua  fortis)  acts  only  in  the  interstices 
between  the  particles  of  resin  or  mastic, 
thus  giving  a  slightly  granular  appear- 
ance. 

AQUEDUCT,  an  artificial  channel  or 
conduit  for  the  conveyance  of  water  from 
one  place  to  another;  more  particularly 
applied  to  structures  for  conveying  water 
from  distant  sources  for  the  supply  of 
large  cities.  Works  for  supplying  com- 
munities with  water  must  have  been  con- 
structed at  a  very  early  period.  In 
China  there  are  said  to  be  aqueducts 
dating  back  to  prehistoric  times.  In 
Persia  and  Assyria  there  are  structures 


AQUEDUCT 


216 


AQUEDUCT 


th£  remains  of  which  indicate  that  they  it  furnished  277,866  cubic  meters  a  day; 

were    used    for    aqueducts.      Recent    ex-  it   was   not   used   for   drinking,   but   for 

cavations   at  Jerusalem   have   laid   bare  irrigating   gardens   and   flushing   drains. 

wells  and  channels  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  In   144  B.   c.  the  Senate  determined   to 


comparative:   sections 
of    aqueducts 


CATSKILL 


AQUA  CLAUDIA 


NEW  CROTO>ir'^ 


i.nvr 


OLD  CROTON 


AQUEDUCTS 


and  indicate  that  the  water  supply  of  the 
city  was  brought  from  the  neighborhood 
of  Bethlehem  and  Hebron.  In  Patara, 
a  city  of  Lycia,  in  Asia  Minor,  there  is 
a  very  ancient  aqueduct,  consisting  of  an 
embankment  of  rough  stone  250  feet 
high  and  200  feet  long.  The  channels 
for  the  water  consist  of  cubical  stone 
blocks  about  a  yard  in  dimension,  with 
a  hole  13  inches  in  diameter,  the  blocks 
being  closely  connected  and  cemented  to- 
gether. The  first  Roman  aqueduct  was 
the  joint  work  of  Appius  Claudius  Caecus 
and  Caius  Plautius  Venox,  censors  in 
312  B.  C.  Appius  Claudius  built  the  con- 
duit, Venox  discovered  the  springs.  The 
entire  length  of  the  aqueduct  was  about 
10  miles,  and  it  furnished  115,303  cubic 
meters  a  day.  The  second  aqueduct  was 
begun  in  272  B.  c,  by  Manius  Curius 
Dentatus,  and  was  finished  three  years 
later.    Its  length  was  about  45  miles,  and 


repair  the  old  aqueducts  and  built  a  new 
one.  This  work  was  begun  by  Quintus 
Marcius  Rex.  The  Marcian  aqueduct 
brought  the  water  from  56  miles  away 
in  the  territory  of  Arsoli,  and  fed  water 
to  the  highest  platform  of  the  capitol. 
It  was  restored  in  33  B.  c,  and  Augustus 
doubled  the  supply  of  water  in  5  B.  C. 
The  viaducts  and  bridges  by  which  it 
crossed  the  highlands  are  magnificent. 
There  are  seven  bridges,  some  of  them 
carrying  four  aqueducts.  The  Marcian 
reaches  Rome  at  the  Porta  Maggiore, 
where  no  less  than  10  water  supplies 
met.  Of  the  nine  aqueducts  which 
brought  water  to  ancient  Rome,  three 
still  supply  the  modern  city,  viz.,^  the 
Aqua  Virgo,  now  Acqua  Vergine,  finished 
by  Agrippa,  27  B.  c,  and  restored  by 
Pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1453;  the  Aqua 
Trajana,  now  Acqua  Paolo;  and  the 
Aqua  Marcia. 


AQUEDUCT 


217 


AQUILEJA 


The  Romans  also  constructed  impor- 
tant aqueducts  for  the  cities  throughout 
their  empire.  One  of  the  finest  aque- 
ducts in  Europe  is  the  Pont  du  Gard, 
built  in  the  3d  or  4th  century,  or  pos- 
sibly by  Agrippa,  19  B.  c,  at  Nimes,  in 
southern  France,  ^  It  is  still  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation.  It  is  higher  than 
any  about  Rome  itself,  being  fully  180 
feet  in  height,  and  the  length  of  its 
highest  arcade  is  873  feet.  There  is  an 
aqueduct  in  Paris  built  by  Julian  in  360 
A.  D.;  pIso  a  very  important  aqueduct  at 
Constantinople,  built  by  Hadrian  and  re- 
stored by  Theodosius.  Since  1885  the 
water  has  been  furnished  the  city  by  an 
aqueduct  built  by  a  French  company, 
taking  the  supply  from  Lake  Derkos. 
The  ruins  of  an  aqueduct  exist  at  May- 
ence,  and  of  another  near  Metz,  Alsace- 
Lorraine. 

There  are  many  other  important  aque- 
ducts. One  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
that  constructed  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1684, 
to  convey  the  waters  of  the  Eure  from 
Point  Gouin  to  Versailles.  Troops  to  the 
number  of  40,000  were  employed  in  this 
great  undertaking.  The  bridge  at  Main- 
tenon,  forming  part  of  this  aqueduct, 
even  in  its  incomplete  state,  is,  in  point 
of  magnitude,  the  grandest  structure  of 
the  kind  in  the  world.  The  remains  con- 
sist of  47  arches,  each  42  feet  wide  and 
83  feet  high.  The  piers  are  25  feet  6 
inches  thick. 

The  first  important  aqueduct  in  Eng- 
land was  built  in  1613,  to  conduct  the 
waters  of  the  New  river  to  London,  over 
a  distance  of  20  miles.  Wooden  aque- 
ducts were  first  used,  but  were  replaced 
by  embankments.  Very  large  works 
were  constructed  during  nine  years,  end- 
ing in  1877,  to  bring  water  from  Long- 
dendale,  between  Sheffield  and  Manches- 
ter, to  the  latter  city.  In  this  instance 
the  aqueducts  consist  for  the  most  part 
of  tunnel  and  covered  conduit,  but  for 
8  miles  the  water  is  conveyed  in  large 
cast-iron  pipes  laid  along  or  under  the 
public  roads.  Before  the  Longdendale 
works  were  finished,  the  question  of  a 
greater  supply  had  to  be  considered. 
This  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  scheme 
for  bringing  water  from  Lake  Thirlmere 
in  Cumberland  to  Manchester.  The 
length  of  the  line  is  nearly  100  miles,  and 
the  works  were  carried  out  in  1885-1894. 

In  Scotland,  the  Loch  Katrine  aque- 
duct supplies  Glasgow  with  water  coming 
from  a  distant  of  42  miles.  An  aqueduct 
was  built  in  1738,  conducting  water  for 
a  distance  of  about  15  miles  into  the 
city  of  Lisbon.  The  aqueduct  of  Caserta 
was  built  in  1573,  by  Vanvitelli,  by  order 
of  Charles  III.  and  his  son,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  the  gardens  of  Caserta 


with  water  from  Monte  Tabumo,  a  dis- 
tance of  25  miles.  It  now  conducts  the 
water  to  Naples  and  crosses  20  valleys; 
the  last  15  miles  the  water  is  carried  in 
iron  pipes.  The  Canal  de  Marseilles,  57 
miles  in  length,  conveys  water  from  the 
River  Durance  to  Marseilles,  and  is  a 
magnificent  specimen  of  French  engi- 
neering. The  Vienna  aqueduct  is  nearly 
60  miles  long,  and  was  finished  in  1873. 

There  are  a  number  of  important  aque- 
ducts in  America.  For  125  years,  the 
city  of  Otumba,  in  Mexico,  received  its 
supply  of  water  through  the  aqueduct  of 
Zempoala,  which,  however,  has  not  been 
used  since  1700,  though  the  aqueduct  is 
said  to  be  in  almost  perfect  condition.  It 
is  27  miles  long.  New  York  is  supplied 
with  water  from  Croton  river,  which  falls 
into  the  Hudson  above  Sing  Sing.  The 
first  aqueduct  was  constructed  between 
the  years  1837  and  1842,  and  is  38  miles 
long.  When  the  conduit  reaches  the 
Harlem  river,  the  water  is  conveyed  in 
iron  pipes  over  a  splendid  bridge,  150 
feet  above  the  river. 

In  October,  1917,  New  York  celebrated 
the  completion  of  the  vast  Catskill  Aque- 
duct. The  great  Ashokan  Reservoir,  12 
miles  west  of  Kingston,  N.  Y.,  receives 
the  waters  which  supply  New  York  City 
with  from  500  to  600  million  additional 
gallons  of  water  per  day. 

AQUEOUS  HUMOR,  the  limpid 
watery  fluid  which  fills  the  space  between 
the  cornea  and  the  crystalline  lens  in 
the  eye. 

AQUEOUS  ROCKS,  mechanically 
formed  rocks,  composed  by  matter  de- 
posited by  water.  Called  also  sedimen- 
tary or  stratified  rocks. 

AQUIFOLIACE.ffi,  a  natural  order  of 
plants;  the  holly  tribe.  The  species  con- 
sist of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the  order 
includes  the  common  holly  (ilex  aqui- 
folium)  and  the  /.  paraguayensis,  or 
Paraguayan  tea  tree. 

AQUILA  (ak-we'la),  an  episcopal  town 
of  Italy,  on  the  Pescara  river,  near 
the  Apennines,  58  miles  N.  E.  of 
Rome;  is  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Aquila,  and  is  strongly  for- 
tified. It  is  noted  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  wax,  linen,  paper,  and  its  trade 
in  saffron.  The  town  suffered  muck: 
injury  by  earthquakes  in  1688,  1703,  and 
1706.  It  has  a  citadel,  constructed  ir 
1534.  Emperor  Frederick  II.  built 
Aquila  on  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  an- 
cient site  of  Amitemum,  about  1240. 
Pop.  about  25,000. 

AQUILEJA  (ak-il-a'ya),  AGLAR,  or 
AQUILEIA,  an  old  town  of  the  former 
Austrian   crownland   of   Gorz   and    Gra- 


AQUINAS 


218 


AQUINAS 


disca,  22  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Trieste, 
near  the  Gulf  of  Venice.  Before 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  it  was  the 
great  emporium  of  trade  between  the 
north  and  south  of  Europe,  and  was 
often  called  the  "Second  Rome."  Caesar 
Augustus  frequently  resided  here,  and 
several  councils  of  the  Church,  the  first 
in  381,  were  held  here.  In  the  6th  cen- 
tury, the  title  of  Patriarch  was  taken 
by  the  bishops  of  Aquileja,  who  assumed 
second  rank  to  the  Pope,  The  town  was 
destroyed  by  Attila  in  452,  when  the 
inhabitants  numbered  100,000.  Pop. 
2,000. 

AQUINAS,  THOMAS  (ak-wi'nas),  or 
THOMAS  OF  AQUINO,  the  prince  of 
scholastic  theologians,  was  of  the  family 
of  the  Counts  of  Aquino,  and  was  bom 


THOMAS  AQUINAS 

about  1226,  in  the  castle  of  Rocca  Secca, 
near  Aquino,  a  small  town  half-way  be- 
tween Rome  and  Naples.  He  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  from  the 
Benedictine  monks  of  Monte  Cassino,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  the  University 
of  Naples.  Against  the  will  of  his  fam- 
ily, he  entered  (1243)  the  order  of 
Preaching  Friars  founded  by  St.  Dom- 
inic. In  order  to  frustrate  the  attempts 
of  his  mother  to  remove  him  from  the 
convent,  he  was  sent  away  from  Naples, 
first  to  Rome  and  then  to  Paris;  but  his 
brothers  took  him  by  force  from  his 
conductors,  and  carried  him  to  the  pa- 
ternal castle.  Here  he  was  guarded  as 
a  prisoner  for  tv/o  years,  when,  by  the 
help  of  the  Dominicans,  he  contrived  to 
escape,  and  went  through  France  to  the 
Dominican  Convent  at  Cologne,  in  order 


to  enjoy  the  instructions  of  the  famous 
Albertus  Magnus.  According  to  another 
account,  he  owed  his  release  from  con- 
finement to  the  interference  of  the  Em- 
peror and  the  Pope.  In  1248,  being  22 
years  of  age,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
general  chapter  of  his  order  to  teach  at 
Cologne,  together  with  his  old  master. 
Albert.  He  now  began  to  publish  his 
first  works,  commentaries  on  the  ethics 
and  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  In  1252 
he  was  sent  to  Paris.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, till  1257  that  Aquinas  and  his 
friend  St.  Bonaventura,  the  Franciscan, 
obtained  their  degrees  of  doctor,  as  the 
University  of  Paris,  under  the  influence 
of  William  de  St.  Amour,  was  hostile  to 
the  mendicant  friars.  He  vindicated  the 
principles  of  these  orders  in  an  impor- 
tant work;  and,  in  a  disputation  in  pres- 
ence of  the  Pope,  procured  the  condem- 
nation of  the  books  of  his  adversaries. 
He  continued  to  lecture  with  great  ap- 
plause in  Paris,  till  Urbaji  IV.,  in  1261, 
called  him  to  Italy  to  teach  in  Rome, 
Bologna,  and  Pisa.  It  was  at  this  time 
he  composed  most  of  his  great  works. 

Even  during  his  life,  Aquinas  enjoyed 
+he  highest  consideration  in  the  Church. 
Both  Urban  IV.  and  his  successor,  Clem- 
ent IV.,  who  were  much  attached  to 
Aquinas,  pressed  upon  him  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  dignities  in  vain.  He 
treated  Christian  morals  according  to  an 
arrangement  of  his  own,  and  with  a  com- 
prehensiveness that  procured  him  the 
title  of  the  "Father  of  Moral  Philos- 
ophy." The  definiteness,  clearness,  and 
completeness  of  his  method  of  handling 
theology  were  such  that  his  "Summa 
Theologiae,"  which  may  be  said  to  be  the 
first  attempt  at  a  complete  theological 
system,  remains  to  this  day  substantially 
the  standard  authority  in  the  Roman 
Church.  Another  important  work  of 
Aquinas  is  his  "Summa  Contra  Gentiles," 
which  deals  chiefly  with  the  principles  of 
natural  religion.  His  commentaries  on 
Scripture  and  devotional  treatises  also 
have  a  high  reputation.  His  influence  on 
the  theological  thought  of  succeeding 
ages  was  immense.  At  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  "Summa"  was  honored  with  a 
place  on  the  table  by  the  side  of  the 
Bible.  It  was  at  Bologna  that  he  begar 
this  his  greatest  work,  by  which  his 
name  will  always  be  connected,  but  which 
he  never  lived  to  complete.  While  at 
work  in  Naples,  his  health  broke  down, 
but  Gregory  X.,  who  had  called  a  general 
council  to  effect  the  union  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches,  summoned  Aquinas 
to  defend  the  papal  cause  at  Lyons, 
where  the  council  was  to  meet  on  May  1, 
1274.  He  set  out,  though  suffering  from 
fever,  and  was  surprised  by  death  on  the 


AQUITANIA 


219 


ABABIA 


road  at  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Fossa- 
Nuova,  March  7,  1274.  All  Europe 
mourned  his  loss.  Miracles  were  said  to 
be  wrought  at  his  funeral.  Universities, 
religious  orders,  and  princes  contended 
for  the  honor  of  possessing  his  body. 
It  was  finally  bestowed  by  the  Pope  on 
Toulouse,  where  it  was  received  by  150,- 
000  persons,  headed  by  Louis,  Duke  of 
Anjou.  Aquinas  was  canonized  by  John 
XXII,  in  1323,  and  proclaimed  a  "Doctor 
of  the  Church,"  by  Pius  V.  in  1567.  The 
first  complete  edition  of  Aquinas'  works 
was  published  in  17  volumes  folio,  at 
Rome,  in  1570. 

AQUITANIA  (ak-we-ta'ne-a)  later 
AQUITAINE,  a  Roman  province  in  Gaul, 
which  comprehended  the  countries  on  the 
coast  from  the  Garonne  to  the  Pyrenees, 
and  from  the  sea  to  Toulouse.  It  was 
brought  into  connection  with  England  by 
the  marriage  of  Henry  II.  with  Eleanor, 
daughter  of  the  last  Duke  of  Aquitaine. 

AHABAH,  a  deep,  rocky  valley  or  de- 
pression in  northwestern  Arabia,  be- 
tween the  Dead  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Akabah, 
a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Jordan 
Valley. 

ARABESQUE  (ar-a-besk'),  a  style  of 
ornamentation  in  which  are  represented 
men,  animals  (the  latter  consisting  of 
mythic  as  well  as  actual  forms);  plants, 
with  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit;  mathe- 
matical figures,  etc.;  the  whole  put  to- 
gether in  a  whimsical  way,  so  that,  for 
instance,  the  animals  not  merely  rest 
upon  the  plants,  but  grow  out  of  them 
like  blossoms.  There  are  three  kinds 
of  arabesque:  (1)  (and  oldest),  that  of 
the  Romans,  without  the  animals.  They 
occur  in  the  mural  paintings  at  Pompeii, 
Herculaneum,  and  other  places.  (2) 
That  of  the  Arabs,  also  without  the 
animals.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  Alham- 
bra.  (3)  The  Christian  arabesque,  with 
the  figures  introduced.  It  appears  in 
illuminated  medieval  manuscripts  and 
elsewhere. 

ARABIA,  a  vast  peninsula  in  the  S. 
W.  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
great  Syro-Babylonian  plain,  N.  E.  by 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Sea  of 
Oman,  S.  E.  by  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  S.  W.  by  the  Red  Sea  and 
Gulf  of  Suez.  Its  length  from  N.  W. 
to  S.  E.  is  about  1,800  miles,  its  mean 
breadth  about  600  miles,  its  area  rather 
oyer  1,000,000  square  miles,  its  popula- 
tion may  be  roughly  estimated  at  10,- 
000,000. 

Topography. — It  exhibits  a  central 
table-land,  surrounded  by  a  series  of  des- 
erts, with  numerous  scattered  oases, 
while  around  this  is  a  line  of  mountains 


parallel  to  and  approaching  the  coasts, 
and  with  a  narrow  rim  of  low  grounds 
(tehama)  between  them  and  the  sea. 
Rivers  proper,  there  are  none.  By  the 
ancients  the  whole  peninsula  was  broadly 
divided  into  three  great  sections — Arabia 
Petraa  (containing  the  city  of  Petra), 
Deserta  (desert),  and  Felix  (happy). 
The  first  and  last  of  these  answer 
roughly  to  the  modern  divisions  of  the 
region  of  Sinai  in  the  N.  W.,  and  Yemen 
in  the  S.  W.,  while  the  name  Deserta  was 
vaguely  given  to  the  rest  of  the  country. 

Political  Divisions.— The  principal  di- 
visions are  Madian  in  the  N.  W.;  S.  of 
this,  Hejaz,  Assir  and  Yemen,  all  on  the 
Red  Sea,  the  last  named  occupying  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  peninsula; 
Hadramaut,  on  the  S.  coast;  Oman  oc- 
cupying the  S.  E.  angle;  El-Hasa  and 
Koveit  on  the  Persian  Gulf;  El-Hamad 
(desert  of  Syria),  Nefud  and  Jebel 
Shammar  in  the  N.;  Nejd,  the  Central 
Highlands,  which  occupies  a  great  part 
of  the  interior  of  the  country,  while  S. 
of  it  is  the  great  unexplored  Dahkna  or 
Sandy  Desert.  Previous  to  the  World 
War  Madian  belonged  to  Egypt,  the 
Hejaz,  Yemen,  Bahr-el-Hasa,  Koveit, 
etc.,  were  more  or  less  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  Turkey.  The  rest  of  the  coun- 
try was  ruled  by  independent  chiefs — ■- 
sheikhs,  emirs,  and  imams — while  the 
title  of  Sultan  has  been  assumed  by  the 
chief  of  the  Wahabis  in  Nejd,  the  sover- 
eign of  Oman  (who  has  a  subvention 
from  the  Indian  Government),  and  some 
petty  princes  in  the  S.  of  the  peninsula. 
The  chief  towns  are  Mecca,  the  birth- 
place of  Mohammed;  Medina,  the  place 
to  which  he  fled  from  Mecca  (a.  d.  622) 
and  where  he  is  buried;  Mocha,  a  sea- 
port celebrated  for  its  coffee;  Aden,  on 
the  S.  W.  coast,  a  strongly  fortified  gar- 
rison belonging  to  Britain;  Sana,  the 
capital  of  Yemen;  and  Muscat,  the  capi- 
tal of  Oman,  a  busy  port  with  a  safe 
anchorage. 

Clitnaie  and  Productions. — The  climate 
of  Arabia,  in  general,  is  marked  by  ex- 
treme heat  and  dryness.  Aridity  and 
bareness  characterize  both  high  and  low 
grounds,  and  the  date  palm  is  often  the 
only  representative  of  vegetable  exist- 
ence. There  are  districts  which,  in  the 
course  of  the  year,  are  hardly  refreshed 
by  a  single  shower  of  rain.  Forests 
there  are  few  or  none.  The  date  palm 
furnishes  the  staple  article  of  food;  the 
cereals  are  wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  mil- 
let; various  sorts  of  fruit  flourish;  coffee 
and  many  aromatic  plants  and  sub- 
stances, such  as  gum  arable,  benzoin, 
mastic,  balsam,  aloes,  myrrh,  frankin- 
cense, etc.,  are  produced.  There  are  also 
cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the  penin- 


ARABIA 


220 


ARABIA 


sula,  according  to  the  soil  and  climate, 
beans,  rice,  lentils,  tobacco,  melons,  saf- 
fron, colocynth,  poppies,  olives,  etc. 
Sheep,  goats,  oxen,  the  horse,  the  camel, 
ass  and  mule  supply  man's  domestic  and 
personal  wants.  Among  wild  animals 
are  gazelles,  ostriches,  the  lion,  panther, 
hyena,  jackal,  etc.  Among  mineral 
products  are  saltpeter,  mineral  pitch, 
petroleum,  salt,  sulphur,  and  several 
precious  stones,  as  the  carnelian,  agate 
and  onyx. 

People. — The  Arabs,  as  a  race,  are  of 
middle  stature,  of  a  powerful  though 
slender  build,  and  have  a  skin  of  a 
more  or  less  brownish  color;  in  towns 
and  the  uplands  often  almost  white. 
Their  features  are  well  cut,  the  nose 
straight,  the  forehead  high.  They  are 
naturally  active,  intelligent  and  courte- 
ous; and  their  character  is  marked  by 
temperance,  bravery  and  hospitality. 
The  first  religion  of  the  Arabs,  a  Semitic 
nature  worship,  in  places  like  the  wor- 
ship of  the  stars,  was  supplanted  by  the 
doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  which  suc- 
ceeded rapidly  in  establishing  itself 
throughout  Arabia,  Besides  the  twc 
principal  sects  of  Islam,  the  Sunnites 
and  the  Shiites,  there  also  exists,  in 
considerable  numbers,  a  third  Moham- 
medan sect,  the  Wahabis,  which  arose  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century,  and 
for  a  time  possessed  great  political  im- 
portance in  the  peninsula.  The  mode  of 
the  Arabs  is  either  nomadic  or  settled. 
The  nomadic  tribes  are  termed  Bedouins 
and  among  them  are  considered  to  be  the 
Arabs  of  the  purest  blood. 

History. — The  history  of  the  Arabs 
previous  to  Mohammed  is  obscure.  The 
earliest  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have 
been  of  the  Semitic  race.  Jews  in  great 
numbers  migrated  into  Arabia  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and,  making 
numerous  proselytes,  indirectly  favored 
the  introduction  of  the  doctrines  of  Mo- 
hammed. With  his  advent  the  Arabians 
uprose  and  united  for  the  purpose  of 
extending  the  new  creed;  and,  under  the 
caliphs — the  successors  of  Mohammed — 
they  attained  great  power,  and  founded 
large  and  powerful  kingdoms  in  three 
continents  (see  Caliphs).  On  the  fall 
of  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad,  in  1258,  the 
decline  set  in,  and  on  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moors  from  Spain  the  foreign  rule 
bf  the  Arabs  came  to  an  end.  In  the  16th 
century  Turkey  subjected  Hejaz  and 
Yemen,  and  received  the  nominal  submis- 
sion of  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  rest  of 
Arabia.  The  subjection  of  Hejaz  has 
continued  down  to  the  present  day;  but 
Yemen  achieved  its  independence  in  the 
17th  century,  and  maintained  it  till  1871, 
when   the   territory   again  fell   into   the 


hands  of  the  Turks.  In  1839  Aden  was 
occupied  by  the  British.  Oman  early  be- 
came virtually  independent  of  the  caliphs 
and  grew  into  a  well-organized  kingdom. 
In  1507  its  capital,  Maskat  or  Muscat, 
was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese,  who 
were  not  driven  out  till  1659.  The 
Wahabis  appeared  toward  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  and  took  an  important  part 
in  the  political  affairs  of  Arabia,  but 
their  progress  was  interrupted  by  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  and  they 
suffered  a  complete  defeat  by  Ibrahim 
Pasha.  He  extended  his  power  over  most 
of  the  country,  but  the  events  of  1840, 
in  Syria,  compelled  him  to  renounce  all 
claims  to  Arabia.  The  Hejaz  thus  again 
became  subject  to  Turkish  sway.  Turkey 
afterward  extended  its  rule  not  only  over 
Yemen,  but  also  over  the  district  of  El- 
Hasa  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  participation  of  Arabia  in  the 
Woi'ld  War  was  largely  limited  to  the 
province  of  Hejaz,  the  long  strip  of  terri- 
tory fronting  on  the  Red  Sea,  which  in- 
cludes the  holy  cities  of  Mecca  and 
Medina.  The  Shereef  of  Mecca,  Hussein 
ibn  Ali,  had  an  immense  influence  with 
the  people  of  Hejaz,  because  of  his  pres- 
tige as  a  lineal  descendant  of  Mohammed. 
Negotiations  were  opened  with  him  by 
the  British  in  1915  to  secure  his  adherence 
to  the  side  of  the  Allies,  a  project  that 
was  rendered  the  easier  by  the  friction 
that  had  for  some  time  existed  between 
Hussein  and  the  Turks.  The  promise  of 
his  military  co-operation  was  secured,  and 
in  return  the  Allies  promised  him  the 
kingship  of  an  Arabic  kingdom,  which 
was  to  be  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean,  Persia, 
and  the  37th  degree  of  latitude.  In  June, 
1916,  hostilities  were  begun  by  Hussein, 
who  defeated  the  Turks  at  Mecca,  Taif, 
and  Jedda,  and  opened  up  communication 
with  the  British  fleet  in  the  Red  Sea, 
from  which  he  was  thereby  enabled  to 
receive  ammunition  and  supplies.  In 
Medina,  however,  the  resistance  of  the 
Turkish  forces  was  too  strong  to  be  over- 
come at  that  time.  An  expedition, 
co-operating  with  the  British  nava^ 
forces,  was  organized  against  Wejh  o\ 
the  Hejaz  coast  and  proved  successfu^ 
the  citv  being  taken,  as  were  also  Dhaba 
and  Moweilah  on  Feb.  8-9,  1917,  thus 
clearing  the  northern  end  of  the  Red 
Sea  up  to  Akaba  of  the  enemy.  Follow- 
ing this  came  a  period  of  training  and 
organization  of  troops  by  Prince  Feisal, 
the  third  son  of  Hussein,  and  an  able 
and  daring  commander.  Camel  corps  and 
cavalry  corps  were  formed,  and  after 
the  fall  of  Akaba,  Feisal's  army  became 
the  right  wing  of  the  army  of  Allenby, 
to    whom    the    Arabs    rendered    distin- 


ARABIA 


221 


ARABIAN  NIGHTS^ 


guished  service  in  his  dazzling  campaigns 
that  resulted  finally  in  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem,  the  crushing  of  three  Turkish 
armies,  and  the  capture  of  Damascus  and 
Aleppo,  events  which  practically  brought 
the  war  to  an  end  in  that  quarter  of  the 
world. 

Apart  from  the  direct  military  help  af- 
forded the  Allies,  in  the  desert  and  Pal- 
estinian fighting  for  which  the  Arabs 
were  peculiarly  fitted,  the  adhesion  of  the 
Hejaz  had  other  advantages  quite  as  im- 
portant. It  practically  immobilized  two 
Turkish  divisions,  who  otherwise  might 
have  been  employed  elsewhere,  and  it 
broke  up  the  line  of  communication  to 
Africa,  by  which  the  Central  Powers  were 
sending  emissaries  and  propaganda  to 
stir  up  trouble  for  the  French  and  Brit- 
ish in  their  colonial  possessions. 

By  the  terms  arrived  at  a  conference 
between  the  representatives  of  the  Allied 
Powers  at  San  Remo,  Italy,  in  May,  1920, 
Great  Britain  was  given  the  practical 
protectorate  over  Mesopotamia,  while 
France  was  given  the  protectorate  over 
the  Syrian  coast,  exclusive  of  Palestine. 
Palestine  was  made  a  protectorate  under 
Great  Britain.  The  Arabs  were  greatly 
discontented  with  this  division  of  ter- 
ritory, and  King  Feisal  of  Hejaz,  who 
had  succeeded  his  father,  Hussein,  threat- 
ened in  July,  1920,  to  begin  an  aggressive 
movement  to  give  to  the  Arabs  the  prac- 
tical possession,  not  only  of  Syria  but  of 
Palestine.  See  Hejaz,  Mesopotamia, 
Palestine,  Syria. 

Language  and  Literature. — The  Arabic 
language  belongs  to  the  Semitic  dialects, 
among  which  it  is  distinguished  for  its 
richness,  softness,  and  high  degree  of 
development.  By  the  spread  of  Islam  it 
became  the  sole  written  language  and 
the  prevailing  speech  in  all  southwestern 
Asia  and  eastern  and  northern  Africa, 
and,  for  a  time,  in  south  Spain,  in  Malta, 
and  in  Sicily;  and  it  is  still  used  as  a 
learned  and  sacred  language  wherever 
Islam  is  spread.  The  Arabic  language  is 
written  in  an  alphabet  of  its  own,  which 
has  also  been  adopted  in  writing  Persian, 
Hindustani,  Turkish,  etc.  As  in  all  Se- 
mitic languages  (except  the  Ethiopic),  it 
is  read  from  right  to  left.  Poetry  among 
the  Arabs  had  a  very  early  development, 
and  before  the  time  of  Mohammed  poet- 
ical contests  were  held  and  prizes  award- 
ed for  the  best  pieces.  The  progress  of 
the  Arabs  in  literature,  the  arts  and 
sciences,  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with 
the  government  of  the  caliphs  of  the 
family  of  the  Abbassides,  A.  D.  749,  at 
Bagdad,  several  of  whom,  as  Haroun  al 
Raschid  and  Al  Mamun,  were  munificent 
patrons  of  learning;  and  their  example 


was  followed  by  the  Ommiades  in  Spain. 
In  Spain  were  established  numerous 
academies  and  schools,  which  were  visited 
by  students  from  other  Eui'opean  coun- 
tries; and  important  works  wei-e  written 
on  geography,  history,  philosophy,  medi- 
cme,  physics,  mathematics,  arithmetic, 
geometry  and  astronomy.  Most  of  the 
geography  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  the 
work  of  the  Arabians,  and  their  histo- 


AA^ 


^^^/^ 


ARABIAN  ORNAMENT 


rians  since  the  8th  century  have  been 
very  numerous.  Of  their  philosophical 
authors  the  most  celebrated  are  Alfarabi 
(10th  century),  Ibn  Sina  or  Avicenna 
(died  A.  D.  1037),  Alghazzali  (died  1111), 
Ibn  Roshd  or  Averroes  (12th  century), 
called  by  pre-eminence  the  Commentator, 
etc.  In  medicine  they  excelled  all  other 
nations  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  they  are 
commonly  regarded  as  the  earliest  ex- 
perimenters in  chemistry.  It  was  by 
them  that  algebra  (a  name  of  Arabic 
origin)  was  introduced  to  the  western 
peoples,  and  the  Arabic  numerals  were 
similarly  introduced.  Astronomy  they 
especially  cultivated,  for  which  famous 
schools  and  observatories  were  erected 
at  Bagdad  and  Cordova.  The  tales  of 
fairies,  genii,  enchanters,  and  sorcerers 
in  particular,  passed  from  the  Arabians 
to  the  western  nations  as  in  "The  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights." 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAIN- 
MENTS, or  "THE  THOUSAND  AND 
ONE  NIGHTS,"  a  celebrated  collection 
of  Oriental  tales,  which  have,  since  their 
introduction  to  the  civilized  world,  become 
the  delight  of  all  who  peruse  them.  This 
collection,  which  had  long  been  famous 
throughout  the  East,  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  Europeans  by  the  translation 


ABACACHA 


222 


ARAGON 


of  Antoine  Galland,  a  great  French 
Orientalist,  in  1704.  The  best  English 
editions  are  by  Payne  and  Burton. 

AHACACHA.  or  ARUACACHA  (ar-a- 
ka'cha),  a  genus  of  umbelliferous  plants 
of  South  and  Central  America.  The 
root  of  A.  esciilenta  is  divided  into  several 
lobes,  each  of  which  is  about  the  size  of 
a  large  carrot.  These  are  boiled  like 
potatoes  and  largely  eaten  in  South 
America. 

AJRACAN  (ar-a-kan'),  or  ABAKAN, 
the  most  northern  division  of  lower 
Burma,  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  area,  18,- 
540  square  miles;  pop.  about  800,000.  It 
was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1826,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  first  Burmese  war. 

AIlACE.a;  (ar-as'e-i),  an  order  of  en- 
do''^enous  plants  having  for  their  inflores- 
c^nce  a  spadix  placed  within  a  spathe. 
ihey  have  neither  calyx  nor  corolla. 
Ihe  leaves  are  frequently  cordate.  The 
fruit  is  succulent,  with  many  seeds.  They 
are  acrid  in  character,  and  often  poison- 
ous. The  caladium  seqidniun,  or  dumb 
cane  of  the  West  Indies  and  South  Amer- 
ica, when  chewed,  causes  the  tongue  so 
to  swell  as  to  cause  temporary  dumb- 
ness. There  is  one  species  known  as  the 
aruvi  wxiculatum. 

AHACHIDIC  AOID  {C^B.,D'j=Qu 
Hi3:C00H),  a  monatomic  fatty  acid,  ob- 
tained by  the  saponification  of  the  oil  of 
the  earth  nut  {arachis  hypogsea).  It 
crystallizes  in  minute  scales,  which  melt 
at  75°.  It  is  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol 
and  in  ether. 

AEACHIS,  a  genus  of  leguminous 
plants  belonging  to  the  sub-order  csesal- 
piniacese.  The  A.  hypogsea,  the  under- 
ground arachis  (Greek  hupogeios^^sMh- 
terranean),  is  thus  called  because  the 
legumes  are  produced  and  matured  be- 
neath the  soil.  The  plant  is  now  cul- 
tivated in  the  warmer  parts  both  of  Asia 
and  America.  The  legumes  are  eatable. 
The  seeds  have  a  sweet  taste  and  fur- 
nish a  valuable  oil  used  for  lamps  and  as 
a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  In  South 
Carolina  they  are  employed  for  chocolate. 

AHACHNIDA,  the  class  of  animals 
which  contains  spiders,  scorpions,  and 
mites.  It  is  placed  between  the  Crustacea 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  insecta  on  the 
other.  The  highest  Crustacea  have  10 
feet,  the  arachnida  8,  and  the  insecta  6. 
The  arachnida  are  wingless,  have  no 
antennse,  breathe  by  means  of  tracheal 
tubes  or  pulmonary  sacs  performing  the 
function  of  lungs.  As  a  rule,  they  have 
several  simple  eyes.  They  have  no  proper 
metamorphosis.      They    live    in    a    pred- 


atory manner.  Huxley  separates  the 
arachnida  into  six  orders:  (1)  Arthro' 
gastra,  including  scorpio.,  chelifer,  phry- 
nus,  phalangium,  galeodes,  etc.;  (2) 
araneina,  or  spiders;  (3)  acarina,  or 
mites  and  ticks;  (4)  fresh-water  arctisca 
or  tardigrada,  called  water-bears;  (5) 
pycnogonida  (marine  animals)  ;  and  (6) 
pent-astomida    (parasites). 

ARAD,  capital  of  a  district  in  eastern 
Hungary;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maros, 
an  affluent  of  the  Theiss;  pop.  about 
65,000.  It  is  an  important  railway  cen- 
ter, and  is  95  miles  S.  E.  of  Budapest. 
It  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  corn,  spirits, 
wine  and  tobacco,  and  is  one  of  the  great- 
est cattle  markets  of  Hungary.  During 
the  17th  century  it  was  often  captured, 
and  at  last  destroyed  by  the  Turks.  Dur 
ring  the  Revolutionary  War  of  1849  it 
was  occupied  for  a  time  by  the  Austriarts, 
who  capitulated  to  the  Hungarians  in 
July.  In  August  Arad  was  surrendered 
to  the  Russians  by  Gorgei.  New  Arad 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  has  about 
7,500  inhabitants. 

ARAFAT,  or  JEBEL  ER  RAHMEH, 

a  hill  in  Arabia,  about  200  feet  high, 
with  stone  steps  reaching  to  the  summit, 
15  miles  S.  E.  of  Mecca;  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal objects  of  pilgrimage  among  Mo- 
hammedans, who  say  that  it  wa=:  the 
place  where  Adam  first  received  his  wife, 
Eve,  after  they  had  been  expelled  from 
Paradise  and  separated  from  each  other 
120  years.  A  sermon  delivered  on  the 
mount  constitutes  the  main  ceremony  of 
the  Hadj  or  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and 
entitles  the  hearer  to  the  name  and  priv- 
ileges of  a  Hadji  or  pilgrim. 

ARAGON,  once  a  kingdom,  now  a 
captaincy-general  of  Spain,  divided 
into  the*  three  provinces  of  Saragossa, 
Huesca,  and  Teruel;  greatest  length  from 
N.  to  S.,  190  miles;  breadth,  130;  area, 
18,294  square  miles;  pop.  about  1,000,000. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Pyrenees, 
and  borders  on  Navarre,  the  Castiles, 
Valencia,  and  Catalonia.  The  Ebro  flows 
through  Aragon  in  a  S.  E.  direction, 
receiving  numerous  tributaries.  Aragon 
is  naturally  divided  into  the  level  country 
along  the  Ebro,  and  the  N.  mountainous 
district  of  upper  Aragon.  The  central 
plain  is  sterile,  poorly  supplied  with 
water,  and  intersected  by  deep  ravines. 
The  valleys  of  upper  Aragon  are  the 
most  fertile  of  all  the  Pyrenean  valleys. 
The  slopes  of  the  hills  are  clothed  with 
forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  pine.  The 
minerals  of  the  pro\ince  are  copper,  lead, 
iron,  salt,  alum,  saltpeter,  coal,  and  am- 
ber.     The    silkworm   industry   has    been 


ARAOONITE 


223 


ARANY 


Introduced.  Aragon  early  became  a 
Roman  pro^nnce;  and,  on  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  West 
Goths,  but  was  conquered  by  the  Moors 
in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century.  The 
rulers  of  Aragon,  after  it  had  been  re- 
covered from  the  Moors  and  united  with 
Catalonia  (1137)  obtained  possession  of 
the  Balearic  Isles  in  1213,  of  Sicily  in 
1282,  of  Sardinia  in  1326,  and  of  Naples 
in  1440.  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand 
of  Aragon  with  Isabella,  heiress  of  Cas- 
tile, in  1469,  the  two  states  of  Aragon 
and  Castile  were  united,  and  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  later  Spanish  mon- 
archy. The  chief  towns  are  Saragossa, 
Calatavud,  Huesca,  and  Teruel.  Pop. 
about  120,000. 

ARAGOXITE.    or    AEEAGONITE 

(from  Aragox,  in  Spain,  where  it  was 
first  found) ,  a  mineral  with  orthorhombic 
crystals,  generally  six-sided  prisms, 
♦hough  the  rectangular  octohedron  is 
considered  its  regular  form.  It  occurs 
also  globular,  reniform,  coralloidal,  co- 
lumnar, stalactitic,  and  incrusting.  Its 
color  is  white,  gray,  yellow,  green,  or 
violet;  it  is  transparent  or  translu- 
cent, and  brittle,  Dana  thus  di- 
vides it:  Var.  1.  Ordinary:  (a) 
Crystallized  in  simple  or  compound  crys- 
tals, or  in  radiating  groups  of  acicular 
crystals;  (b)  Columnar,  including  Satin- 
Spar;  (c)  Massive.  2,  Scaly  massive, 
3,  Stalactitic  or  Stalagmitic,  4.  Coral- 
loidal. 5,  Tamo%icite.  Mossottite  and 
Oserskite  also  rank  with  Aragonite,  It 
occurs  in  Spain,  Austria,  Italy,  England, 
America,  and  elsewhere. 

AHAGONITE  GROUP.  Dana's  second 
group  of  anhydrous  carbonates,  com- 
prising aragonite,  manganocalcite,  with- 
erite,  bromlite,  strontianite,  and  cerussite. 

ARAGUAY  (ar'a-gayV  or  ARA- 
GUAYA, or  RIO  GRANDE,  a  large  river 
of  Brazil,  which  rises  in  about  19"  S.  lat., 
near  the  Parana,  flowing  to  about  6"  S. 
lat.,  where  it  joins  the  Tocantins.  The 
united  stream,  after  a  course  of  about 
1,300  miles,  falls  into  the  delta  of  the 
Amazon  in  S.  lat.  1°  40'. 

ARAKAN    YOMA    MOUNTAINS,    a 

range  of  700  miles  long,  stretching  from 
the  mountains  of  the  Xaga  City  down- 
ward along  the  E.  of  Chittagong  division, 
Bengal,  and  Arakan  division.  Lower 
Burma,  and  through  the  Irawadi  division, 
and  terminating  in  Cape  Xegrais;  high- 
est peak.  Blue  Mountain,  7,100  feet. 

ARAL  LAKE  (a'ralX,  separated  by 
the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt  from  the  Caspian 
Sea,  is  the  largest  lake  in  the  steppes  of 
Asia.    It  lies  wholly  within  the  limits  of 


Russian  Central  Asia,  embracing  an  area 
of  about  25,000  square  miles.  It  is  fed 
by  the  Sir-Darya  (the  ancient  Jaxartes) 
on  the  N.  E.  side  and  the  Anra-Darva 
(or  ancient  Oxus)  on  the  S.  E.  It  has 
no  outlet,  and  is  g^enerally  shallow,  its 
only  deep  water  being  on  the  W.  coart, 
where  it  reaches  a  depth  of  225  feet; 
but  it  shoals  gradually  eastward  to  a 
mere  marshy  swamp.  Fish,  including 
sturgeon,  carp,  and  herring,  are  abun- 
dant, though  the  water  is  brackish.  The 
lake  IS  dotted  with  multitudes  of  islands 
and  islets.  Owing  to  the  shallowness  of 
its  waters,  and  its  frequent  exposure  to 
fierce  and  sudden  storms,  navigation  is 
difficult.  The  area  it  now  occupies  has 
been  dry  land  twice  within  historical 
times.  This  was  the  case  during  the 
Grsco-Roman  period,  and  again  during 
the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 

ARAXLA,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  typi- 
cal one  of  the  order  araliacex.  A.  umbel- 
lifera  exudes  an  aromatic  gum.  A.  imdi- 
cavlis  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  sarsa- 
parilla.  The  berries  of  .4.  spinosa,  the 
angelica  tree,  prickly  ash,  or  toothache 
tree,  of  America,  infused  in  wine  or  spir- 
its, are  used  in  cases  of  colic,  while  a 
tincture  of  them  is  prescribed  in  tooth- 
ache. A.  racemosa,  the  spikenard  of 
America,  is  also  regarded  as  a  medicinal 
plant. 

ARA3iI.ffiAN  (ar-am-a'an),  or  ARA- 
MAIC, a  Semitic  language  nearly  allied 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician,  anciently 
spoken  in  Syria  and  Palestine  and  east- 
ward to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  being 
the  official  language  of  this  region  under 
the  Persian  domination.  In  Palestine  it 
supplanted  Hebrew,  and  was  the  tongue 
of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ,  Parts 
of  Daniel  and  Ezra  are  written  in  Ara- 
maic, or,  as  this  form  of  it  is  often  in- 
correctly named,  Chaldee.  An  important 
Aramaic  dialect  is  the  Syriac,  in  which 
there  is  an  extensive  Christian  literature. 

ARANJUEZ  (ar-an-hu'ath),  (probably 
the  Latin  Am  Jovis) .  a  town  of  Spain, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tagus,  30  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Madrid  by  rail,  in  a  beauti- 
fully wooded  valley.  The  palace  was  long 
a  favorite  spring  resort  of  the  royal 
faniilv.  The  famous  gardens  were  laid 
out  bv  Philip  II.  At  Aranjuez  was  con- 
cluded a  treaty  between  France  and 
Spain  in  1772,  and  it  was  also  the  scene 
of  the  abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  1808. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

ARANY,  JANOS  (or'ony),  a  Hunga- 
rian poet,  born  at  Xagy-Szalonta,  March 
1.  1817.  He  was  called  to  Budapest  m 
1860  as  director  of  the  Kisfaludy  So- 
ciety; founded  the  literary  weekly  "Kos- 


ABAFAIMA 


224 


ARBITRATIOIT 


zori"  ("The  Wreath") ;  and  in  1865  was 
\ppointed  secretary  of  the  Hungarian 
Academy,  of  which  he  had  been  a  mem- 
ber since  1859.  Owing  to  his  feeble 
health  he  resigned  in  1878.  As  a  national 
poet  he  ranks  immediately  after  Petofi 
and  Vorosmarty,  his  epical  creations  de- 
serving to  be  acknowledged  as  ornaments 
not  only  of  Hungarian  but  of  modern 
poetry  in  general.  He  is  master  of  the 
ballad  and  a  translator  of  highest  merit, 
as  proven  by  his  versions  of  Tasso, 
Goethe,  Shakespeare,  and,  above  all,  his 
translation  of  Aristophanes.  He  died  in 
Budapest,  Oct.  22,  1882. 

ARAPAIMA  (ar-ap-a'ma),  a  genus  of 
tropical  fishes,  including  the  largest 
knowr-  fresh  water  forms.  They  are 
found  in  the  rivers  of  South  America, 
and  are  sometimes  taken  in  the  Rio  Ne- 
gro, 15  feet  in  length,  and  400  pounds  in 
weight.  They  are  shot  with  arrows  or 
harpooned,  and  are  highly  esteemed  as 
food;  salted,  they  are  conveyed  in  large 
quantities  to  Para.  The  genus  arapaima 
belongs  to  the  family  osteoglossidas,  allied 
to  the  clupeidse  or  herring,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  mosaic  work  of  strong  bony 
scales  with  which  the  body  is  covered. 
The  head  is  also  protected  by  bony  arma- 
ture. Osteoglosswm  and  heterotis  are 
closely  related  genera,  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  tropics. 

ARARAT,  MOUNT,  a  famous  moun- 
tain of  Asia,  in  Armenia,  on  the  confines 
of  the  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Persian 
empires.  Its  base  is  washed  by  the 
Araxes,  from  whose  low  plain  it  rises  to 
an  immense  height,  terminating  in  two 
conical  peaks,  one  much  higher  than  the 
other.  The  chief  summit,  Great-Ararat, 
was  climbed  in  1830  by  Prof.  Parrot,  who 
determined  its  altitude  to  be  17,230  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  whole  of  the  upper 
region  of  the  mountain,  from  the  height 
of  12,750  feet,  is  covered  with  perpetual 
snow  and  ice.  Ararat  is  said  to  be  the 
Ararat  of  Scripture  on  whose  summit 
the  ark  rested. 

ARAS,  a  river  of  Armenia,  rising  S. 
of  Erzerum  at  the  foot  of  the  Bingol- 
dagh;  it  flows  for  some  miles  through 
Turkish  territory  N.  E.  to  the  new  Rus- 
sian frontier.  Here  it  turns  eastward  to 
the  Erivian  plain  N.  of  Ararat,  whence 
it  sweeps  in  a  semi-circle  mostly  between 
the  Russian  and  Persian  territories  round 
to  its  confluence  with  the  Kur,  60  miles 
from  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian;  length, 
500  miles. 

ARATJCANIA  (ar-o-ka'ne-a),  the 
country  of  the  Araucos  or  Araucanian 
Indians,  in  the  south  of  Chile.  The  Chil- 
ean province  of  Arauco,  lying  between 


the  Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Concepcion,  on  the 
S.  by  Valdivia,  formed  in  1875,  has  an 
area  of  2,189  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation (1917)  of  73,260.  The  Arauca- 
nians  are  interesting  as  furnishing  the 
only  example  of  Indian  self-government 
in  the  presence  of  the  European  races. 
They  are  a  fierce  and  warlike  people,  and 
have  a  kind  of  military  aristocratic  con- 
stitution. Formerly  the  government  rest- 
ed in  the  hands  of  four  chiefs  (Toqtiis) , 
each  nominated  by  one  of  the  four  divi- 
sions of  the  people,  and  one  of  whom 
was  elected  "great  Toqui."  They  have 
no  formal  laws,  but  custom  and  tradition 
have  all  the  force  of  these.  They  now 
number  about  70,000.  From  the  days  of 
Pizarro  and  Almagro  downward,  Arau- 
cania  has  fought  for  its  freedom — its 
wars  of  independence  having  lasted,  with 
intervals  of  precarious  truce,  from  1537 
to  1773.  In  1861  a  French  adventurer, 
Tonneins  by  name,  ingratiating  himself 
with  the  Indians,  was  elected  King  of 
Araucania.  He  was  soon  at  war  vnth 
Chile,  and  was  captured  and  allowed  to 
go  to  France.  Returning  to  Araucania, 
he  kept  up  a  struggle  with  the  Chileans 
in  1869-1870,  but  repaired  once  more  to 
France  in  1871.  In  1870  the  Auraca- 
nians  acknowledged  the  rule  of  Chile. 

ARAUCARIA  (ar-6-ka're-a) ,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  pinacese 
(conifers)  and  to  the  family  or  section 
abietinse.  Five  or  six  species  are  known; 
all  from  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  The 
one  so  common  in  English  gardens  is 
A.  imbricata,  a  native  of  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  southern  Chile.  Another 
species,  A.  excelsa,  or  Norfolk  Island 
pine,  is  a  splendid  tree  of  giant  size.  All 
the  genus  are  ornamental  from  their 
fine  and  unfading  foliage. 

ARBELA,  now  ERBIL,  or  ARBIL,  a 

small  town  of  Assyria,  E.  from  Mosul, 
famous  as  having  given  name  to  the 
battle  in  which  Alexander  finally  defeat- 
ed Darius,  331  B.  c.  The  battle  was  really 
fought  near  Gaugamela  (the  "camel's 
house"),  about  70  miles  to  the  N.  W.  of 
Arbela. 

ARBITRATION,  an  adjudication  by 
private  persons,  called  arbitrators,  ap« 
pointed  to  decide  a  matter  or  matters  in 
controversy,  either  by  written  or  oral 
submission,  by  agreement  of  the  dispu- 
tants. It  diff'ers  from  a  reference  which 
is  made  by  the  order  of  a  court  of  law. 

Legal  Arbitration. — Infants  and  others 
not  sui  juris  cannot  submit  controversies 
to  arbitration.  The  matters  that  may 
be  submitted  to  an  arbitrator  are  all 
personal   disputes   and   diflferences   that 


ARBITRATION 


225 


ARBITRATION 


might  otherwise  be  made  the  subject  of 
controversy  in  the  courts  of  civil  juris- 
diction, except  matters  respecting  a  claim 
to  an  estate  in  real  property,  in  fee  or 
for  life,  which  in  New  York  cannot  be 
submitted  to  arbitration;  in  some  other 
States  they  may  be.  Thus  breaches  of 
contract  generally,  breaches  of  promise 
of  marriage,  trespass,  assaults,  charges 
of  slander,  differences  respecting  part- 
nership transactions  or  the  purchase 
price  of  a  piece  of  personal  property,  all 
may  be  referred  to  arbitration.  Ques- 
tions relating  to  real  property  in  the 
State  of  New  York  cannot  be  the  sub- 
ject of  arbitration.  Differences  between 
landlord  and  tenant,  where  no  claim  of 
title  is  interjposed,  may  be.  Pure  ques- 
tions of  law  may  also  be  referred  to  the 
decision  of  an  arbitrator.  Actions  at 
law  and  suits  in  equity  may  also  be  set- 
tled by  arbitration;  and  this  kind  of 
reference  may  be  made  at  any  stage  of 
the  proceedings,  sometimes  even  after 
the  verdict,  and  probably,  by  analogy, 
after  decree  in  equity.  Questions  relat- 
ing to  the  future  use  and  enjoyment  of 
property,  and  future  or  anticipated  differ- 
ences between  parties,  may  likewise  be 
so  submitted,  but  not  in  New  York.  In 
some  of  the  States,  however,  some  mat- 
ters depending  on  points  strictly  tech- 
nical are  excluded  from  arbitration,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  often  arbitrators 
are  not  learned  in  the  law.  A  matter 
clearly  illegal  cannot  be  made  the  sub- 
ject of  a  valid  submission.  Partners  and 
corporations  may  make  submission  to 
arbitration.  The  arbitrator  ought  to  be 
a  person  who  stands  perfectly  indifferent 
between  the  disputants;  but  there  are 
no  other  particular  qualifications  for  the 
office,  and  the  choice  by  parties  of  the 
person  who  they  agree  shall  decide  be- 
tween them  is  perfectly  safe. 

Mode  of  Procedure. — The  proceedings 
before  an  arbitrator  are  regulated  gen- 
erally according  to  the  forms  observed 
in  courts  of  law.  The  arbitrator  on  the 
day  appointed  hears  the  case  and  makes 
his  award,  which  need  not  be  in  writing, 
for  a  verbal  award  is  perfectly  valid; 
but  in  practice  it  is  usual  for  the  arbi- 
trator to  make  a  written  award.  This 
award  in  its  effect  operates  as  a  final  and 
conclusive  judgment  respecting  all  the 
matter  submitted,  and  binds  the  rights 
of  the  parties  for  all  time.  An  award 
may  be  set  aside  on  the  ground  of  cor- 
ruption and  fraud  in  the  arbitrator,  and 
for  any  material  irregularity  or  illegality 
appearing  on  the  face  of  the  proceedings, 
such  as  is  beyond  or  not  covered  by  the 
submission.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
courts  is  to  favor  arbitration,  and  main- 


tain awards,  unless  such  serious  grounds 
as  are  above  referred  to,  can  be  substan- 
tiated. Where  there  are  two  arbitrators 
the  submission  often  provides  that  in 
the  case  of  their  differing  in  opinion  the 
matter  referred  shall  be  decided  by  a 
third  person,  called  an  umpire,  who  is 
generally  appointed  under  a  power  to 
that  effect  by  the  arbitrators  themselves. 
But  they  cannot  make  such  appointment 
unless  specially  authorized  so  to  do  by 
the  terms  of  the  submission.  This  um- 
pire rehears  the  case,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose is  invested  with  the  same  powers 
as  those  possessed  by  the  arbitrators, 
and  is  bound  by  the  same  rules. 

Court  of  Arbitration. — By  chapter  278, 
Laws  of  1874,  the  legislature  of  New 
York  established  the  "Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the 
State  of  New  York,"  defined  its  jurisdic- 
tion, and  regulated  its  proceedings. 
The  London  Corporation  and  the  Lon' 
don  Chamber  of  Commerce  founded  joint' 
ly  in  1892  a  Chamber  of  Arbitration,  oJ 
Tribunal  of  Commerce,  for  settling  trade 
and  commercial  difficulties;  and  the  great 
coal  dispute  and  strike  of  1893  led  to  a 
conference  which  secured  a  peaceful  con- 
clusion for  the  time,  and  the  foundation 
of  a  permanent  "Board  of  Reconciliation," 
consisting  of  representatives  both  of 
owners  and  of  the  miners.  Diplomatic 
conferences,  which  often  obviate  war, 
belong  to  a  different  category. 

International  Arbitration. — As  civili-  / 
zation  has  progressed,  chiefly  through  vast 
improvement  in  transportation,  which  by 
mixing  up  the  peoples  of  the  world  has 
made  life  an  infinitely  more  complex 
thing,  the  world  has  continually  sought 
to  find  some  means  for  the  settlement 
of  international  disputes  which  should 
avert  the  horrors  and  vast  economic 
expense  of  war.  The  history  of  arbitra- 
tion during  the  past  half  century  fur- 
nishes at  least  an  interesting  comment- 
ary on  the  efforts  on  the  part  of  civilized 
nations  to  keep  the  peace. 

The  word  is  defined  as  "an  arrange- 
ment for  taking  and  abiding  by  the 
judgment  of  a  selected  person  (or  per- 
sons) in  some  disputed  matter,  instead 
of  carrying  it  to  the  established  courts 
of  justice."  Arbitration  as  the  simplest 
means  of  settling  a  dispute  is  as  old  as 
the  first  civilized  state  of  man.  It  was 
employed  by  the  Romans  and  its  use 
among  modern  nations  is  derived  prima- 
rily from  them. 

The  Arbitration  Act  of  1889  in  Eng- 
land sums  up  the  English  law  to  date  and 
that  of  the  United  States  is  very  much 
like  it.  According  to  such  codifications 
the  primary  condition  is  the  agreement 


ARBITRATION 


226 


ARBITRATION 


of  both  parties  to  accept  the  award  of 
an  independent  tribunal.  Such  a  court 
may  be  special  or  general,  temporary  or 
permanent,  open  or  restricted.  In  the 
gravest  cases  the  tribunal  works  under 
a  special  treaty — in  the  case  of  the 
United  States,  made  by  the  Senate. 
Financial  claims  of  a  private  nature  are 
based  usually  upon  executive  agreements. 
The  Hague  Convention  of  1399  intro- 
duced a  provision  "that  in  case  of  ques- 
tions in  dispute  affecting  neither  the 
vital  interest  nor  the  honor  of  the 
nations  involved  international  commis- 
sions of  inquiry  shall  be  appointed  to 
examine  and  report  upon  the  local  cir- 
cumstances"— such  reports  to  serve 
"either  as  the  basis  of  diplomatic  settle- 
ment or  of  formal  arbitration." 

A  commission  of  this  character  was 
appointed  in  1904  in  the  dispute  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  on  the  firing 
upon  British  fishing  vessels  in  the  North 
Sea  by  the  Russian  fleet,  and  its  findings 
were  accepted  as  final. 

The  powers  of  such  commissions  were 
extended  through  a  proposal  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States 
in  the  year  1913,  to  all  international 
questions;  war  not  to  be  declared  in  any 
event  pending  a  decision. 

Arbitration,  which  is  the  flower  of 
civilization,  can  only  be  utilized  by  civil- 
ized countries.  It  was  freely  employed 
among  the  Greeks  in  questions  of  bound- 
aries, commerce,  and  even  religion.  The 
foreign  policy  of  Rome  pointing  to  uni- 
versal dominion  forbade  arbitration,  but 
during  the  Middle  Ages  it  again  came 
into  use,  under  the  authority  _  of  the 
Church.  The  popes  and  other  high  dig- 
nitaries of  the  Roman  Church  became 
natural  arbitrators  in  cases  of  private  in- 
terest and  internal  policy,  and  were  often 
called  upon.  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  acting 
in  such  a  capacity,  traced  "an  imaginary 
line  from  pole  to  pole  in  his  decision  of 
all  lands,  discovered  in  the  New  World, 
between  Spain  and  Portugal."  Pope 
Clement  XI.  was  umpire  in  the  treaty 
of  Ryswick  between  Louis  XIV.  and 
Leopold  I.  Arbitration  naturally  de- 
clined with  the  Reformation,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  absolute  temporal  king- 
doms. The  great  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion with  the  new  area  of  scientific 
discovery,  especially  the  invention  of 
steam  transportation  that  brought  all 
nations  into  such  close  relation,  brought 
about  a  return  to  arbitration  methods. 
There  were  more  than  130  courts  of  ar- 
bitration for  grave  international  ques- 
tions and  as  many  more  for  financial 
claims  in  operation  during  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

The  Unit«d  States  and  Great  Britain 


have  been  foremost  among  the  nations  in 
showing  the  world  the  way. 

Most  important  among  these  was  the 
Treaty  of  Washington,  constituting  a 
Joint  High  Commission,  which,  sitting 
at  Geneva  in  1871,  settled  the  "Alabama" 
claims.  The  frequent  disputes  between 
the  Latin-American  States  during  the 
past  half  century  have  been  for  the  most 
part  peacefully  determined  by  arbitra- 
tion. 

During  the  last  century  and  a  quarter 
the  United  States  has  figured  largely  in 
this  field  of  diplomacy. 

The  Jay  Treaty  of  1794,  negotiated  by 
John  Jay,  as  chief  representative  of 
American  interests,  with  Great  Britain, 
called  for  one  commission  to  settle  the 
identity  of  the  St.  Croix  river  on  the 
northeastern  boundary;  for  another  to 
determine  between  certain  of  the  States 
aad  British  creditors  whose  debts  had 
been  repudiated  or  dishonored  in  violation 
of  the  treaty;  and  a  third  to  settle  the 
rights  of  neutrals,  questions  of  contra- 
band, and  the  penalty  of  the  decisions 
of  prize  courts. 

The  Treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
likewise  provided  for  three  commissions, 
all  relating  to  boundary  questions  along 
the  Canadian  border,  and  the  right  to 
certain  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay 
and  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

The  next  important  question  culmi- 
nated in  the  year  1818,  and  required  Great 
Britain  on  the  part  of  this  country  to 
restore  slaves  in  the  British  possessions 
at  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent. 
The  Czar  of  Russia,  who  was  chosen  as 
arbitrator,  decided  in  our  favor,  and  a 
sum  aggregating  about  a  million  and  a 
quarter  dollars  was  finally  paid. 

In  the  arbitration  between  this  country 
and  Great  Britain  in  1827  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  northeastern  boundary,  the 
King  of  the  Netherlands  as  arbitrator 
failed  to  provide  a  settlement,  and  the 
matter  was  finally  compromised  in  the 
Webster-Ashburton  treaty.  Important 
matters  with  France  were  settled  in  1831 
including  claims  for  private  depredations 
at  sea  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the 
French  Beaumarchais  claim,  and  claims 
for  special  commercial  privileges  under 
the  Louisiana  cession  treaty — in  all 
amounting  to  an  indemnity  of  more  than 
five  and  one  half  millions.  The  right  to 
take  fish  in  Canadian  waters  adjoining 
unsettled  territory  again  came  up  in 
1855  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  and  was  only  finally  set- 
tled in  1866. 

The  Treaty  of  Washington  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  in  1871, 


ARBOR  DAY 


227 


ARC 


took  up  the  San  Juan  water  boundary, 
decided  in  favor  of  this  country  by  the 
Emperor  of  Germany;  the  Nova  Scotia 
fisheries  question;  all  Civil  War  claims 
outside  of  the  "Alabama"  claims;  and 
finally  the  "Alabama"  claims.  In  the 
Nova  Scotia  fisheries  dispute  Great  Brit- 
ain was  awarded  £1,100,000  and  in  the 
third  case  £386,000.  The  Samoan  dispute 
involving  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States,  was  attacked  in  1889 
by  the  establishment  of  a  joint  commis- 
sion appointed  by  the  King  of  Sweden  in 
co-operation  with  the  Chief  Justice  of 
Samoa.  Complications  arising  ten  years 
later,  a  joint  high  commission  visited 
Samoa,  and  an  agreement  for  the  parti- 
tion of  the  islands  was  signed  Dec.  2,1899. 

The  Behring  Sea  fisheries  dispute  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  was  finally  settled  in  1896,  the 
first  commission  having  been  established 
in  1892.  The  first  award,  mainly  in 
favor  of  Great  Britain,  was  rendered 
in  1893,  but  recognized  the  plea  of  the 
United  States  for  the  regulation  of  the 
seal  fisheries  and  its^  proposals  to  that 
end.  A  second  commission  appointed  in 
1896  fixed  the  amount  of  damages  due  to 
Canadian  sealers  under  the  former  deci- 
sion at  $471,151. 

The  next  important  question  was  the 
determination  of  the  Alaskan  boundary, 
which  began  in  1897,  and  was  finally  set- 
tled in  1899. 

Sealing  disputes  with  Russia,  arising 
out  of  the  seizure  of  four  American  seal- 
fishers  by  a  Russian  cruiser  in  Bering 
Sea  in  1891,  were  finally  settled  by  ar- 
bitration in  1902,  the  decision  being  in 
favor  of  the  United  States  with  the 
enunciation  of  the  principle  that  a  war 
vessel  has  no  jurisdiction  over  a  vessel 
of  another  nation  outside  territorial 
waters.  The  Alaska  boundary  dispute 
was  finally  settled  by  a  joint  commission 
representing  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  in  1903.  See  Peace 
Movement;  League  of  Nations. 

ARBOR  DAY,  a  day  set  apart  to 
encourage  the  voluntary  planting  of 
trees  by  the  people.  The  custom  was 
inaugurated  by  the  Nebraska  State  Board 
of  Agriculture  in  1874,  which  recommend- 
ed that  the  second  Wednesday  in  April 
annually  be  designated  as  Arbor  Day, 
and  that  all  public  school  children  should 
be  urged  to  observe  it  by  setting  out 
young  trees.  The  custom  has  since  been 
extended,  till  now  nearly  every  State 
and  Territory  in  the  country  has  set 
apart  one  day  by  legislative  enactment, 
or  otherwise,  for  this  purpose.  The 
ceremony  usually  consists  of  planting 
shade  or  ornamental  trees  on  the  grounds 

16 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


of  public  or  other  school  buildings.  In 
Canada  the  first  Friday  in  May  is  cele- 
brated as  Arbor  Day. 

ARBORICULTURE.   See   FORESTRY. 

ARBOR  VIT^,  literally  the  tree  of 
life.  (1)  In  botany,  a  name  given  to  the 
trees  belonging  to  the  coniferous 
genus  thuja.  T.  occidentalis,  or  Ameri- 
can arbor  vitje,  is  a  well  known 
and  valued  evergreen.  (2)  In  anatomy, 
a  dendriform  arrangement  which  appears 
in  the  medulla  of  the  brain  when  the 
cerebellum  is  cut  through  vertically. 

ARBUTUS,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  encacex  (heath 
worts).  A  species,  the  A.  unedo,  or 
austere  strawberry  tree,  is  found,  ap- 
parently wild,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Lakes  of  Killarney.  It  has  panicles  of 
large,  pale  greenish-white  flowers  and 
red  JFruit,  which,  with  the  everg^reen 
leaves,  are  especially  beautiful  in  the 
months  of  October  and  November.  Trail- 
ing arbutus  is  a  creeping  or  trailing  plant 
(epigsea  repens)  with  rose-colored  blos- 
soms, found  chiefly  in  New  England  in 
the  spring.  Commonly  called  May  flower, 
or  sometimes  ground  laurel. 

ARC,  in  geometry,  a  portion  of  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  cut  off  by  two 
lines  which  meet  or  intersect  it.  Its  mag- 
nitude is  stated  in  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds,  which  are  equal  to  thosj  of  the 
angle  which  it  subtends.  Hence,  counted 
by  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  the  arc 
of  elevation  and  the  angle  of  elevation 
of  a  heavenly  body  are  the  same,  and  the 
two  terms  may  be  used  in  most  cases  in- 
differently. The  straight  line  uniting  the 
two  extremities  of  an  arc  is  called  its 
chord.  Equal  arcs  must  come  from  circles 
of  equal  magnitude,  and  each  must  con- 
tain the  same  number  of  degrrees,  minutes, 
and  seconds  as  the  others.  Similar  arcs 
must  also  each  have  the  same  number 
of  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  but  they 
belong  to  circles  of  unequal  magnitude. 
Concentric  arcs  are  arcs  having  the  same 
center. 

In  mathematical  geography,  an  arc  of 
the  earth's  meridian,  or  a  meridional  arc, 
is  an  arc  partly  measured  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  from  N.  to  S.,  partly  cal- 
culated by  trigonometry.  Such  arcs  have 
been  measured  in  Lapland;  in  Peru;  from 
Dunkirk,  in  France,  to  Barcelona,  in 
Spain;  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
from  Shanklin  Down,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
to  Balta,  in  Shetland.  It  was  by  these 
measurements  that  the  earth  was  dis- 
covered to  be  an  oblate  spheroid. 

In  electricity,  a  voltaic  arc  is  a  lumi- 
nous arc,  which  extends  from  one  pencil 
of  charcoal  to  another  when   these  are 


ABC,  JOAN  OF 


228 


ABCH 


fixed  to  the  terminals  of  a  battery  in 
such  a  position  that  their  extremities  are 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  apart. 

ARC,  JOAN  OF.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 

ABCA,  a  genus  of  conchiferous  mol- 
lusks,  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
arcadse.  The  shell  is  strongly  ribbed,  or 
cancellated,  hinge  straight,  with  very 
numerous  transverse  teeth.  They  are  uni- 
versally distributed,  but  are  commonest 
in  warm  seas.  They  inhabit  the  zone 
from  low  water  to  230  fathoms.  Of  the 
recent  species.  A.  noas,  A.  tetragona,  A. 
lactea,  A.  raridentata,  and  A.  barbata 
occur  in  England.  The  fossil  species  are 
found  in  the  United  States,  Europe,  and 
southern  India. 

ARCACHON  (ar-ka-shoh'),  a  bathing 
place  which  has  grown  up  since  1854,  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  Bassin  d'Arcachon,  34 
miles  S.  W.  of  Bordeaux,  France.  Its 
main  street  stretches  2^  miles  along  the 
shore,  with  the  pine  forest  immediately 
behind.  Its  numerous  villas  among  the 
first  are  much  frequented  in  winter  by 
invalids  afflicted  with  lung  disease.  Scien- 
tific oyster  culture  is  practiced  here  on  a 
large  scale.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

ABCADE,  a  series  of  arches  of  any 
form,  supported  on  pillars,  either  inclos- 
ing a  space  before  a  wall,  or  any  building 
which  is  covered  in  and  paved;  or,  when 
used  as  an  architectural  feature  for  orna- 
menting the  towers  and  walls  of  churches 
entirely  closed  up  with  masonry.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  covered  pas- 
sage having  shops  on  either  side  of  it. 
Two  arcades  inscribed  in  a  greater  arcade 
are  called  geminous  arcades. 

ABCADIA,  the  classical  name  of 
middle  Peloponnesus,  now  forming  the 
modern  province  of  Arkadia,  in  the 
Morea,  Greece.  It  occupies  a  high  table- 
land having  on  the  N.,  Achaia,E.,  Argolis, 
W.,  Elis,  and,  on  the  S.,  Laconia  and 
Messenia.  Area  1,600  square  miles.  It 
is  intersected  by  mountain  ranges,  some 
of  which  are  very  lofty,  and  contains 
plains  of  some  extent.  Its  principal 
river  is  the  Roufia  (Alpheus) ,  the  largest 
in  the  Morea.  Lake  Stymphalus,  of  clas- 
sic mention,  is  found  here.  The  inhab- 
itants still  retain  their  primitive  mode  of 
life  as  shepherds,  pursuing  a  migratory 
existence.  Chief  towns,  Tripolitza,  Lon- 
dari,  Karitena,  etc.  Many  interesting 
ruins  are  seen  here,  among  them  the  re- 
mains of  the  cities  of  Phigaleia,  Megalop- 
olis, and  Pallantium.  Pop.  about  175,000. 
From  its  first  inhabitants,  the  Pelasgi, 
the  land  derived  the  name  Pelasgia.  In 
later  times  it  was  divided  among  the  50 
sons  of  Lycaon  into  kingdoms,  and  re- 


ceived from  Areas  the  name  Arcadia.  In 
the  course  of  time  the  small  kingdoms 
made  themselves  free,  and  formed  s  con- 
federacy. The  principal  were  Mantirvea, 
where  Epaminondas  obtained  a  victory 
and  a  tomb  (now  the  village  of  Mondi), 
Tega  (now  Tripolitza),  Orchomenus, 
Phenus,  Psophis,  and  Megalopolis.  Their 
chief  deity  was  Pan;  their  chief  business, 
the  breeding  of  cattle  and  agriculture. 
This  occasioned  the  pastoral  poets  to 
select  Arcadia  for  the  theater  of  their 
fables. 

ABCESILAUS  (ar-ses-e-la'us),  a 
Greek  philosopher,  founder  of  the  New 
Academy,  was  born  at  Pitane  in  JEoUa, 
Asia  Minor,  316  b.  c.  He  ultimately  be- 
came the  head  of  the  academic  school 
or  those  who  held  the  doctrines  of  Plato ; 
but  he  introduced  so  many  innovations 
that  its  philosophic  character  was  com- 
pletely changed  in  the  direction  of  scep- 
ticism. His  great  rivals  were  the  Stoics. 
He  denied  the  Stoical  doctrine  of  knowl- 
edge, which  he  affirmed  to  be,  from  its 
very  nature,  unintelligible  and  contradic- 
tory. He  also  denied  the  existence  of 
any  sufficient  criterion  of  truth,  such  as 
the  "irresistible  conviction"  of  the  Stoics, 
and  recommended  abstinence  from  all 
dogmatic    judgments.      He    died    in   241 

B.  C. 

ABCH,  in  architecture,  a  series  of 
wedge-shaped  stones  or  bricks,  so  ar- 
ranged over  a  door  or  window  in  an  edi- 
fice for  habitation,  or  between  the  piers 
of  a  bridge,  as  to  support  each  other,  and 
even  bear  a  great  superincumbent  weight. 
The  stones  and  bricks  of  a  truncated 
wedge  shape  used  in  building  arches  are 
called  voussoirs.  The  sides  of  an  arch 
are  called  its  haunches  or  flanks.  The 
highest  part  of  the  arch  is  called  its 
crown,  or  by  the  old  English  authors 
the  scheme  or  skeen,  from  the  Italian 
schiena.  The  lowest  voussoirs  of  an  arch 
are  called  springers,  and  the  central  one 
which  holds  the  rest  together  the  key- 
stone. The  under  or  concave  side  of  the 
voussoirs  is  called  the  intrados,  and  the 
outer  or  convex  one  the  extrados  of  the 
arch.  A  chord  to  the  arch  at  its  lower 
part  is  called  its  span,  and  a  line  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  this  chord,  and  extend- 
ing upward  to  its  summit,  is  called  its 
height.  The  impost  of  an  arch  is  the 
portion  of  the  pier  or  abutment  from 
which  the  arch  springs.  If  the  height 
of  the  crown  of  an  arch  above  the  level 
of  its  impost  is  greater  than  half  the 
span  of  the  arch,  the  arch  is  said  to  be 
surmounted.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
less,  then  the  arch  is  said  to  be  surbased. 
The  curved  arch  was  known  to  the  As- 
syrians and  the  Old  Egyptians. 


ABCH^AN  BOCKS 


229 


ABCHANOEL 


The  arch  was  brought  into  extensive 
use  by  the  Romans,  and  everywhere  pre- 
vailed till  the  12th  century  A.  D.  when  the 
arch  pointed  at  the  apex,  and  called  in 
consequence  the  pointed  arch — the  one 
so  frequently  seen  in  Gothic  architecture 
— appeared  in  Europe  as  its  rival.  The 
forms  of  both  curved  and  pointed  arches 
may  be  varied  indefinitely.  Of  the 
former  may  be  mentioned  the  horseshoe 
arch,  and  the  foil  arch,  from  Latin 
foliuw^=^3i  leaf,  of  which  there  are  the 
trefoil,  the  cinquefoil,  and  the  multifoil 
varieties,  so  named  from  the  plants  after 
which  they  are  modeled. 

Other  arches  are  the  pointed  one;  the 
equilateral  one,  the  drop  arch,  lancet 
arch,  etc. 

ABCHiEAN  (ar-ke'an)  BOCKS,  the 
oldest  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust,  crys- 
talline in  character,  and  embracing  gran- 
ite, syenite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  etc.,  all 
devoid  of  fossil  remains.  These  rocks 
underlie  and  are  distinctly  separate  from 
the  stratified  and  fossiliferous  for- 
mations, which  indeed  have  chiefly  taken 
origin  from  them. 

ABCH^OLOGICAL  INSTITUTE  OF 
AMEBICA,  a  society  founded  in  Boston 
in  1879  for  archaeological  research.  It 
has  about  twenty  affiliated  societies  with 
headquarters  in  different  cities.  It  has 
founded  several  schools  for  classical 
studies,  including  those  in  Athens,  Rome, 
Palestine,  and  the  United  States.  The 
society  has  carried  on  many  important 
researches  in  European  countries  and  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Central  America.  It  has  about  2,000 
members. 

ABCH.ffiOLOGY,  the  science  which 
makes  us  acquainted  with  the  antiquities 
of  nations  that  have  lived  and  died,  and 
the  remains  of  various  kinds  which  throw 
a  light  upon  the  history  of  those  now  ex- 
isting. The  archaeologist  seeks  to  study 
and  preserve  any  materials  which  tend 
to  elucidate  the  objects  already  mentioned, 
and  these  materials  naturally  resolve 
themselves  into  three  great  divisions, 
each  susceptible  of  further  subdivision. 
The  first  class  may  be  considered  to  con- 
sist of  all  records,  written  or  printed, 
legal  documents,  old  chronicles,  diaries 
of  a  public  or  private  nature,  state 
papers,  letters,  etc.  The  second  may  be 
termed  oral,  or  traditional,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  first,  which  may  be  broadly 
called  written  archaeology,  and  consists 
of  the  ballads,  legends,  and  folk-lore  of  a 
people,  their  sports,  superstitions,  and 
the  rise  and  origin  of  local  customs, 
proverbs,  and  expressions.  The  third, 
termed  monumental  archaeology,  consists 


of  works  of  art,  paintings,  sculpture, 
coins,  medals,  pottery,  glass,  wooden  and 
metal  utensils,  tools  of  all  descriptions, 
armor,  weapons,  carriages,  boats,  roads, 
canals,  walls,  encampments,  burial- 
grounds,  earthen  mounds  for  purposes 
of  defense  or  sepulture,  and  even  human 
and  animal  remains. 

ABCHANGEL,  a  government  of 
Russia  in  Europe,  occupying  the  entire 
country  from  the  Ural  Mountains  on  the 
E.  to  Finland  on  the  W.,  and  from  the 
Vologda  and  Olonetz  on  the  S.  to  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  and  White  Sea  on  the  N.  Nova 
Zembla,  and  some  large  islands  of  the 
Arctic  Sea  are  also  included  within  it; 
area  331,640  square  miles.  The  largest 
part  of  this  great  territory  is  bleak, 
sandy,  and  perpetually  sterile.  The 
principal  source  of  wealth  lies  in  the 
forests,  which  are  almost  inexhaustible. 
Hunting  and  fishing  are  the  principal  oc- 
cupations of  the  inhabitants.  The  rein- 
deer, among  the  Laps  in  the  N.  W.,  and 
the  Samoyedes  in  the  N.  E.,  is  domes- 
ticated. Chief  productions  are  hay, 
hemp,  cordage,  mats,  tallow,  tar,  turpen- 
tine, potash,  etc.  The  natives,  though  of 
Finnish  origin,  have  now  become  essen- 
tially Russian.  The  Samoyedes,  who  are 
in  the  lowest  scale  of  civilization,  and 
spread  over  a  vast  tract  of  country,  do 
not  exceed  in  number  7,000;  the  Laps, 
not  more  than  2,000.  The  chief  towns 
are  Archangel,  the  capital,  Onega,  and 
Dwina.    Pop.  about  510,000. 

ABCHANGEL,     or     ST.     MICHAEL, 

capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
and  the  principal  city  and  seaport  of 
northern  Russia,  lies  on  the  Dwina, 
about  34  miles  from  its  fall  into  the 
White  Sea.  During  the  European  War 
(1914-1918)  it  became  the  chief  port  of 
Russia.  There  is  a  government  dock- 
yard, and  numerous  private  shipbuild- 
ing concerns.  The  entrance  to  the 
Dwina,  on  which  Archangel  was  subse« 
quently  built,  was  discovered  by  Richard 
Chancellour,  an  Englishman,  in  1554. 
Pop.  about  36,000. 

An  American  force  was  landed  in  this 
city  in  the  latter  part  of  1918,  in  con- 
junction with  British,  Japanese,  and 
French  forces.  They  were  maintained 
there  for  many  months  for  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  guarding  supplies  which  had 
been  placed  there  for  the  former  Rus- 
sian Government.  Important  military 
operations  were  carried  on  around  Arch- 
angel in  the  early  months  of  1919.  The 
Bolshevist  forces  attacked  the  city,  and 
the  Russian  troops  under  Admiral  Kol- 
chak  were  obliged  to  withdraw.  Anien- 
can  forces  took  no  active  part  in  these 
operations  and  they  were  withdrawn  in 


ABCHBALD 


230 


ABCHER  FISH 


June,  1919.  For  an  account  of  the  mili- 
tary operations  in  and  around  Archangel, 
see  Russia. 

ARCHBALD,  a  borough  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  Lackawanna  co.,  on  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson  and  on  the  New  York, 
Ontario,  and  Western  railroads.  It  is 
about  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Scranton,  in  the 
midst  of  a  coal-mining  region  and  there 
are  other  industries,  including  silk  mills. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,194;   (1920)  8,603. 

ARCHBISHOP,  a  chief  bishop.  The 
first-formed  Christian  churches  soon  be- 
came surrounded  by  younger  and  less 
powerful  congregations.  The  pastors  of 
these  new  churches  being  called  bishops, 
that  term  no  longer  appeared  a  dignified 
enough  appellation  for  the  spiritual  chief 
of  the  mother  church,  and  about  A.  D. 
340,  the  Greek  title  of  archiepiscopos  was 
introduced  to  meet  the  difficulty,  and  in 
subsequent  centuries  the  designation  be- 
came common  over  Christendom. 

In  England  the  early  British  churches 
were,  in  large  measure,  swept  away  by 
the  Anglo-Saxon  invaders,  who  were 
heathens,  and  the  country  consequently 
required  to  be  reconverted.  The  great 
southern  center  from  which  this  was 
done  was  Canterbury,  then  the  capital  of 
Kent,  where  King  Egbert  gave  Augustine, 
the  chief  missionary,  a  settlement.  In 
the  N.,  York,  the  chief  town  of  North- 
umbria,  where  King  Edwin  built  a  shrine 
for  Paulinus,  became  the  great  focus  of 
operation  for  that  part  of  England ;  hence 
the  two  archbishoprics  now  existing  are 
those  of  Canterbury  and  of  York.  The 
prelate  who  occupies  the  former  see  is 
Primate  of  all  England,  while  his  brother 
of  York,  is  only  Primate  of  England. 
The  former  is  the  first  in  dignity  after 
the  princes  of  the  blood;  the  latter  is 
not  second,  but  third,  the  Lord  Chancellor 
taking  precedence  of  him  in  official  rank. 
An  archbishop  is  often  called  a  metro- 
politan. In  the  United  States  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  the  only  one  which 
has    dignitaries   of  this    rank. 

ARCHBOLD,  JOHN  DUSTIN,  an 
American  capitalist,  born  in  Leesburg, 
O.,  in  1848.  His  boyhood  and  youth  was 
spent  in  mercantile  employment.  He 
removed  with  his  family  to  Titusville, 
Pa.,  where  he  became  identified  with  an 
oil  company  which  largely  through  his 
efforts  became  one  of  the  chief  rivals 
of  the  South  Improvement  Company, 
which  later  developed  into  the  Standard 
Oil  Company.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  be- 
coming impressed  with  Archbold's  abil- 
ity, secured  his  services.  From  that 
time  until  his  death  he  was  active  in 
the  Standard  Oil  Co.,  rising  to  be  its 
head.     He  was  one  of  the  trustees   of 


Syracuse  University  and  gave  large  sums 
to  that  institution  during  his  life.  At 
his  death  he  bequeathed  to  it  $500,000. 
He  died  December  16,  1916,  leaving  a 
fortune  of  over  $25,000,000. 

ARCHDEACON,  an  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nitary next  in  rank  below  a  bishop,  who 
has  jurisdiction  either  over  a  part  of 
or  over  the  whole  diocese.  He  is  usually 
appointed  by  the  bishop,  under  whom  he 
performs  various  duties  and  he  holds 
a  court  which  decides  cases  subject  to 
an  appeal  to  the  bishop. 

ARCHDUKE,  a  duke  whose  authority 
and  power  is  superior  to  that  of  other 
dukes.  In  France,  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert, 
there  was  an  Archduke  of  Austrasia; 
and  at  a  later  period,  the  provinces  of 
Brabant  and  Lorraine  were  termed  arch- 
duchies. The  Dukes  of  Austria  assumed 
the  title  of  archduke  in  1156;  but  the 
dignity  was  not  confirmed  till  1453.  The 
last  to  assume  the  title  were  the  princes 
of  the  former  imperial  House  of  Austria. 

ARCHELAUS  (ar-kel'a-us),  a  king  of 
Macedon,  natural  son  and  successor  of 
Perdiccas  II.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  literature  and  the  arts,  and  greatly 
favored,  among  others,  Euripides  and 
Zeuxis.    He  died  about  398  B.  C. 

ARCHELAUS,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great.  His  reign  is  described  as  most 
tyrannical  and  bloody.  The  people  at 
length  accused  him  before  Augustus.  The 
Emperor  banished  him  to  Vienne,  in 
Gaul.  To  avoid  the  fury  of  this  monster, 
7  A.  D.,  Joseph  and  Mary  retired  to  Naza- 
reth. 

ARCHELAUS,  the  son  of  ApoUonius, 
a  sculptor.  He  was  a  native  of  Ionia.  He 
executed  in  marble  the  apotheosis  of 
Homer,  which  was  found,  in  1568,  at  a 
place  called  Fratocchia,  belonging  to  the 
House  of  Colonna. 

ARCHER,  WILLIAM,  a  Scottish 
critic,  born  at  Perth,  Sept.  23,  1856.  He 
graduated  at  Edinburgh  University,  1876, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar,  1883.  He  was 
for  a  long  time  dramatic  critic  for  vari- 
ous London  papers,  and  published  books 
on  the  drama,  including  "English  Dram- 
atists of  To-day"  (1882)  ;  "Masks  or 
Faces :  a  Study  in  the  Psychology  of  Act- 
ing" (1888)  ;  "Henry  Irving,"  a  critical 
study  (1883) ;  "William  Charles  Ma- 
cready.  a  Biography"  (1890) ;  "Through 
Afro- America"  (1910)  ;  "Play  Making" 
(1912);  "The  Correct  Analysis  (1913); 
etc.  He  was  the  English  translator  of 
Ibsen's  dramas. 

ARCHER  FISH,  the  toxotes  aculator, 
which  shoots  water  at  its  prey.  It  is 
found  in  the  East  Indian  and  Polynesian 
Seas. 


ARCHERY 


231 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHERY,  the  art  of  shooting  with 
a  bow  and  arrow.  This  art,  either  as  a 
means  of  offense  in  war,  or  as  subsistence 
and  amusement  in  time  of  peace,  may- 
be traced  in  the  history  of  almost  every 
nation.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  bow  was 
much  more  used  by  the  burghers  than  by 
the  barons.  The  Swiss  were  famous 
archers.  In  modern  times,  this  weapon 
is  used  by  the  Asiatic  nations,  by  the 
tribes  of  Africa,  by  the  American  In- 
dians, etc.  This  weapon  was  the  leading 
arm  of  the  English  people  for  centuries. 
Great  dependence  was  placed  upon  arch- 
ers in  war;  and  frequently  has  the  suc- 
cess of  a  battle  been  attributed  to  their 
means,  as  at  Cressy,  Poitiers,  and  Agin- 
eourt.  Most  of  the  English  sovereigns 
had  a  bodyguard  entirely  consisting  of 
archers.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the 
Royal  Company  of  Archers,  as  it  was 
called,  became  merged  in  the  Artillery 
Company  of  London. 

ARCHILL,  ARGOL,  ORCHILL,  or 
ORCHAL,  two  species  of  lichen,  the 
rocella  tinctoHa  and  R.  fusiformis,  which 
grow  in  the  Canary  and  Cape  Verde 
Islands.  They  are  found  on  rocks  near 
the  sea.  They  produce  a  fine  but  fugitive 
purple  dye,  and  are  largely  employed 
for  that  purpose.  Other  lichens,  such 
as  the  variolaria  arcirm,  the  lecanora 
tartarea,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  in  place 
of  the  rocella. 

ARCHIMEDES  (ar-ke-me'des),  the 
most  famous  of  ancient  mathematicians, 
was  a  native  of  Syracuse.  He  possessed 
equal  knowledge  of  the  sciences  of  as- 
tronomy, geometry,  hydrostatics,  mechan- 
ics, and  optics.  Among  his  inventions 
were  the  combination  of  pulleys  for  lift- 
ing heavy  weights,  the  revolving  screw, 
and  a  spherical  representation  of  the 
motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  When 
Syracuse  was  taken  by  storm  Archi- 
medes was  killed  (212  B.  c).  His  burial 
place  was  afterward  discovered  by 
Cicero.  Nine  of  the  works  of  Archimedes 
have  descended  to  posterity. 

ARCHIMEDES,  PRINCIPLE  OF,  a 
well  known  principle  in  hydrostatics,  the 
discovery  of  which  is  attributed  to  the 
celebrated  philosopher  whose  name  it 
bears.  This  important  theorem  may  be 
thus  defined:  When  a  solid  is  immersed 
in  a  fluid,  it  loses  a  portion  of  its 
weight,  and  this  portion  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  fluid  which  it  displaces, 
that  is,  to  the  weight  of  its  own  bulk  of 
the  fluid.  This  ingenious  method  _  is 
one  way  of  ascertaining  the  specific 
gravity  of  solids,  but  it  is  not  the  most 
exact. 


ARCHIMEDIAN  SCREW,  or  SPI- 
RAL PUMP,  a  machine  invented  by 
Archimedes,  the  celebrated  Syracusan 
philosopher,  while  studying  in  Egypt. 
Observing  the  difficulty  of  raising  water 
from  the  Nile  to  places  above  the  reach 
of  the  flood  tides,  he  is  said  to  have  de- 
signed this  screw  as  a  means  of  over- 
coming the  obstacle.  It  consists  of  a 
pipe  twisted  in  a  spiral  form  around  a 
cylinder,  which,  when  at  work,  is  sup- 
ported in  an  inclined  position.  The 
lower  end  of  the  pipe  is  immersed  in 
water,  and  when  the  cylinder  is  made  to 
revolve  on  its  own  axis,  the  water  is 
raised  from  bend  to  bend  in  the  spiral 
pipe  until  it  flows  out  at  the  top.  The 
Archimedian  screw  is  still  used  in  Hol- 
land for  raising  water,  and  draining 
low  grounds;  there  it  is  mostly  of  large 
size  and  moved  by  the  wind. 

ARCHIPELAGO,  a  term  applied  to 
such  tracts  of  sea  as  are  interspersed 
with  many  islands.  It  is  more  especially 
applied  to  the  numerous  islands  of  the 
JEgean  Sea,  or  that  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean lying  between  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece.  These  islands  are  principally 
divided  into  two  groups  called  the  Cy- 
clades  and  Sporades.  The  former  con- 
tains the  islands  of  Kythnos,  Lyra,  Se- 
riphos,  Keos,  Anoros,  Tenos,  Naxos, 
Thera,  los,  Melos,  Kimolos,  etc.,  all  be- 
longing to  Greece,  and  forming  the  prov- 
ince of  the  Cyclades.  The  Sporades 
group  consists  of  Scio,  Cos,  Rhodes,  Sa- 
mos,  Mitylene,  Lemnos,  etc. 

ARCHITECTURE,  the  art  of  building 
or  constructing.  However  elaborate  and 
diversified  the  edifices  of  different  times 
and  countries  may  be,  all  their  styles 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  two  chief 
building  materials?  wood  and  stone. 
Wooden  construction  manifests  itself  in 
upright  pillars  with  beams  laid  across 
them,  hence  called  the  trabeate  system; 
genuine  stone  building  is  distinguished 
by  the  employment  of  the  arch  with  its 
abutments.  Most  of  the  nations  of  an- 
tiquity, notably  Egypt  and  Greece,  al- 
though acquainted  with  the  arch,  ad- 
hered to  the  earlier  and  simpler  trabeate 
type  of  the  pillar  and  beam;  and  the 
details  of  their  architecture,  although 
executed  in  stone,  show  evidences  of  their 
wooden  origin  in  the  traditional  wooden 
features  of  triglyphs,  metopes,  etc.,  with 
moi-tar  or  cement.  After  they  had 
learned  to  build  houses,  they  erected 
temples  for  their  gods  on  a  larger  and 
more  splendid  scale  than  their  own  dwell- 
ings. The  Egyptians  are  the  most  an- 
cient nation  known  to  us  among  whom 
architecture  attain*^d  the  character  of  a 
fine  art. 


ARCHITECTUBE 


232 


ABCHITECTURE 


Egyptian. — The  history  of  architec- 
ture may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  Egyptian  pyramids, 
3,000  years  or  more  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  but  not  until  2570  B.  c.  do  we 


CORINTHIAN    ARCHITECTURE 

lind  in  Egypt  a  form  of  structure  which 
contains  the  germ  of  a  style  practiced 
at  a  later  age  in  Greece. 

Assyriayi.  —  Assyria  comes  next  to 
Egypt  for  the  age  and  importance  of  its 
buildings.  The  remains  of  some  of 
these,  which  are  chiefly  palaces,  are  of 
great  splendor.  Among  the  oldest 
hitherto  excavated  is  the  Northwest 
Palace  at  Nimrod,  built  about  884  B.  c. 

Persian. — Persia  possesses,  in  the  re- 
markable ruins  of  palaces  at  Persepolis 
and  Susa,  built  in  the  5th  and  6th  cen- 


turies B.  c,  remains  which  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  those  of  Assyria,  the 
constructional  parts  of  these  Persian 
buildings  being  chiefly  of  marble,  where 
those  of  the  Assyrians  were  of  wood, 
having  been  much  better  preserved. 

Indian. — Examples  of  almost  every 
kind  of  construction,  both  in  wood  and 
stone,  are  to  be  found  in  the  various 
styles  of  this  wonderful  country.  Until 
recent  years,  it  was  believed  that  the 
cave  temples  of  India  were  of  a  very 
early  date,  but  it  has  now  been  ascer- 
tained that  none  of  these  go  further 
back  than  the  6th  or  7th  century  of 
our  era.  All  other  ancient  monuments 
in  India,  with  the  exception  of  the  topes 
or  pillars  erected  by  the  powerful  ruler 
Asoka,  are  of  still  more  recent  date. 

Gi-ecian. — In  historic  times  the  Greeks 
developed  an  architecture  of  noble  sim- 
plicity and  dignity.  This  style  is  of 
modern  origin  compared  with  that  of 
Egypt,  and  the  earliest  remains  give  in- 
dications that  it  was  in  part  derived 
from  the  Egyptian.  It  is  considered  to 
have  attained  its  greatest  perfection  in 
the  age  of  Pericles,  or  about  460-430  B.  c. 
The  great  masters  of  this  period  were 
Phidias,  Ictinos,  Callicrates,  etc.  Dis- 
tinctive of  it  are  what  are  called  the 
orders  of  architecture,  by  which  term 
are  understood  certain  modes  of  pro- 
portioning and  decorating  the  column 
and  its  superimposed  entablature.  The 
Greeks  had  three  orders,  called  respec- 
tively the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian. 
The  most  remarkable  public  edifices  of 
the  Greeks  were  temples  of  which  the 
most  famous  is  the  Parthenon  at  Athens 
The  architecture  of  ancient  Greece  flour- 
ished from  650  to  324  B.  c.  Their  the- 
aters were  semi-circular  on  one  side  and 
square  on  the  other,  the  semi-circular 
part  being  usually  excavated  in  the  side 
of  some  convenient  hill.  A  number  exist 
in  Greece,  Sicily,  and  Asia  Minor,^  and 
elsewhere.  No  remains  of  private 
houses  are  known  to  exist.  By  the  end 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War  (say  400 
B.  c.)  the  best  period  of  Greek  architec- 
ture was  over;  a  noble  simplicity  had 
given  way  to  excess  of  ornament. 

RoTnan. — The  Romans  borrowed  their 
early  architecture  from  that  of  Greece 
and  Etruria.  They  built  basilicas,  baths, 
bridges,  aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  and 
domestic  buildings.  Besides  the  Coliseum, 
the  Pantheon,  the  Theater  of  Marcellus, 
and  the  remains  of  temples,  baths,  with 
their  great  vaulted  halls,  triumphal 
arches,  and  other  monuments,  still  sur- 
vive as  examples  of  ancient  architecture 
in  Rome  itself,  built  between  the  time  of 
Augustus  in  the  last  century  B.  C,  and 
that  of  Constantine  in  the  4th  century 


ARCHITECTURE 


233 


ABCHITECTURE 


A.  D.  At  Pompeii,  there  are  interesting 
examples  of  the  domestic  architecture  of 
the  1st  century  of  our  era. 

Byzantine. — With  the  establishment  of 
Byzantium  as  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
the  Roman  style  of  architecture  was 
naturally  much  practiced  there,  and  the 
development  of  the  dome  became  from 
the  first  a  chief  object  with  the  Eastern 
architects.  Christians  were  first  allowed 
to  erect  places  of  worship  in  the  reign 
of  Constantine  the  Great.  The  old 
basilicas  or  courts  of  justice  were  then 
turned  into  churches,  for  which  they  were 
well  suited,  the  humbler  schola,  or  hall 
of  meeting,  such  as  was  used  by  the  early 
Christians,  as  well  as  by  heathen  clubs 
and  associations,  rather  than  the  basilica, 
may  be  the  original  form  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  The  name  Byzantine  is, 
strictly  speaking,  applicable  only  to  the 
Christian  architecture  of  eastern  Europe 
and  Asia  Minor,  from  the  reign  of  Justin- 
ian to  the  11th  century.  One  of  the  finest 
buildings  in  this  style  is  the  Church  of 
St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  founded  by 
Constantine,  but  rebuilt  by  Justinian  in 
547  A.  D.  The  Cathedral  of  San  Vitale, 
at  Ravenna,  also  erected  in  the  6th 
century,  and  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  built 
by  architects  from  Constantinople  in  the 
10th  century,  are  two  of  the  most  perfect 
and  interesting  Byzantine  churches  in 
Italy. 

Romanesque  is  the  general  term  ap- 
plied to  all  the  various  round-arched 
styles  which  arose  in  western  Europe, 
after  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarians 
had  ceased.  Teutonic  Romanesque  may 
be  regarded  as  synonymous  with  Rhenish 
architecture.  The  Cathedrals  of  Spire, 
Mayence,  and  Worms  are  examples. 
Lombard  architecture  is  the  form  of  Ro- 
manesque practiced  in  Lombardy.  Ex- 
amples of  it  are  to  be  seen  in  St.  Ambro- 
gio  at  Milan,  St.  Abondio  at  Como,  and 
the  cathedrals  at  Parma  and  Piacenza. 

Saxon  or  Pre-Nortnan. — The  Norman 
style  would  link  on  more  naturally  than 
this  with  the  Teutonic  Romanesque. 
But  the  Saxon  is  prior  in  point  of  date. 
It  is  simple,  and  has,  as  a  rule,  coarsely 
dressed  masonry.  In  whole  or  in  part, 
the  churches  of  Bradford  (Wilts),  Earl's 
Barton,  Worth,  Monkwearmouth,  and 
other  places  in  England,  are  Pre-Norman. 

Norman. — This  style  is  also  some- 
times called  Romanesque.  No  kind  of 
architecture  is  better  known  in  England 
and  Scotland  than  the  Norman,  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  examples  which  re- 
main. It  is  characterized  by  round- 
headed  openings,  by  flat  buttresses  like 
pilasters,  by  cubical  masonry,  and  by 
the  richness  and  quaintness  of  the  carv- 


ing, especially  on  many  of  the  doorways 
and  chancel  arches  of  even  the  smaller 
churches.  Among  the  many  examples  in 
England  may  be  mentioned  the  Cathedrels 
of  Durham,  Canterbury,  Peterborough 
and  parts  of  Lincoln  and  Winchester. 
In  Scotland,  Kirkwall  Cathedral  is  the 
most  complete  example  on  a  large  scale. 


DORIC  ARCHITECTURE 

Early  English  or  First  Pointed  Style. — 
As  soon  as  the  transition  from  the  Nor- 
man to  first  pointed  architecture  was 
complete,  the  latter  was  characterized  by 
its  narrow  pointed  or  lancet  windows, 
without  any,  or  with  only  very  simple, 
tracery.  Further  distinguishing  features 
are  high  gables  and  roofs,  and  simple 
pinnacles  and  spires.  In  England, 
Salisbury  Cathedral  is  wholly  in  this 
style,  so  are  the  nave  and  transepts  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  Scotland  has  good 
examples  of  it  in  the  choir  of  Glasgow. 

Decorated,  Second  Pointed,  or  Middle 
Pointed    Style. — Windows     are    divided 


ARCHITECTURE 


234 


ARCHITECTURE 


into  a  number  of  lights  by  comparatively 
thin  muUions,  and  their  upper  portions 
are  filled  with  beautiful  tracery,  which 
at  first  was  of  geometrical  forms,  such 
as  combinations  of  circles,  trefoils,  and 
quatrefoils.  A  continuation  of  the  arch 
moldings,  instead  of  shafts  with  caps,  at 
length  characterizes  the  jambs  of  the 
doorways.  This  is  generally  considered 
the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  style  of 
Gothic  architecture.  As  examples  of  it 
may  be  mentioned  the  choir  of  Lincoln 


IONIC  ARCHITECTURE 

and  the  nave  of  York  Cathedral;  and,  in 
Scotland,  portions  of  Melrose  Abbey.  The 
style  continued  from  about  1274  to  1377. 
It  then  gradually  stiffened  into  what  is 
called  the 

Perpendicular,  Third  Pointed,  or  Late 
Pointed  Style. — This  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  previous  style  by  the 
tracery  of  the  windows,  which  is  char- 
acterized by  an  upright  and  square  tend- 
ency. Perpendicular  lines  prevail  in  the 
windows  as  well  as  in  the  ornamental 
paneling.  The  doorways  have  square 
heads  over  the  pointed  arches.  Gables 
and  roofs  are  at  a  low  angle.  Clerestory 
windows  are  more  frequently  square- 
headed  than  arched.     Westminster  Hall, 


London,  is  an  example  of  this  style.  The 
later  portion  of  this  period  is  sometimes 
called  the  Tudor  style.  The  elaborately 
ornamented  flamboyant  style  was  the 
latest  style  of  Gothic  in  France  (15th 
and  16th  centuries).  The  municipal  ar- 
chitecture of  the  Middle  Ages  was  large- 
ly Gothic  in  type. 

Roman  or  classic  architecture  may  be 
said  to  have  never  entirely  died  out  in 
Rome,  and  when,  in  the  15th  century,  the 
revival  of  classic  literature  and  taste 
took  place,  the  ancient  classic  style  of  ar- 
chitecture naturally  revived  along  with 
them.  This  is  called  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance. Renaissance  as  applied  to  archi- 
tecture means  a  revival  of  classical  fea- 
tures and  details  as  distinguished  from 
those  which  characterize  the  Gothic.  The 
Church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome;  the  Pitti 
palace  at  Florence,  various  palaces  on 
the  Grand  Canal  at  Venice,  the  Louvre 
and  Tuileries,  at  Paris;  the  Banqueting 
House,  in  Whitehall,  and  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London,  are  all  examples  of 
Renaissance. 

Elizabethan  Architecture,  and  the  cor- 
responding style  on  the  Continent,  is  a 
variety  of  Renaissance,  in  which  Gothic 
and  Italian  features  are  somewhat  mixed. 
Holland  House,  near  London,  as  well  as 
Hatfield  House,  Burleigh  House,  and 
Hardwick  Hall,  are  in  this  style. 

Arabian,  Saracenic,  m-  Moorish. — This 
singular  and  beautiful  style  of  architec- 
ture dates  from  the  9th  century.  It  is 
noted  for  its  graceful  domes;  for  its 
minarets;  for  the  frequent  use  of  the 
pointed  arch,  and  of  the  horseshoe  arch; 
and  in  some  cases  for  the  peculiarly 
slender  columns  which  support  the  walls 
above  them.  The  flat  or  surface  decora- 
tions are  peculiarly  striking  and  effec- 
tive. These  consist  of  diaper-work,  often 
richly  perforated,  and  of  scroll-work  of 
great  variety,  often  of  fairylike  light- 
ness. The  Moorish  Palace  of  the  Alham- 
bra  and  the  Mosque  of  Cordova,  in  Spain, 
furnish  striking  illustrations  of  this  kind 
of  architecture. 

Modern  Architecture. — In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  the  habit  of 
imitating  ancient  styles  was  established, 
and  began  to  be  applied  to  Grothic  archi- 
tecture also,  which  speedily  came  to  be 
generally  adopted,  especially  for  eccle- 
siastical edifices.  This  was  particularly 
the  case  in  Great  Britain,  and  among  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race  wherever  found — in 
the  United  States,  India,  and  Australia, 
as  well  as  at  home.  All  modern  archi- 
tecture is  imitative,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  a  really  new  style  is  possible.  At 
present  Gothic  is  generally  adopted  for 
churches,  and  Renaissance  for  domestic 
buildings. 


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ABCHITBAVE 


235 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS 


ARCHITRAVE,  in  architecture,  the 
'jart  of  the  entablature  which  rests  im- 
mediately on  the  heads  of  the  columns, 
being  the  lowest  of  its  three  principal 
divisions,  the  others  being  the  frieze  and 
the  cornice. 

ARCHIVES,  the  place  in  which  rec- 
ords are  kept;  also  the  records  and 
papers  which  are  preserved,  as  evidence 
of  facts. 

ARCHIVOLT,  in  architecture,  the  or- 
namental band  of  moldings  on  the  face 
of  an  arch  and  following  its  contour. 

ARCHONS,  the  chief  magistrates  of 
ancient  Athens,  chosen  to  superintend 
civil  and  religious  concerns.  They  were 
nine  in  number;  the  first  was  properly 
the  archon,  or  archon  eponymos,  by 
whose  name  the  year  was  distinguished 
in  the  public  records;  the  second  was 
called  archon  basileus,  or  king  archon, 
who  exercised  the  functions  of  high- 
priest;  the  third,  polemarchos,  or  general 
of  the  forces.  The  other  six  were  called 
thesmothetai,  or  legislators. 

ARC  LIGHT,  that  species  of  the  elec- 
tric light  in  which  the  illuminating 
source  is  the  current  of  electricity  pass- 
ing between  two  sticks  of  carbon  kept  a 
short  distance  apart,  one  of  them  being 
in  connection  with  the  positive,  the  other 
with  the  negative  terminal  of  a  battery 
or  dynamo. 

ARCOT  (Aru-Kadu,  "Six  Deserts"),  a 
city  of  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of 
Madras,  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
North  Arcot.  It  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Palar,  65  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Madras.  Arcot  contains  some  mosques 
in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair,  and  the 
ruins  of  the  Nawab's  palace.  In  1751 
Clive,  with  300  Sepoys  and  200  Euro- 
peans, marched  against  Arcot,  and  after 
having  taken  it,  had  in  his  turn  to  with- 
stand a  siege  of  50  days.  Arcot  was  af- 
terward captured  by  the  French,  but  re- 
taken by  Colonel  Coote  in  1760.  It  was 
taken  and  held  for  a  time  by  Hyder  Ali, 
but  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British 
in  1801.  Pop.  about  15,000.  The  dis- 
tricts of  North  and  South  Arcot  form  a 
portion  of  the  presidency  of  Madras. 

ARCTIC.  (1)  An  adjective=bright, 
and  (2)  a  substantive=a  bear,  so  called 
either  from  his  bright  eyes  or  from  his 
brilliant  tawny  fur.  Before  the  Aryans 
had  finally  separated,  riksha=hTight,  ap- 
plied to  the  plow-like  constellation,  had 
become  obsolete,  and  the  substantive  bear 
remained,  whence  the  constellation  came 
to  be  called  arktos  among  the  Greeks, 
Ursa  among  the  Latins,  and  Bear  among 
ourselves. 


1.  Properlv.  pertaining  to  the  constel- 
lation called  by  the  Greeks  arktos^hear, 
by  the  Romans,  Ursa,  and  by  ourselves 
Ursa  Major,  the  Great  Bear,  the  Plow, 
Charles'  Wain,  etc. 

2.  Pertaining  to  the  North  generally, 
or  more  especially  to  the  region  within 
the  Arctic  Circle. 

ARCTIC  CIRCLE,  a  small  circle  of  the 
globe,  23°  28'  distant  from  the  North 
Pole,  which  is  its  center.  It  is  opposed 
to  the  Antarctic  circle,  which  is  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  South  Pole. 

ARCTIC  and  ANTARCTIC  EXPLO- 
RATIONS, expeditions  projected  to  ex- 
plore the  regions  surrounding  the  North 
Pole.  The  object  with  which  these  en- 
terprises were  commenced  by  the   Eng- 


"THE    FRAM,"    AMUNDSEN'S    SHIP,    IN    THE 
ANTARCTIC  ICE 

lish  was  to  obtain  a  passage  by  way  of 
the  polar  regions  to  India.  They  have 
continued  at  intervals  to  our  own  times, 
and  are  not  likely  ever  to  cease.  Two 
of  the  most  notable  events  in  their  his- 
tory which  have  hitherto  occurred  have 
been  the  discovery  of  the  northwest  pas- 
sage by  Captain  McClure,  of  the  "In- 
vestigator," on  Oct.  26,  1850,  and  the 
tragic  deaths  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and 
his  crew,  about  the  year  1848,  the  catas- 
trophe being  rendered  all  the  more  im- 


ABCTIC  EXPLORATIONS            236  ABCTIC  EXPLORATIONS 

pressive  to  the  public  mind  by  the  un-  Peary's  third  voyage  in  1898  had  the 
certainty  which  long  hung  over  the  conquest  of  the  Pole  for  its  immediate 
gallant  explorers'  fate.  object.  He  was  by  this  time  fully  con- 
In  September,  1895,  Lieut.  Robert  E.  yinced  that  the  only  possible  way  to  get 
Peary,  of  the  United  States  navy,  re-  tf^re  was  to  adopt  the  manner  of  life  of 
turned  from  an  Arctic  expedition,  after  the  Eskimos,  their  food,  clothing,  snow- 
an  abfeence  of  two  years.  He  did  not  get  houses;  to  live  as  much  as  possible  on 
so  far  north  as  some  of  his  predeces-  the  game  which  he  had  so  far  found 
sors,  but  in  scientific  results  his  expedi-  comparatively  abundant  thus  avoiding 
tion  surpassed  all  others  of  recent  years,  scujvy,  and  to  train  Eskimos  as  his 
His  surveys  and  maps  extend  our  knowl-  sledge-crews.  His  whole  plan  and  equip- 
edge  of  the  coast  northward  2°.  He  ^^^nt  also  in  many  respects  was  different 
started  on  another  expedition  in  1897.  from  any  man's  before  him.  He  was  gone 
On  Aug.  13,  1896,  Dr.  Fridtjof  Nansen,  this  time  nearly  four  years,  achieved 
of  Norway,  returned  from  an  Arctic  ex-  further  surveys  and  re-surveys  in  Smith 
pedition,  after  an  absence  of  more  than  Sound,  Grinnell  Land,  and  to  the  north 
three  years.  The  most  northerly  point  f.  the  mainland  of  Greenland,  passed 
reached  by  him  was  86°  14'  N.  latitude,  lieutenant  Lockwoods  farthest  north  of 
or  200  miles  nearer  the  Pole  than  ever  i^?,?'  to  a  point  ,83°  39  N.,  and  made  a 
reached  before.  He  found  no  indications  5""^^^  record  in  s  edge-work.  But  he 
of  land  N.  of  82°  N.  latitude,  and  in  the  did  not  reach  the  Pole  by  456  miles.  He 
higher  latitudes  no  open  sea,  only  nar-  J^^  tried  each  year  by  sledges,  from  a 
row  cracks  in  the  ice     The  lowest  tem-  ^a^  about  700  miles  from  his  objective 

g2^°^^^^lnT?£rhiSV7y^°T^^^""  ru'ndrtdr?f*mTes^T"cTst'?inrrf 
''Th^e'fonow'ng'afe^t'fV?^^^^^^^  points  hitherto  unmapped  region.  ^  _  ^ 
of  N.  latitude  reached  by  various  Arctic  The  second  voyage  in  the  "dash  for  the 
explorers  to  1920 :  Pole,"  as  Peary  called  his  sledge-jour- 
neys, was  undertaken  in  a  specially  con- 
Year              Explorers                 North  Latitude  structed  vessel  which  reached  the  high- 

1607.  Hudson 80°     23'      0"  est  point  in  shipbuilding  for  its  partic- 

1773.  Phipps 80°    48'      0"  ular     purpose,     and     was     named     the 

1806.  scoresby 8i»    12^    42;;  "Roosevelt"  in  honor  of  Theodore  Roose- 

1874   ulyir'lonuni) '.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.     82»      0'      0"  velt,  which  left  the  shores  of  America 

1875.  M  a  r  k  h  a  m   and   Parr  in  June,  1905.    The  result  of  this  voyage 

(Nares' expedition)...     83°    20'    26"  was   the   attainment  of  a    still    farther 

1876.  Payer 83o     07'       0"     i^    87°    R' thp   hie-hp«?t  vpt   won 

1884.  Lockwood     (Greeley's  ^^^'?'     ^     xne  nignesi;  yet  won. 

party)    83°    24'      0"  His  record  up  to  and  including  this 

1896.  Nansen 86°    14'      0''  one  as  an  advance  over  Lieutenant  Gree- 

1909-  Pel?v'* 9§°     ??'      2"  l^y's  (Lockwood's)  farthest  in  1882  was: 

1909.  Peary yu      uu       u  .^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^. j^^  _   ^^^2,  23  miles ;  1906, 

Discovery  of  the  North  Pole.— The  169  miles.  There  remained  174  miles  to 
final  conquest  of  the  North  Pole  was  his  goal.  In  July,  1908,  Peary  again 
the  achievement  of  Peary.  The  date  turned  his  face  northward  in  the 
of  his  discovery  was  April  7,  1909.  "Roosevelt"  to  the  final  accomplishment 
It  is  a  curious  fact  in  the  history  of  of  his  purpose.  He  was  now  fifty-two 
polar  exploration  that  the  three  great  years  old,  much  older  than  other  great 
goals,  the  northeast  passage,  the  north-  polar  explorers  when  they  reached  the 
west  passage,  and  the  North  Pole  itself  height  of  their  career  but  he  had  been 
were  all  finally  attained  within  the  com-  logger  in  the  farthest  north  than  any 
pass  of  less  than  a  quarter  century,  other  explorer  ever  had  been— had 
The  first  two  were  relatively  unimpor-  Passed  more  winters  there— had  mapped 
tant.  Both  the  northeast  and  the  north-  ?iore  country— knew  the  Eskimo  better-- 
west  passage  had  been  sought  for  cen-  i".  fact  had  gained  their  most  perfect 
turies  as  a  goal  of  commerce  with  the  J^iendship— and  had  trained  them  to  be 
Orient.  They  were  finally  traced  merely  hi?  ^^^^^^"^,  ^"^  efficient  helpers.  All 
as  feats  of  polar  exploration,  both  by  this  knowledge  and  experience  intimated 
Norwegians— in  the  last  of  the  nineties  the  possession  of  personal  qualities  of 
and  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  cen-  the  highest  type  for  his  task, 
tury;  the  former  by  Baron  Nordenskjold  The  members  of  Peary's  expedition 
in  1878-1879,  and  the  latter  by  Raold  were  Robert  A.  Bartlett,  his  Sailing- 
Amundsen  in  1903.  The  search  for  the  Master;  George  A.  Wardwell,  Chief  En- 
magnetic  north  pole  of  the  earth,  culmi-  gineer;  Dr.  J.  W.  Goodsell,  Surgeon; 
nating  in  Peary's  triumph,  had  been  con-  Ross  G.  Marvin,  Donald  B.  Macmillan, 
stant  and  eager  for  the  half  century  pre-  George  Borup,  and  Matthew  A.  Henson, 
ceding.  a  negro.    Etah  in  Greenland  was  reached 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS 


237 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS 


August  11,  and  22  Eskimos,  246  dogs, 
and  renewed  supplies  of  coal  and  fresh 
meat  were  taken  aboard.  Winter  quar- 
ters were  established  at  Port  Sheridan, 
a  little  north  of  those  of  1905.  The  fol- 
lowing February,  with  the  return  of  the 
Arctic  day,  a  chain  of  depots  was  started. 
Peary's  base  was  the  land  mass  "thought 
to  be  nearest  the  Pole."  The  march 
over  the  ice  began  March  1st.  Ten  days 
later,  in  lat.  84°  29',  a  portion  of  the 
party  returned  under  Dr.  Goodsell ;  when 
85°  25'  had  been  attained,  a  second  sec- 
tion under  Borup  returned.  Peary  per- 
sisted with  12  men,  10  sledges,  and  80 
dogs.  A  third  section  under  Marvin 
lessened  this  party  and  finally  a  fourth 
commanded  by  Captain  Bartlett  started 
back  when  87°  48'  was  reached.  Peary 
now  had  with  him  only  the  negro  Henson, 
four  Eskimos,  and  forty  picked  dogs. 
There  were  125  miles  still  to  traverse, 
which  was  done  in  five  days'  marches  of 
equal  length,  89°  57'  being  reached  on 
the  6th  of  April.  Peary  collapsed  here 
from  exhaustion  when  within  actual 
sight  of  his  goal.  The  following  day  he 
reached  it  and  planted  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  at  the  apex  of  the  earth — one 
of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  cen- 
turies. 

For  his  exploit  Peary  received  gold 
medals  from  numerous  scientific  bodies, 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear  admi- 
ral for  life,  and  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress.  He  was  given  the  cordon  of 
a  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
of  France  in  1913.  His  own  record  of 
his  career  is  full — including  "North- 
ward Over  the  Great  Ice"  (2  vols., 
1898) ;  "Snowland  Folk"  (1904) ;  "Near- 
est the  Pole"  (1907);  and  the  "North 
Pole"  (1910). 

Later  explorations  have  been  con- 
ducted by  McMillan,  Stefansson,  Amund- 
sen, and  others.  These  have  added 
greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geog- 
raphy for  the  Arctic  regions. 

Antarctic  Explorations. — One  of  the 
chief  features  which  distinguishes  the 
Antarctic  polar  region  from  the  Arctic  is 
the  constant  presence  of  high  and  violent 
winds  of  a  much  severer  and  more  pro- 
longed character  than  those  encountered 
in  the  north.  Its  coasts  also  are  more 
difficult  to  approach  because  of  the  size 
and  formation  of  its  glaciers,  and  the 
presence  of  frequent  oceanic  ice-caps. 
The  southern  polar  region  has  been  little 
exploited  in  comparison  with  the  North 
Pole  up  to  a  very  few  years  ago.  The 
latter  was  almost  in  the  track  of  the 
hardy  navigators  who  for  centuries  tried 
to  find  a  northeast  or  northwest  passage 
to  the  east.  The  Antarctic  region  offered 
no  temptation  whatever  to  maritime  en- 


terprise. Ships  had  rounded  South 
America's  most  southerly  point  since 
Magellan's  time — after  whom  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  are  named — and  there  was 
nothing  but  the  vaguest  rumor  to  tempt 
the  mariner  farther  south.  The  quest  of 
the  South  Pole,  the  exploration  of  the 
Antarctic  regions,  were  purely  matters 
of  scientific  enterprise  which  were  only 
to  be  inaugurated  after  the  opposite 
polar  regions  had  beeen  thoroughly 
mapped.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  however, 
that  both  poles  were  only  finally  discov- 
ered within  a  few  years  of  each  other; 
Peary  reaching  his  goal  April  7,  1909, 
while  Amundsen  found  the  South  Pole 
Dec.  14,  1911. 

The  Antarctic  area  approaching  the 
Pole  from  all  sides  is  divided  by  geog- 
raphers into  four  sections  or  quadrants 
named  from  adjacent  lands  and  waters 
America,  Africa,  Australia,  and  Pacific. 

The  African  quadrant  is  still  an  un- 
known region,  as  the  latitude  of  70°  S. 
has  not  yet  been  reached,  and  no  land  of 
any  importance  discovered.  Into  the 
American  section  the  continent  of  Ant- 
arctica projects  its  most  northerly  coast. 
It  was  discovered  by  Captain  Nathaniel 
B.  Palmer,  an  American  Yankee  sealer, 
in  1820.  It  was  first  called  Palmer  Land 
(1882),  and  through  gradual  exploration 
has  assumed  the  dimensions  of  a  conti- 
nent extending  now  from  lat.  63°  to  70° 
S.  and  long.  52°  to  77°  W.  There  was 
a  short  exploratory  period  following  Pal- 
mer's original  discovery.  Biscoe  (1831) 
reaching  67°  S.,  72°  W.,  D'Urville  (1838) 
renaming  parts  of  the  land  for  the 
French  under  whose  flag  he  sailed,  and 
Ross,  who  in  1843  added  the  vast  ex- 
panse known  as  Cockburn  Island. 

Exploration  ceased  for  a  time,  the 
whaler  Dallmann,  some  30  years  after 
(1873)  reaching  64°  45'  S.  Twenty 
years  later  (1892)  Robinson  discovered 
Dundee  Island.  Larsen,  sailing  under 
the  flag  of  Sweden  in  1893,  found  fos- 
sils on  Seymour  Land  and  added  land 
along  the  east  coast  of  Palmer  Land 
to  68°  10',  which  he  called  King  Oscar 
Land.  Evensen  in  the  same  year  at- 
tained 69°  10'  S.,  76°  12'  W.  Sweden 
had  by  this  time  taken  up  Antarctic  ex- 
ploration very  seriously,  and  a  few  years 
later  a  thoroughly  well-planned  scientific 
expedition  under  Baron  Nordenskjold  set 
out  for  the  South  Polar  regions.  Nor- 
denskjold discovered  two  flora  of  the 
Jurassic  and  Tertiary  periods  on  Sey- 
mour Island,  and  mapped  the  eastern 
coast  of  Palmer  Land  to  66°  8'.  A  French 
explorer,  Charcot,  on  two  voyages,  1903 
and  1910,  extended  the  coast  of  Palmer 
Land  to  the  southwest.  He  made  im- 
portant discoveries  that  added  much  to 


ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS 


238 


ARCTIC  OCEAN 


the  knowledge  of  the  region.  He  navi- 
gated through  what  he  named  the  Pour- 
quoi  Pas?  from  60 "^  to  124°  W.,  chiefly 
between  lat.  69°  and  70°,  sailing  a  great 
deal  of  unknown  water.  He  discovered 
two  entirely  new  regions  which  he  named 
Loubet  Land  in  honor  of  the  President 
of  France,  and  Charcot  Land,  presum- 
ably in  honor  of  himself.  His  chief 
contribution  to  South  Polar  geography 
was  the  proof  that  Palmer  Land  was  a 
vast  continuous  area — in  reality  a  con- 
tinent, and  not  divided  by  water  as  pre- 
vious explorers  had  held.  Following 
these  and  previous  explorations,  there 
has  ensued  a  development  of  the  fisheries 
of  these  regions  totaling  yearly  several 
million  dollars,  over  which  from  50°  S. 
Great    Britain    has    proclaimed    control. 

The  Australian  quadrant  has  always 
been  regarded  as  the  nearest  and  best 
way  of  reaching  the  South  Pole  itself. 
The  largest  portion  of  Antarctica,  too, 
lies  in  this  boundary.  Still  it  was  the 
last  to  invite  the  explorer.  The  first 
credit  belongs  to  a  Captain  Balleny 
(1839),  who  added  five  islands  to  the 
maps  in  long.  165°  E.,  lat.  67°  S.  The 
first  enterprise  of  real  importance  was 
the  small  U.  S.  squadron  under  Captain 
Wilkes  (1840),  which  followed  the  Ant- 
arctic circle  for  1,600  miles.  Land  was 
seen  now  and  then.  The  same  year  a 
French  squadron  under  D'Urville  discov- 
ered Adelie  Land,  whereupon  a  meteoro- 
logical station  was  located.  He  was  about 
700  miles  from  Wilkes'  route.  Other  so- 
called  land  mapped  by  D'Urville,  how- 
ever, later  proved  to  be  only  glacier. 
Drygalski  (1902),  following  largely  in 
the  track  of  Wilkes,  confirmed  his  dis- 
coveries, which  had  been  more  or  less 
discredited  for  half  a  century.  Lieuten- 
ant Ernest  Shackleton's  two  expeditions 
in  this  section — in  1909  and  1912 — were 
highly  important  to  the  annals  of  explo- 
ration so  far  as  it  could  be  extended  in 
such  a  region.  Douglas  Mawson  set  out 
from  Australia  in  1911  to  explore  much 
debatable  country.  He  added  King 
George  V.  Land  to  the  map,  extending 
as  far  south  as  lat.  70°  30'  S.  His  com- 
panion Wild,  meantime,  discovered  and 
mapped  Queen  Mary  Land.  Davis  (1912) 
discovered  unknown  land  between  Maw- 
son and  Wild. 

All  these  discoveries,  extending  over 
55  degrees  of  longitude,  have  finally 
given  some  reality  to  the  size  of  the  great 
ice-continent,  and  it  is  now  believed  be- 
yond question  that  Antarctica  stretches 
unbroken  between  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
Land  of  Drygalski  (1902)  86°  E.  and 
Carmel  Land,  discovered  by  Amundsen, 
in  158°  W.  over  116  degrees  of  longitude. 
Mawson     discovered     glaciers     in     King 


George  Land,  which  cover  more  than 
1,000  square  miles  in  the  ocean.  One 
of  Lieutenant  Shackleton's  discoveries 
was  an  ice-cap — named  for  him — cover- 
ing 36,000  square  miles  of  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  and  180  by  200  miles  in  length 
and  breadth.  The  largest  ice-cap  known, 
however,  is  Ross'  Barrier,  discovered  by 
Ross  (1841),  of  which  Scott,  one  of 
Shackleton's  lieutenants,  estimates  the 
surface  area  at  120,000  square  miles, 
which  is  larger  than  the  states  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  combined.  No 
sketch  of  Antarctic  discovery  should  omit 
the  great  value  of  the  finds  of  J.  C.  Ross 
(1841).  He  added  nearly  8  degrees  of 
longitude  to  Victoria  Land,  discovered 
the  Ross  "Barrier,"  and  reached  lat.  78° 
10'  S.,  long.  161°  27'  E.  Borchgrevink 
(1900)  passed  the  first  winter  by  man 
within  the  Arctic  Circle  and  reached  78° 
50'. 

Scott,  of  England  (1901-1903),  discov- 
ered King  Edward  VIL  Land  between 
long.  152°  and  153°  W.  He  made  a 
definite  effort  to  reach  the  southern  mag- 
netic pole  the  following  year,  attaining 
82°  17'  S.  Shackleton,  in  1909,  in  a  dash 
for  the  Pole,  made  a  wonderful  journey, 
by  sledge,  making  the  record  of  88°  23' 
S.  He  got  within  97  miles  of  the  Pole 
and  within  366  miles  of  the  record. 
Scott's  second  expedition  (1911-1913), 
was  tragical,  in  that  it  resulted  in  the 
death  of  himself  and  four  companions  on 
their  way  back  from  having  finally  found 
the  Pole.  They  reached  it  Jan.  18,  1912, 
to  find  Amundsen's  record  of  his  own 
discovery  35  days  before.  Roald  Amund- 
sen, long  inured  to  Polar  adventure  in 
the  north,  set  out  from  Norway  in  1911 
with  the  avowed  conquest  of  the  South 
Pole.  He  started  from  the  edge  of  the 
great  Ross  Barrier  where  he  had  wintered 
in  sledges,  and  after  an  870  mile  journey 
located  the  southern  apex  of  the  planet 
on  Dec.  14,  1911.  It  is  on  a  plateau  of 
10,500  feet  altitude  above  sea-level — and 
there  are  no  mountains  in  the  vicinity. 
Amundsen  also  made  the  important  dis- 
covery of  the  southerly  extremity  of  the 
Ross  oceanic  ice-cap  (Ross  Barrier)  in 
85°  S.  164°  W.,  adding  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  extent  of  the  continent  of  Ant- 
arctica.    See  Amundsen,  Roald. 

ARCTIC  OCEAN,  that  part  of  the 
water  surface  of  the  earth  which  sur- 
rounds the  North  Pole,  and  washes  the 
northern  shores  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America;  its  southern  boundary  roughly 
coinciding  with  the  Arctic  circle  (lat.  66° 
32'  N.).  It  incloses  many  large  islands, 
and  contains  large  bays  and  gulfs 
which  deeply  indent  the  northern  shores 
of  the  three  continents. 


ABCTIC  REGIONS 


239 


AUDENNES 


ABCTIC  REGIONS,  the  regions  round 
the  North  Pole,  and  extending  from  the 
Pole  on  all  sides  to  the  Arctic  Circle  in 
lat.  66°  32'  N.  The  Arctic,  or  North 
Polar  Circle,  just  touches  the  northern 
headlands  of  Iceland,  cuts  off  the  south- 
ern and  narrowest  portion  of  Greenland, 
crosses  Fox  Strait  N.  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
whence  it  goes  over  the  American  conti- 
nent to  Bering  Strait.  Thence  it  runs 
to  Obdorsk  at  the  mouth  of  the  Obi,  then 
crossing  northern  Russia,  the  White  Sea, 
and  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  returns 
to  Iceland.  Valuable  minerals,  fossils, 
etc.,  have  been  discovered  within  the 
Arctic  regions.  In  the  archipelago  N.  of 
the  American  continent,  excellent  coal 
frequently  occurs.  The  mineral  cryolite 
is  mined  in  Greenland.  Fossil  ivory  is 
obtained  in  islands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Lena.  In  Scandinavia,  parts  of  Si- 
beria, and  northwest  America,  the  forest 
region  extends  within  the  Arctic  circle. 
The  most  characteristic  of  the  natives  of 
the  Arctic  regions  are  the  Eskimos.  The 
most  notable  animals  are  the  white  bear, 
the  musk  ox,  the  reindeer,  and  the  whale- 
bone whale.  Fur-bearing  animals  are 
numerous. 

ARCTURUS,  in  astronomy,  a  fixed  star 
of  the  first  magnitude,  called  also  Alpha 
Bootes.  It  is  one  of  the  very  brightest 
stars  in  the  northern  heavens.  Though 
nominally  fixed,  yet  it  has  a  proper  an- 
gular motion  of  2.250',  equivalent  to  53.32 
miles  in  a  second.  In  752  years  it  altered 
its  latitude  5',  and  in  20  centuries,  ac- 
cording to  Humboldt,  it  has  moved  2% 
times  the  diameter  of  the  moon's  disk.  In 
1803,  Herschel  found  its  diameter,  seen 
through  a  fog,  2-10  of  a  second,  from 
which  he  calculated  its  diameter  to  be  not 
less  than  8,000,000  leagues. 

ARDAHAN  (ar-dan'),  a  village  of 
about  300  houses,  in  the  portion  of  Turk- 
ish Armenia,  ceded  in  1878  to  Russia, 
35  miles  N.  W.  of  Kars.  Its  position  gives 
it  strategic  importance.  Its  fortress  was 
dismantled  by  the  Russians  in  the  war  of 
1854-1856;  in  1878  the  Berlin  Congress 
sanctioned  the  cession  to  Russia  of  Arda- 
han,  which  had  been  captured  early  in 
the  war. 

ARDEBIL.  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the 
province  of  Azerbijan,  110  miles  E.  of 
Tabriz,  and  some  5,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

ARDECHE  (ar-dash'),  a  department 
in  the  south  of  France,  takes  its  name 
from  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone,  and  in- 
cludes part  of  ancient  Languedoc.  It  is 
almost  wholly  mountainous.  In  the  N. 
W.  of  the  department,  the  Cevennes  cul- 
minate   in    the    volcanic    Mon^OT  zene. 


5,752  feet  in  height.  Numerous  extinct 
volcanic  peaks,  deep  craters,  grottos,  rock 
labyrinths,  and  basaltic  columns  give  an 
extraordinarily  picturesque  appearance 
to  the  scenery.  The  upland,  where  winter 
reigns  for  six  or  eight  months,  is  devoted 
to  pasturage ;  but  the  valley  of  the  Rhone 
produces  wine,  olives,  chestnuts,  figs,  and 
almonds.  Only  a  fourth  of  the  area  is 
cultivated.  Iron,  coal,  antimony,  lead, 
marble,  and  gjijsum  are  wrought.  There 
are  manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  leather, 
cloth,  and  straw.  Area,  2,136  square 
miles;  pop.  about  350,000.  The  capital  is 
Frivas. 

ARDENNES  (ar-dan'),  an  extensive 
hill-country  and  forest,  ocupying  the  S. 
E.  corner  of  Belgium,  between  the  Mo- 
selle and  the  Meuse,  but  extending  also 
into  France  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  It  con- 
sists of  a  broken  mass  of  hills,  for  the 
most  part  of  no  great  elevation,  which 
gradually  slope  toward  the  plains  of 
Flanders.  The  channel  of  the  Meuse  is 
in  some  places  bound  in  by  rugged  and 
precipitous  cliffs  more  than  600  feet  high. 
The  wealth  of  the  region  is  its  wood  and 
its  minerals.  Enormous  supplies  of  coal 
are  found  in  the  north,  a  very  important 
element  in  Belgium's  industrial  wealth; 
iron,  lead,  antimony,  copper,  and  man- 
ganese are  also  found.  Multitudes  of 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared.  In  the 
World  War  (1914-1918)  the  Ardennes 
saw  much  severe  fighting.  See  World 
War. 

ARDENNES,  a  frontier  department  of 
France,  bordering  on  Belgium.  It  is 
named  from  the  forest  of  Ardennes,  and 
formed  a  part  of  the  old  province  of 
Champagne;  area,  2,020  square  miles. 
The  N.  E.  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Meuse;  the  S.  W.  is  watered  by  the 
Aisne;  these  rivers  being  united  by  a 
canal.  About  two-fifths  of  the  whole  sur- 
face is  hilly,  and  covered  with  forests 
and  wide  tracts  of  pasturage.  In  the  X., 
marble  is  obtained.  South  of  this,  and 
stretching  across  the  department  from 
E.  to  W.,  are  great  layers  of  slate.  Only 
the  valleys  are  fertile,  and  produce  corn. 
The  vine'is  cultivated  in  the  S.  W.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  reared.  Slate,  marble,  iron, 
clay,  copper,  and  coal  are  found.  Iron 
working  is  largely  carried  on;  but  the 
chief  industry  is  cloth-making,  especially 
in  Sedan.  There  are  also  manufactures 
of  clay  pipes,  glass,  paper,  sugar,  and 
beer.  The  capital  is  Mezieres,  but  the 
most  important  place  is  the  great  forti- 
fied city  of  Sedan.  Pop.  of  de- 
partment about  320,000.  In  the  World 
War  the  department  was  the  scene 
of  some  of  the  greatest  battles  be- 
tween the  Grerman  and  the  Allied  forces. 


ABDXC/KE 


240 


ABEOMETEB 


On  Nov.  3,  1916,  the  First  American 
Army  destroyed  the  Mezieres-Metz  rail- 
way, and  Nov.  6  gained  the  heights 
of  the  Woevre  and  Sedan.  On  Nov. 
9  the  French  invested  Mezieres.  See 
World  War. 

ARDMORE,  a  city  of  Oklahoma,  the 
county-seat  of  Carter  co.  It  is  on  the 
Santa  F^,  the  Rock  Island,  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Oklahoma,  and  the  New  Mexico 
and  Pacific  railroads.  It  has  several  im- 
portant educational  institutions.  Its 
chief  industries  are  cotton  and  asphalt. 
There  are  important  oil  wells  and  de- 
posits of  natural  gas  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. It  is  also  the  center  of  an  impor- 
tant stock-raising  and  agricultural  com- 
munity. Pop.  (1910)  8,618;  (1920) 
14,181. 

ARD  NAM  UR  CHAN  (-mur'kan) 
POINT,  the  most  westerly  point  of  the 
island  of  Great  Britain,  in  Argyllshire, 
having  a  lighthouse,  180  feet  above  sea- 
level,  visible  18  to  20  miles  off. 

ARDOCH,  a  parish  in  south  Perth- 
shire, celebrated  for  its  Roman  remains, 
one,  a  camp,  being  the  most  perfect  ex- 
isting in  Scotland. 

ARE,  the  unit  of  the  French  land 
measure,  equal  to  100  square  meters,  or 
1,076.44  square  feet.  A  hectare  is  100 
ares,  equal  to  2.47  acres. 

ARECA,  a  genus  of  lofty  palms  with 
pinnated  leaves,  and  a  drupe-like  fruit 
inclosed  in  a  fibrous  rind.  A.  catechu, 
of  the  Coromandel  and  Malabar  coasts,  is 
the  common  areca  palm  which  yields 
areca  or  betel  nuts,  and  also  the  astrin- 
gent juice  catechu.  A.  oleracea  is  the  cab- 
bage tree,  or  cabbage  palm  of  the  West 
Indies.  With  lime  and  the  leaves  of  the 
betel  pepper,  the  areca  nuts,  when  green, 
form  the  celebrated  masticatory  of  the 
East.  They  are  an  important  article  in 
Eastern  trade. 

ARECIBO  (ar-a-se'bo) ,  an  important 
commercial  town  of  Porto  Rico;  on  the 
N.  coast;  facing  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  50 
miles  W.  of  San  Juan.  Tributary  to  the 
town  is  a  district  of  about  30,000  inhabi- 
tants.   Pop.  (1920)    10,039. 

ARENA,  the  inclosed  space  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Roman  amphitheaters, 
in  which  took  place  the  combats  of 
gladiators  of  wild  beasts.  It  was  usually 
covered  with  sand  or  sawdust  to  prevent 
the  gladiators  from  slipping,  and  to  ab- 
sorb the  blood. 

ARENACEOUS  ROCKS,  rocks  com- 
posed entirely,  or  to  a  large  extent,  of 
grains  of  quartz.  Beds  of  loose  sand  oc- 
cur extensively  in  the  more  recent  de- 


posits. Silvery  flakes  of  mica  are  sel- 
dom absent;  and  they  often  occur  in  lay- 
ers parallel  to  the  planes  of  stratification, 
causing  the  rock  to  split  into  thin  slabs, 
and  exposing  a  glittering  surface.  These 
are  called  micaceous  sandstones.  When 
grains  of  feldspar  occur,  itisafeldspathic 
sandstone.  Often  large  quantities  of  cal- 
careous matter,  either  as  cement  or  as 
distinct  grains,  occur;  and  these  are 
called  calcareous  sandstones.  In  like 
manner  we  have  siliceous  and  ferrugi- 
nous sandstones,  when  silica  and  oxide  of 
iron  are  conspicuously  present  as  cement- 
ing or  binding  materials.  Clay  and  car- 
bonaceous matter,  when  plentifully  dif- 
fused through  the  rock,  give  rise  to 
argillaceous,  carbonaceous,  and  bitumi- 
nous sandstones.  Greensand,  or  glau- 
conitic  sandstone,  is  a  rock  con- 
taining abundant  grains  of  the  dirty 
greenish  mineral  called  glauconite. 
Arkose  is  a  sandstone  composed  of  dis- 
integrated granite;  volcanic  sandstone, 
trappean  sandstone,  etc.,  being  composed 
of  disintegrated  igneous  rocks.  A  sand- 
stone of  homogeneous  composition,  which 
may  be  worked  freely  in  any  direction, 
is  called  freestone  or  liver  rock.  Flag- 
stone is  a  sandstone  which  is  capable  of 
being  split  into  thin  beds  or  flags  along 
the  planes  of  deposition.  When  the  sand- 
stone is  coarse-grained,  it  is  usually  called 
grit.  If  it  contain,  more  or  less  abun- 
dantly, grains  large  enough  to  be  called 
pebbles,  the  sandstone  is  said  to  be  con- 
glomeratic; and  if  the  pebbles  or  stones 
be  angular,  the  rock  is  described  as  a 
brecciiform  sandstone.  Coarse-grained 
grits  and  pebbly  or  conglomeratic  sand- 
stones pass  into  conglomerate  or  pudding- 
stone,  which  consists  of  a  mass  of  various- 
sized  water-worn  stones.  Brecciiform 
sandstones  frequently  pass  into  breccia, 
which  is  an  aggregate  of  angular  and 
sub-angular  fragments.  Graywacke  is  an 
argillaceous  sandstone,  more  or  less  al- 
tered and  sometimes  semi-crystalline,  met 
with  among  palaeozoic  formations. 

AREOLAR  TISSUE,  a  tissue  widely 
diffused  through  the  body,  and  composed 
of  white  and  yellow  fibers,  the  former  im- 
parting to  it  strength,  and  the  latter 
elasticity.  Areolar  tissue  protects  from 
injury  the  parts  of  the  body  in  which  it 
occurs,  and  when  placed  in  the  interstices 
of  other  tissues  it  keeps  the  latter  from 
moving  as  freely  as  otherwise  they  would. 
The  cutis  vera,  or  true  skin,  is  composed 
of  it. 

AREOMETER  (ar-e-om'e-ter) ,  an 
instrument  designed  to  measure  the 
specific  gravity  of  liquids.  The  simpler 
areometers  measure  only  the  relative 
weights   of  liquids.     They  consist  of   a 


ABEOPAGUS 


241 


ARGENTINA 


tube  of  glass,  terminated  in  a  ball  at  its 
lower  part,  and  divided  into  equal  portions 
through  its  whole  length.  Another  ball 
filled  with  mercury  is  soldered  below  to 
keep  it  vertical.  The  depth  to  which  it 
sinks  in  various  liquids  is  in  the  inverse 
ratio  of  their  relative  specific  gravities. 

AREOPAGUS  (ar-e-op'a-gus),  the 
name  of  a  hill  or  rocky  eminence  lying 
to  the  W.  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
whicla  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  chief 
court  of  judicature  of  that  city;  hence 
called  the  Council  of  Areopagus.  It  was 
of  very  high  antiquity,  and  existed  as  a 
criminal  tribunal  long  before  the  time  of 
Solon,  who  enlarged  its  sphere  of  juris- 
diction. As  a  court  of  justice,  it  took 
cognizance  of  capital  crimes,  as  murder, 
arson,  etc.;  and  it  also  exercised  a  cer- 
tain control  over  the  ordinary  courts.  Its 
censorial  duties  were  of  a  very  extensive 
and  inquisitorial  nature,  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  order  and  decency.  Religion  also 
came  within  its  jurisdiction,  which  pun- 
ished impiety  in  whatsoever  form.  Per- 
icles succeeded  in  greatly  diminishing  the 
power  of  this  council,  and  deprived  it  of 
many  of  its  old  prerogatives. 

ABEQUIPA  (ar-a-ke'pa),  a  city  of 
Peru,  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
same  name  (area  21,951  square  miles; 
pop.  about  300,000) ;  40  miles  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  Chile  river;  altitude, 
7,850  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  a  bish- 
op's seat,  has  a  college,  several  convents, 
and  a  cathedral.  Its  trade  is  large.  Gold 
and  silver  are  mined  in  the  vicinity.  A 
great  earthquake  occurred  Aug.  13  and 
14,  1868,  which  destroyed  much  property 
and  killed  500  persons.  Near  by  Harvard 
University  has  an  observatory,  at  an  al- 
titude of  over  8,000  feet.  Pop.  about 
40,000. 

ABEZZO  (a-ret's5,  ancient  Arretium), 
a  city  of  central  Italy,  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name  in  Tuscany,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Chiana  with  the 
Arno.  It  has  a  noble  cathedral,  remains 
of  an  ancient  amphitheater,  etc.  It  was 
one  of  the  12  chief  Etruscan  towns,  and 
in  later  times  fought  long  against  the 
Florentines,  to  whom  it  had  finally  to 
succumb.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Maecenas, 
Petrarch,  Pieti'o  Aretino,  Redi,  and 
Vasari.  Pop.  about  50,000.  The  province 
of  Arezzo  contains  1,273  squares  miles. 
Pop.  about  300,000. 

ARGALL,  SIR  SAMUEL,  an  early 
English  adventurer  in  Virginia,  born 
about  1572;  planned  and  executed  the 
abduction  of  Pocahontas,  the  daughter  of 
the  Indian  chief  Powhatan,  in  order  to 
secure  the  ransom  of  English  prisoners. 
He    was    Deputy-Governor    of    Virgmia 


(1617-1619),  and  was  accused  of  many 
acts  of  rapacity  and  tyranny.  In  1620 
he  served  in  an  expedition  against  Al- 
giers, and  was  knighted  by  James  I.  He 
died  in  1639. 

ARGAND  LAMP,  a  lamp  named  after 
its  inventor,  Aime  Argand,  a  Swiss  chem- 
ist and  physician  (born  1755;  died  1803), 
the  distinctive  feature  of  which  is  a 
burner  forming  a  ring  or  hollow  cylinder 
covered  by  a  chimney,  so  that  the  flame 
receives  a  current  of  air  both  on  the  in- 
side and  on  the  outside. 

ARGEMONE  (ar-jem'o-ne) ,  a  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  family  jm- 
paveracese,  or  poppy-worts.  It  has  three 
sepals  and  six  petals.  The  A.  Mexicana, 
believed,  as  its  name  imports,  to  have 
come  from  Mexico,  is  now  common  in 
India  and  other  warm  countries  in  the 
Old  World,  as  well  as  in  the  New.  It  has 
conspicuous  yellow  flowers.  From  having 
its  calyx  prickly,  it  is  often  called  Mexi- 
can thistle.  The  yellow  juice,  when  re- 
duced to  consistence,  resembles  gamboge. 
It  is  detersive.  The  seeds  are  a  more 
powerful  narcotic  than  opium. 

ARGENT,  in  coats  of  arms,  the 
heraldic  term  expressing  silver;  repre- 
sented in  engraving  by  a  plain  white  sur- 
face. 

ARGENTA,  a  city  of  Arkansas,  in 
Pulaski  CO.  It  is  on  the  Arkansas  river, 
and  on  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern,  the 
St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain,  and  Southern, 
and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pa- 
cific railroads.  The  chief  industries  are 
railroad  shops,  cotton  and  oil  mills,  and 
boiler  and  iron  works.  There  is  a  hospi- 
tal and  other  public  institutions.  Fuel  is 
supplied  by  natural  gas.  It  is  the  center 
of  an  important  agricultural  region.  Pop. 
(1910)   11,138;   (1920)  14,048. 

ARGENTINA,  or  ARGENTINE  RE- 
PUBLIC, formerly  called  the  United 
Provinces  of  La  Plata,  a  vast  country  of 
South  America;  extreme  length  2,300 
miles;  average  breadth  a  little  over  500 
miles;  total  area,  1,138,000  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Bolivia;  on  the 
E.  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and 
the  Atlantic;  on  the  S.  by  the  Antarctic 
Ocean;  and  on  the  W.  by  Chile.  Pop. 
(1918)  8,280,266. 

Natural  Divisions. — It  comprises  four 
great  natural  divisons:  (1)  The  Andine 
region,  containing  the  provinces  of  Men- 
doza,  San  Juan,  Rioja,  Catamarca,  Tucu- 
man,  Salta,  and  Jujuy.  (2)  The  Pampas, 
containing  the  provinces  of  Santiago, 
Santa  Fe,  Cordova,  San  Luis,  and  Buenos 
Aires;  with  the  territories  Formosa, 
Pampa,  and  Chaco.     (3)   The  Argentme 


ARGENTINA 


242 


ARGENTINA 


Mesopotamia,  between  the  rivers  Parana 
and  Uruguay,  containing  the  provinces  of 
Entre  Rios  and  Corrientes,  and  the  terri- 
tory Misiones.  (4)  Patagonia,  including 
the  easte;;g  half  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
With  the  exception  of  the  N.  W.,  where 
lateral  branches  of  the  Andes  run  into 
the  plain  for  150  or  200  miles,  and  the 
province  of  Entre  Rios,  which  is  hilly, 
the  characteristic  feature  of  the  country 
is  the  great  monotonous  and  level  plains 
called  pampas.  In  the  N.  these  plains 
are  partly  forest-covered,  but  all  the  cen- 
tral and  S.  parts  present  vast  treeless 
tracts,  which  afford  pasture  to  immense 
herds  of  horses,  oxen,  and  sheep. 

Water  Courses. — The  great  water 
course  of  the  coutry  is  the  Parana,  hav- 
ing a  length  of  fully  2,000  miles  from  its 
source  in  the  mountains  of  Goyaz,  Brazil, 
to  its  junction  with  the  Uruguay,  where 
begins  the  estuary  of  La  Plata.  The  Pa- 
rana is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Upper  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers, 
near  the  N.  E.  corner  of  the  country.  Im- 
portant tributaries  are  the  Pilcomayo, 
the  Vermejo,  and  the  Salado.  The  Pa- 
rana, Paraguay,  and  Uruguay  are  val- 
uable for  internal  navigation.  Not  con- 
nected with  the  La  Plata  system  are  the 
Colorado  and  the  Rio  Negro,  the  latter 
formerly  the  S.  boundary  of  the  country, 
separating  it  from  Patagonia.  The 
source  of  the  Negro  is  Lake  Nahuel 
Huapi,  in  Patagonia  (area,  1,200  square 
miles),  in  the  midst  of  magnificent  scen- 
ery. The  level  portions  of  the  country 
are  mostly  of  tertiary  formation,  and  the 
river  and  coast  regions  consist  mainly  of 
alluvial  soil  of  great  fertility.  In  the 
pampas  clay  have  been  found  the  fossil 
remains  of  extinct  mammalia,  some  of 
them  of  colossal  size. 

Productions. — European  grains  and 
fruits,  including  the  vine,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully introduced,  and  are  cultivated  to 
some  extent  in  most  parts  of  the  republic, 
but  the  great  wealth  of  the  state  lies  in 
its  countless  herds  of  cattle  and  horses 
and  flocks  of  sheep,  which  are  pastured 
on  the  pampas,  and  which  multiply  there 
very  rapidly.  Gold,  silver,  nickel,  copper, 
tin,  lead,  and  iron,  besides  marble,  jasper, 
precious  stones,  and  bitumen  are  found 
in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  north- 
west, while  petroleum  wells  have  been 
discovered  on  the  Rio  Vermejo. 

Argentina  has  developed  in  the  last 
decade  greatly  in  agriculture  and  stock 
raising,  which  are  the  principal  sources 
of  wealth  of  the  country.  There  are  es- 
timated to  be  over  250,000,000  acres  suit- 
able for  agriculture  and  grazing,  and  an 
additional  10,000,000  acres  can  be  made 
available  by  irrigation.  The  acreage  and 
production  of  the  principal  crops  in  1918- 


1919  was  as  follows:  wheat  17,175,000 
acres,  5,015,000  tons;  oats,  3,015,000 
acres,  640,000  tons;  flax,  3,466,625  acres, 
705,000  tons.  The  production  of  maize 
and  corn  in  1917  was  4,335,000  tons. 
There  were  in  the  country  in  1918  about 
3,000,000  head  of  cattle.  The  world  de- 
mand for  grain  and  meat,  following  the 
end  of  the  World  War,  conditioned  great 
prosperity  in  Argentina. 

Commerce. — The  total  value  of  the 
trade  in  1917  was  1,307,392,000  pesos, 
gold  (a  peso  equals  96.4  cents).  The  im- 
ports amounted  to  480,896,000  pesos, 
and  the  exports  to  826,496,000  pesos, 
leaving  a  balance  in  favor  of  Argentina 
of  345,600,000  pesos.  The  exports  ex- 
ceeded those  of  any  former  year  both 
in  bulk  and  value.  The  chief  imports 
were  from  the  United  States,  amounting 
to  169,500,000  pesos.  The  chief  exports 
were  to  the  United  Kingdom,  amount- 
ing to  305,800,000  pesos.  The  large  in- 
crease in  the  exports  to  the  United 
Kingdom  during  1917  was  due  largely 
to  shipments  of  wheat.  The  exports  to 
the  United  States  were  valued  at  165,- 
100,000  pesos.  In  addition  to  wheat,  the 
chief  exports  were  flour,  linseed,  corn, 
oats,  and  meat. 

Education. — Education  in  the  elemen- 
tary grades  is  free  and  is  carried  on 
under  subsidiaries  by  provincial  boards 
of  education.  There  are  nearly  9,000 
public  primary  schools,  with  over 
1,000,000  pupils  and  about  32,000  teach- 
ers. There  are  also  about  1,000  private 
primary  schools,  with  about  77,000 
pupils  and  about  4,000  teachers.  Sec- 
ondary education  is  carried  on  through 
37  national  colleges,  which  are  attended 
by  about  12,000  pupils.  There  are  also 
many  normal  schools  and  schools  for 
special  instruction,  etc.  There  are  5  na- 
tional universities,  those  of  Buenos 
Aires,  La  Plata,  Cordova,  Santa  Fe  and 
Tucuman.  There  are  over  10,000  stu- 
dents at  the  University  of  Buenos  Aires. 
The  total  expenditure  for  educational 
purposes  in  1918  was  about  60,000,000 
paper  dollars. 

Fitiance. — The  total  revenue  in  1918 
was  373,412,306  paper  dollars,  and  the 
expenditures  390,989,480  paper  dollars. 
The  paper  dollar  has  the  value  of  about 
42c.  in  American  money.  The  chief  ex- 
penditures are  for  the  public  debt,  edu- 
cation, army,  navy,  and  pensions. 

Transportation. — There  were  in  1918 
about  22,500  miles  of  railway,  of  which 
about  4,000  belonged  to  the  state.  Ves- 
sels entering  the  harbors  and  ports 
number  nearly  50,000  annually.  There 
were  about  3,500  post  offices  and  about 
44,000  miles  of  telegraph,  of  which 
about  24,000  are  national. 


ARGENTINA 


243 


ARGOL 


Army  and  Navy. — There  is  a  compul- 
sory military  law  which  has  produced 
an  efficient  army.  There  are  five  mili- 
tary districts,  each  of  which  supplies  a 
division  of  20,000  men,  with  a  i*eserve 
of  about  250,000.  The  navy  includes 
two  large  dreadnoughts  of  nearly  30,000 
tons  each.  There  are  also  armored 
cruisers,  protective  cruisers,  gun  boats, 
torpedo  boats  and  miscellaneous  craft. 

People. — As  a  whole,  this  vast  country 
is  very  thinly  inhabited,  some  parts  of 
it  as  yet  being  very  little  known.  The 
native  Indians  were  never  very  numer- 
ous, and  have  given  little  trouble  to  the 
European  settlers.  Tribes  of  them  yet 
in  the  savage  state  still  inhabit  the  less 
known  districts,  and  live  by  hunting  and 
fishing.^  Some  of  the  Gran  Chaco  tribes 
are  said  to  be  very  fierce,  and  Euro- 
pean travelers  have  been  killed  bv  them. 
The  European  element  is  strong  in  the 
republic,  more  than  half  of  the  popula- 
tion being  Europeans  or  of  pure  Euro- 
pean descent.  The  typical  inhabitants  of 
the  pampas  are  the  Gauchos,  a  race  of 
half-breed  cattle-rearers  and  horse- 
breakers. 

History. — The  river  La  Plata  was  dis- 
covered in  1512  by  the  Spanish  navi- 
gator Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  and  the  La 
Plata  territory  had  been  brought  into 
the  possession  of  Spain  by  the  end  of 
the  16th  century.  In  1810  the  territory 
cast  off  the  Spanish  rule,  and  in  1816 
the  independence  of  the  United  States 
of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  was  formally  de- 
clared. The  present  constitution  dates 
from  1853,  being  subsequently  modified. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
President,  elected  by  the  representatives 
of  the  14  provinces  for  a  term  of  six 
years.  A  National  Congress  of  two 
chambers — a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Dep- 
uties— yields  the  legislative  authority. 
The  capital  of  the  republic  is  Buenos 
Aires  {q.  v.).  Argentina  was  the  only 
important  South  American  country 
which  did  not  break  off  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  Germany  during  the  war. 
This  caused  great  discontent  among  the 
people  of  the  country.  The  failure  to 
sever  relations  with  Germany^  was  at- 
tributed largely  to  the  activities  of 
Count  Carl  Luxburg,  the  German  min- 
ister. He  was  extremely  active  carry- 
ing on  German  propaganda  and  this 
came  to  a  head  in  September,  1917, 
when  telegrams  from  him  to  the 
German  War  Office  were  made  public. 
These  telegrams  contained  extremely 
damaging  matter,  the  most  famous  con- 
taining the  advice  from  Luxburg  to  the 
German  Government  to  sink  Argentine 
^ips  "spurlos"  (without  leaving  a 
trace),  if  they  were  to  be  attacked  at 

17 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


all.  The  publication  of  this  correspond- 
ence caused  great  excitement  both  in 
the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  Lux- 
burg was  recalled.  Public  sentiment 
even  before  this  had  been  strongly 
against  neutrality,  and  President  Iri- 
goyen,  who  had  apparently  strong  Ger- 
man sympathies,  was  bitterly  attacked. 
In  April  a  mob  wrecked  the  offices  of 
the  German  newspapers  in  Buenos 
Aires  and  attacked  the  German  legation. 
These  disturbances  were  quieted,  but 
broke  out  again  on  the  publication  of 
the  Luxburg  correspondence.  There 
were  serious  industrial  disturbances  in 
1919,  including  strikes  in  the  port  of 
Buenos  Aires.  Collisions  between  strik- 
ers and  police  occurred  and  many  per- 
sons were  killed.  The  strike  spread' 
throughout  the  country  and  threatened 
to  be  general,  but  was  finally  ended 
without  more  serious  trouble.  During 
the  year  there  were  over  260  strikes, 
involving  about  265,000  workmen. 

ARGENTINE,  a  silvery-white  slaty 
variety  of  calc-spar,  containing  a  little 
silica  with  laminje  usually  undulated.  It 
is  found  in  primitive  rocks  and  fre- 
quently in  metallic  veins.  Argentine  is 
also  the  name  of  a  small  British  fish 
(scopelus  borealis),  less  than  two  inches 
long,  and  of  a  silvery  color. 

ARGENTITE,  sulphide  of  silver,  a 
blackish  or  lead-gray  mineral,  a  val- 
uable ore  of  silver  found  in  the  crystal- 
line rocks  of  many  countries. 

ARGILLACEOUS  ROCKS  are  rocks  in 
which  clay  prevails  (including  shales 
and  slates). 

ARGINirS.a3  (ar-gin'6-se),  a  number 
of  small  islands  S.  E.  of  the  coast  of 
Lesbos,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor.  In 
the  vicinity  of  these  islands  the  Athe- 
nians, under  Conon,  406  B.  c,  defeated 
the  Spartans  under  Collicratidos  in  a 
hard  contested  naval  battle. 

ARGIVES,  or  ARGIGI,  the  inhabitants 
of  Argos;  used  by  Homer  and  other 
ancient  authors  as  a  generic  appellation 
for  all  the  Greeks. 

ARGOL,  a  salt  deposited  by  wine  on 
the  inside  of  the  bottles  and  barrels.  It 
is  dissolved  more  easily  in  water  than 
in  alcohol.  It  is  mostly  composed  of 
potassic  bitartrate,  KHC4H40c,  and  con- 
tains varying  quantities  of  calcic  of  tar- 
trate, mucilaginous  matter,  and  coloring. 
It  may  be  purified  in  hot  water,  and 
clarified  by  adding  clay,  and  recrystal- 
lizing.  In  repeating  the  process  it 
becomes  white  and  is  called*  cream  of 
tartar. 


ARGOLIS 


244 


ARGUS 


ABGOLIS  (ar'go-lis),  a  peninsula  oi 
Greece;  lies  between  the  bays  of  Nauplia 
and  iEgina,  and  now  forms,  with  Cor- 
inth, a  nomarchy  or  department.  Ar- 
golis  was  the  eastern  region  of  Pelopon- 
nesus. The  Greeks  inhabiting  it  were 
often  called  Argives,  or  Argians.  Hills 
and  mountains  alternate  with  fruitful 
plains  and  valleys.  Here  reigned  Pelops, 
an  emigrant  from  Asia  Minor,  from 
whom  the  peninsula  derives  its  name. 
It  was  afterward  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  Atreus  and  Agamemnon,  Adras- 
tus,  Eurystheus,  and  Diomedes.  Here, 
Hercules  was  born.  In  the  morass  of 
Argolis  he  slew  the  Lernaean  hydra,  and 
in  the  cave  of  Nemea  subdued  the  fero- 
cious lion.  In  the  earliest  times  it  was 
divided  into  the  small  kingdoms  of 
Argos,  Mycenje,  Tirinthus,  Trcezene, 
Hermione,  and  Epidaurus,  which  after- 
ward formed  free  states.  The  chief  city, 
Argos,  has  retained  its  name  since  1800 
B.  C.  Pop.  about  9,000.  Here,  and  in  Del- 
phi, statues  were  erected  to  the  brothers 
Biton  and  Cleobis,  who  fell  victims  to 
their  filial  piety.  Near  this  city  lies  the 
canital  of  Argolis,  Nauplia,  or  Napoli 
di 'Romania.  On  the  site  of  the  present 
village  of  Castri,  on  the  ^gean  Sea,  for- 
merly lay  the  city  Hermione,  with  a 
grove  dedicated  to  the  Graces:  opposite 
is  the  island  of  Hydra.  Near  the  city 
of  Epidaurus,  the  watering  place  of 
ancient  Greece,  on  the  ^gean  Sea, 
.(Esculapius  had  his  temple.  At  Trce- 
zene, now  the  village  of  Damala,  Theseus 
was  born.  Pop.  of  province  of  Argolis 
and  Corinth  about  160,000. 

ARGON,  a  constituent  gaseous  element 
discovered  in  our  atmosphere  by  Lord 
Rayleigh  and  Prof.  Ramsay,  in  1894.  Ar- 
gon has  a  characteristic  spectrum.  Its 
specific  gravity  (H=l)  is  between  19 
and  21.  It  is  about  2V^  times  as  soluble 
in  water  as  nitrogen.  Its  critical  tem- 
perature ( — 121°C.)  and  boiling  point 
( — 187°C.)  are  lower  than  those  of 
oxygen.  It  seems  to  be  incapable  of  com- 
bining with  anything.  It  has  been 
found  in  cleveite  and  in  a  meteorite. 
There  is  still  much  doubt  concerning  its 
true  status.  It  is  separated  by  acting 
on  air  with  red-hot  copper  filings  to 
separate  the  oxygen.  The  residual  gas 
is  dried  and  passed  over  white-hot  mag- 
nesium filings.  The  magnesium  combines 
with  the  nitrogen,  producing  a  solid  ni- 
tride and  leaving  argon  as  a  gas. 

ARGONAUT  (ar'go-nat),  one  of  the 
heroes  who  accompanied  Jason  in  the 
ship  "Argo"  when  he  sailed  on  his 
mythic  voyage  in  quest  of  the  golden 
fleece.  (Generally  used  in  the  plural, 
Argonauts). 


The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  genus 
of  cephalopod  mollusks,  the  typical  one 
of  the  family  argonautidse.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  argonaut,  or  paper 
sailor. 

ARGO-NAVIS,  the  southern  con- 
stellation of  the  Ship,  containing  9  clus- 
ters, 3  nebulfe,  13  double  and  540  single 
stars,  of  which  about  64  are  visible. 

ARGONNE  (ar-gon')  a  district  of 
France,  between  the  rivers  Meuse, 
Marne,  and  Aisne,  celebrated  for  the 
campaign  of  Dumouriez  against  the 
Prussians  in  1792,  and  for  the  military 
movements  and  actions  which  took  place 
therein  previous  to  the  battle  of  Sedan, 
in  1870. 

In  the  World  War  it  was  the  scene 
of  many  struggles  between  the  Germans 
and  Allied  forces.  On  Sept.  26,  1918, 
the  First  American  Army  began  a  great 
offensive  movement  west  through  the 
Argonne  forest,  advancing  six  miles  on 
a  30-mile  front,  and  capturing  many 
towns  and  thousands  of  Germans.  See 
Meuse-Argonne,  Battles  of. 

ARGOS,  a  town  of  Greece,  in  the  N. 
E.  of  the  Peloponnesus,  between  the 
gulfs  of  .^gina  and  Nauplia  or  Argos. 
This  town  and  the  surrounding  territory 
of  Argolis  were  famous  from  the  legend- 
ary period  of  the  Greek  history  on- 
ward, the  territory  containing,  besides 
Argos,  Mycense,  where  Agamemnon 
ruled,  with  a  kind  of  sovereignty,  over 
all  the  Peloponnesus. 

ARGOSY,  a  poetical  name  for  a  large 
merchant  vessel :  derived  from  Ragusa,  a 
port  which  was  formerly  more  cele- 
brated than  now. 

ARGOT,  the  jargon,  slang,  or  pecul- 
iar phraseology  of  a  class  or  profession; 
originally  the  conventional  slang  of 
thieves  and  vagabonds,  invented  for  the 
purpose  of  disguise  and  concealment. 

ARGUIM,  or  ARGUIN  (ar-gwim'  or 
ar-gwin'),  a  small  island  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Africa,  not  far  from  Cape  Blanco^ 
formerly  a  center  of  trade  the  profession 
of  which  was  violently  disputed  between 
the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  English,  and 
French,  and  is  now  claimed  by  France. 

ARGUS.  (1)  In  classical  mj^hology, 
a  son  of  Arestor,  said  to  have  had  100 
eyes,  of  which  only  two  slept  at  one  time, 
the  several  pairs  doing  so  in  succession. 
When  killed  by  Mercury  his  eyes  were 
put  into  the  tail  of  a  peacock,  by  direc- 
tion of  Juno,  to  whom  this  bird  was  sa- 
cred.    Argus  was  deemed  a  highly  ap- 


ABGYLL 


245 


ABIAN 


propriate   name   to   give   to   a   vigilant 
watch  dog. 

(2)  In  zoology,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  phasianidx,  and  the  sub-family 
phasianinss.  It  contains  the  argus,  or 
argus  pheasant  (argus  giganteus).  The 
male  measures  between  five  and  six  feet 
from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity 
of  the  tail,  and  is  an  eminently  beautiful 
bird,  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings, 
which  often  exceed  three  feet  in  length, 
being  ornamented  all  along  by  a  series 
of  ocellated  spots.  The  name  Shetland 
argus  is  given  to  a  starfish  (astrop%^o?i 
scutatum) .  It  is  called  also  the  basket 
urchin  or  sea  basket. 

ARGYLL,  CAMPBELLS  OF,  a  historic 
Scottish  family,  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
the  person  of  Sir  Duncan  Campbell  of 
Lochow,  in  1445.  The  more  eminent 
members  are:  Archibald,  second  Earl, 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Flodden,  1513. 
Archibald,  fifth  Earl,  attached  himself 
to  the  party  of  Mary  of  Guise,  and  was 
the  means  of  averting  a  collision  between 
the  Reformers  and  the  French  troops  in 
1559;  died  1575.  Archibald,  eighth  Earl 
and  Marquis,  born  1598;  a  zealous  parti- 
san of  the  Covenanters.  It  was  by  his 
persuasion  that  Charles  II.  visited  Scot- 
land, and  was  crowned  at  Scone  in  1651. 
At  the  Restoration  he  was  committed 
to  the  Tower,  and  beheaded  in  1661. 
Archibald,  ninth  Earl,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, served  the  King  with  great  brav- 
ery at  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  and  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  general  pardon  by 
Cromwell  in  1654.  On  the  nassing  of 
the  Test  Act  in  1681  he  refused  to  cake 
the  required  oath.  For  this  he  was  tried 
and  sentenced  to  death.  He,  however, 
escaped  to  Holland,  from  whence  he  re- 
turned with  a  view  of  aiding  the  Duke 
of  Monmouth.  His  plan,  however,  failed, 
and  he  was  taken  and  conveyed  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  was  beheaded  in  1685. 
Archibald,  tenth  Earl  and  first  Duke, 
son  of  the  preceding,  died  1703;  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1688- 
1689,  which  placed  William  and  Mary  on 
the  throne,  and  was  rewarded  by  several 
important  appointments  and  the  title  of 
Duke.  John,  second  Duke  and  Duke  of 
Greenwich,  son  of  the  above,  born  1678, 
died  1743;  served  under  Marlborough  at 
the  battles  of  Ramilies,  Oudenarde,  and 
Malplaquet,  and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of 
Lille  and  Ghent.  He  incurred  consider- 
able odium  in  his  own  country  for  his 
efforts  in  promoting  the  union.  In  1712 
he  had  the  military  command  in  Scot- 
land, and,  in  1715,  he  fought  with  the 
Earl  of  Mar's  army  at  Sheriffmuir,  near 
Dunblane,  and  forced  the  Pretender  to 
quit  the  kingdom.  George  Douglass 
Campbell,   eighth    Duke,   Baron    Sund- 


ridge  and  Hamilton,  was  born  in  1823. 
He  early  took  a  part  in  politics,  especially 
in  discussions  regarding  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Scotland.  In  1852  he 
became  Lord  Privy  Seal  under  Lord 
Aberdeen,  and  again  under  Lord  Pal- 
merston,  in  1859;  Postmaster-General  in 
1860;  Secretary  for  India  from  1868  to 
1874;  again  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1880, 
but  retired,  being  unable  to  agree  with 
his  colleagues  on  their  Irish  policy.  He 
was  author  of  "The  Reign  of  Law," 
"Scotland  as  It  Was  and  as  It  Is,"  etc. 
He  died  April  24,  1900.  His  eldest  son, 
as  Marquis  of  Lorne,  married  the  Prin- 
cess Louise,  fourth  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  1871.  He  succeeded  as  ninth 
duke  in  1900,  and  died  in  1914. 

ABGYLLSHIRE,  a  county  in  the 
west  midland  division  of  Scotland.  It  has 
an  area  of  3,232  square  miles,  of  which 
over  600  are  islands.  It  has  an  extensive 
coast  line  amounting  to  2,300  miles. 
Sheep  grazing  is  the  principal  industry. 
The  land  does  not  lend  itself  generally 
to  agriculture.  Mining  and  quarrying 
are  carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  capi- 
tal is  Inverary.  Other  important  towns 
are  Campbelton,  Oban,  and  Tarbert. 
Pop.  about  70,000. 

ARIADNE  (ar-e-ad'ne),  a  daughter  of 
Minos,  King  of  Crete,  who,  falling  in  love 
with  Theseus,  then  shut  up  by  her  father 
in  the  labyrinth,  gave  him  a  clue  by 
which  he  threaded  his  way  out.  After- 
ward she  was  the  wife  of  Bacchus,  who 
gave  her  a  crown,  which  ultimately  be- 
came a  constellation  called  by  her  name. 
Also  an  asteroid,  the  43d  found;  discov- 
ered by  Pogson,  on  April  15,  1857. 

ARIAN,  a  follower  of  Arius,  Presbyter 
of  Alexandria  in  the  4th  century  A.  D., 
or  one  holding  the  system  of  doctrine 
associated  with  his  name.  During  the 
first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
what  was  subsequently  called  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  had  become  the  sub- 
ject of  controversy,  chiefly  in  one  direc- 
tion; it  had  been  decided  against  Sabel- 
lius  that  there  are  in  the  Godhead  three 
distinct  persons,  whereas  Sabellius  had 
in  effect  reduced  the  three  to  one.  In 
the  year  317,  Alexander,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  having  publicly  expressed 
his  opinion  that  the  Son  of  God  is  not 
only  of  the  same  dignity  as  the  Father, 
but  of  the  same  essence  (in  Greek, 
oMsm),  Arius,  one  of  the  Presbjrters, 
considered  this  view  as  leaning  too  much 
to  Sabellianism,  and,  rushing  to  the 
other  extreme,  he  declared  that  the  Son 
of  God  was  only  the  first  and  noblest 
of  created  beings,  and  though  the  uni- 
verse had  been  brought  into  existence 
through     His     instrumentality     by     the 


ABICA 


246 


ARIOSTO 


Eternal  Father,  He  was  inferior,  not 
merely  in  dignity,  but  in  essence.  The 
views  of  Arius  commended  themselves  to 
multitudes,  while  they  were  abhorrent 
to  still  more;  fierce  controversy  respect- 
ing them  broke  out,  and  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world  was  soon  compelled  to  take 
sides  in  the  struggle.  Constantine,  the 
first  Christian  emperor,  then  the  reign- 
ing sovereign,  summoned  a  council  to 
meet  at  Nice,  in  Bithynia,  which  it  did 
in  A.  D.  325.  It  was  the  first  general 
council  and  the  most  celebrated  of  all. 
It  declared  Christ  to  be  homooiisios,  i,  e., 
of  the  same  essence  as  the  Father, 
whereas  Arius  regarded  Him  as  only 
homoiotisios,  of  similar  essence.  The 
erring  Presbyter  was  deposed  and 
exiled.  The  Arians  greatly  weakened 
themselves  by  splitting  into  sects,  and 
the  doctrines  regarding  the  relations  of 
the  three  Divine  Personages  authorita- 
tively proclaimed  at  Nice  were  at  last 
all  but  universally  adopted. 

ABICA,  a  seaport  of  Tacna,  the  most 
southerly  department  of  Peru.  It  is  one 
of  the  chief  outlets  of  the  trade  of  Bo- 
livia, and  has  been  connected  since  1854, 
by  rail,  with  Tacna,  38  miles  inland. 
its  exports  mostly  consist  of  copper,  sil- 
ver, cascarilla  and  other  barks,  chin- 
chilla skins,  alpaca,  and  vicuna  wool. 
Arica  has  frequently  suffered  from 
earthquakes.  It  was  almost  wholly  de- 
stroyed in  1832,  but  soon  rebuilt.  It  suf- 
fered severely  again  in  1868,  the  earth- 
quake being  succeeded  by  fearful  waves, 
one  of  them  40  feet  high.  In  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  supremacy,  Arica  was  a 
great  commercial  city  with  30,000  in- 
habitants; its  present  population  is  about 
5,000.  It  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the 
Chileans  in  1880.  For  details  of  the  long- 
standing dispute  between  Chile  and  Peru 
for  the  possession  of  Arica  and  Tacna 
see  Chile  and  Peru. 

ARIEGE  (ar-yazh) ,  a  mountainous  de- 
partment of  France,  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Pyrenees,  comprising  the  ancient  count- 
ship  of  Foix  and  parts  of  Languedoc  and 
Gascony.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Ariege,  Arize,  and  Salat,  tributaries  of 
the  Garonne.  Sheep  and  cattle  are 
reared;  the  arable  land  is  small  in  quan- 
tity. Chief  town,  Foix.  Area  1,890 
square  miles;  pop.  about  200,000. 

ABIEL,  the  name  of  several  personages 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament;  in  the 
demonology  of  the  later  Jews  a  spirit  of 
the  waters.  In  Shakespeare's  "Tempest," 
Ariel  was  the  "tricksy  spirit"  whom 
Prospero  had  in  his  service. 

ARIES,  in  astronomy,  the  constellation 
Aries,  or  the  Ram,  one  of  the  ancient 


zodiacal  constellations,  and  generally 
called  the  first  sign  of  the  zodiac;  also 
the  portion  of  the  ecliptic  between  0°  and 
30°  longitude,  which  the  sun  enters  on 
March  21st  (the  vernal  equinox).  The 
constellation  Aries,  from  which  the  re- 
gion derives  its  name,  was  once  within 
its  limits,  but  now,  by  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  it  has  gradually  moved 
into  the  space  anciently  assigned  to 
Taurus.  It  is  denoted  by  the  Greek  sym- 
bol, Gamma,  which  remotely  resembles 
a  ram's  head. 

The  first  point  of  Aries  is  the  spot  in 
the  heavens  where  the  sun  appears  to 
stand  at  the  vernal  equinox.  It  is  not 
marked  by  the  presence  of  any  star,  but 
it  is  not  very  far  from  the  third  star  of 
Pegasus,  that  called  Algenib.  It  is  the 
point  from  which  the  right  ascensions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  are  reckoned  upon 
the  equator  and  their  longitudes  upon 
the  ecliptic. 

ABIL,  or  ABILLUS,  in  some  plants, 
as  in  the  nutmeg,  an  extra  covering  of 
the  seed,  outside  of  the  true  seed  coats. 
It  is  either  succulent  or  cartilaginous, 
colored,  elastic,  rough  or  knotted.  In  the 
nutmeg  it  is  known  as  mace. 

ABIMATECffiA  (ar-e-ma-the'a),  a 
town  of  Palestine,  identified  with  the 
modem  Ramleh,  22  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Jerusalem. 

ABION,  an  ancient  Greek  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  Methymna,  in  Lesbos, 
flourished  about  B.  C.  625.  He  lived  at 
the  court  of  Periander  of  Corinth,  and 
afterward  visited  Sicily  and  Italy.  Re- 
turning from  Tarentum  to  Corinth  with 
rich  treasures,  the  avaricious  sailors  re- 
solved to  murder  him.  Apollo,  however, 
having  informed  him  in  a  dream  of  the 
impending  danger,  Arion  in  vain  endeav- 
ored to  soften  the  hearts  of  the  crew 
by  the  power  of  his  music.  He  then 
threw  himself  into  the  sea,  when  one  of 
a  shoal  of  dolphins,  which  had  been 
attracted  by  his  music,  received  him  on 
his  back  and  bore  him  to  land.  The 
sailors  having  returned  to  Corinth,  were 
confronted  by  Arion,  and  convicted  of 
their  crime.  The  lyre  of  Arion,  and  the 
dolphin  which  rescued  him,  became  con- 
stellations in  the  heavens.  A  fragment 
of  a  hymn  to  Poseidon,  ascribed  to  Arion, 
is  extant. 

ARIOSTO,  LUDOVICO  (a-re-os'to), 
an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Reggio,  Sept.  8, 
1474.  Was  one  of  the  three  great  epic 
poets  of  Italy,  and  styled  "The  Divine." 
He  abandoned  law  for  the  study  of  the 
classics,  and  was  introduced  with  diplo- 
matic missions  by  Cardinal  d'Este,  and 
his  brother,  Duke  of  Ferrara.    Ariosto's 


ABISTJET7S 


247 


ARISTOLOCHIA 


fame  rests  mainly  on  his  great  romantic 
heroic  poem  "Orlando  Furioso."  It  is 
really  a  continuation  of  Bojardo's  "Or- 
lando Inamorato."  Of  his  other  poetical 
efforts  the  most  noteworthy  are  his  seven 
epistolary  satires,  conceived  in  the  spirit 
of  Horace,  which  contain  sundry  bits  of 
autobiographical  information  and  rank 
among  the  treasures  of  Italian  litera- 
ture.   He  died  at  Ferrara,  June  6,  1533. 

ARIST^US  (ar-is-te'us) ,  son  of 
Apollo  and  Cyrene,  was  brought  up  by 
the  Nymphs.  The  introduction  of  the  use 
of  bees  is  ascribed  to  him  (hence  he  is 
called  Mellisoeus),  and  gained  for  him 
divine  honors. 

ARISTARCHUS  ( ar-is-tar'kus  ) ,  a 
Greek  grammarian,  who  criticized  Hom- 
er's poems  with  the  greatest  severity, 
and  established  a  new  text;  for  which 
reason  severe  and  just  critics  are  often 
called  Aristarchi.  He  was  born  in  the 
island  of  Samothrace,  and  lived  at  Alex- 
andria, about  750  B.  c.  He  died  at  Cy- 
prus, aged  72. 

ARISTIDES  (a-ris-ti'dez) ,  a  states- 
man of  ancient  Greece,  for  his  strict  in- 
tegrity surnamed  "The  Just."  He  was 
one  of  the  10  generals  of  the  Athenians 
when  they  fought  with  the  Persians  at 
Marathon  B.  c.  490.  Next  year  he  was 
eponymous  archon,  and  enjoyed  such 
popularity  that  he  excited  the  jealousy 
of  Themistocles,  who  procured  his  ban- 
ishment about  483.  When  Xerxes  in- 
vaded Greece  with  a  large  army,  the 
Athenians  hastened  to  recall  him,  and 
Themistocles  now  admitted  him  to  his 
confidence  and  councils.  In  the  battle 
of  Plataea  (479)  he  commanded  the 
Athenians,  and  had  a  great  share  in 
gaining  the  victory.  He  died  at  an  ad- 
vanced age  about  B.  C.  468,  so  poor  that 
he  was  buried  at  the  public  expense. 

ARISTIPPUS  (ar-is-tip'us),  a  disciple 
of  Socrates,  and  founder  of  a  philosoph- 
ical school  among  the  Greeks,  which  was 
called  the  Cyrenaic,  from  his  native  city 
Cyrene,  in  Africa;  flourished  in  380  B.  C. 
His  moral  philosophy  differed  widely 
from  that  of  Socrates,  and  was  a  science 
of  refined  voluptuousness.  His  funda- 
mental principles  were — that  all  human 
sensations  may  be  reduced  to  two,  pleas- 
ure and  pain.  Pleasure  is  a  gentle,  and 
pain  a  violent  emotion.  All  living  beings 
seek  the  former,  and  avoid  the  latter. 
Happiness  is  nothing  but  a  continued 
pleasure,  composed  of  separate  gratifica- 
tions; and  as  it  is  the  object  of  all  hu- 
man exertions,  we  should  abstain  from 
no  kind  of  pleasure.  Still  we  should  al- 
ways be  governed  by  taste  and  reason  in 


our  enjoyments.  His  doctrines  were* 
taught  only  by  his  daughter  Arete,  and 
by  his  grandson  Aristippus  the  younger, 
by  whom  they  were  systematized.  Other 
Cyrenaics  compounded  them  into  a  par- 
ticular doctrine  of  pleasure,  and  are 
hence  called  Hedonici.  The  time  of  his 
death  is  unknown.    His  writings  are  lost. 

ARISTOBULUS  (ar-is-to-bu'lus),  name 
of  several  royal  personages  of  Judea: 
Aristobulus  I.,  son  of  John  Hyrcanus, 
high  priest  of  the  Jews;  from  105-104 
B.  c.  King  of  Judea.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  first  of  the  Hasmoneans  to 
take  the  title  of  king.  In  the  single 
year  of  his  reign  he  conquered  portions 
of  Iturea  and  Trachonitis,  and  compelled 
the  people  to  accept  Judaism.  Aristo- 
bulus II.,  son  of  Alexander  Jannsenus, 
was  named  as  high  priest  by  his  mother. 
Queen  Regent  Alexandra,  while  to  Hyr- 
canus II.,  his  elder  brother,  the  throne 
was  given.  In  a  contest  for  the  throne, 
he  was  defeated  by  Pompey  in  63  b.  C, 
and  carried  captive  to  Rome.  He  died 
about  30  B.  c.  Aristobulus  III.  was  the 
grandson  of  Hyrcanus  II.;  his  sister, 
Mariamne,  was  the  wife  of  Herod  I., 
who  appointed  him  high  priest,  but,  fear- 
ing his  popularity,  had  him  assassinated 
about  30  B.  c.  Aristobulus  III.  was  the 
last  male  of  the  Hasmonean  family. 

AmSTOCRACY,  a  form  of  govern- 
ment by  which  the  wealthy  and  noble, 
or  any  small  privileged  class,  rules  over 
the  rest  of  the  citizens;  now  mostly  ap- 
plied to  the  nobility  or  chief  persons  in 
a  state. 

ARISTOGEITON  (-gl'ton),  a  citizen 
of  Athens,  whose  name  is  rendered 
famous  by  a  conspiracy  (514  B.  C.) 
formed  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Harmodius  against  the  tyrants  Hippias 
and  Hipparchus,  the  sons  of  Pisistratus. 
Both  Aristogeiton  and  Harmodius  lost 
their  lives  through  their  attempts  to 
free  the  country  and  were  reckoned 
martyrs  of  liberty. 

ARISTOLOCHIA  (-lo'ke-a),  a  genus 
of  plants,  the  typical  one  of  the  order 
aristolochiacess,  or  birthworts.  They 
have  curiously  inflated  irregular  flowers, 
in  some  cases  of  large  size.  One  species, 
the  A.  clematis,  or  common  birthwort,  a 
plant  with  pale  yellow  tubular  flowers, 
swollen  at  the  base,  is  common  among 
old  ruins.  Most  of  the  aristolochias  are 
emmenagogue,  especially  the  European 
species,  A.  rotunda,  longa,  and  clematitis, 
and  the  Indian  A.  Indica;  the  last-named 
species  is  also  antarthritic.  A.  hracteata 
is  anthelmintic;  when  bruised  and  mixed 
with  castor-oil,  it  is  used  in  cases  of  ob- 


ARISTOLOCHIACE-ffiJ 


248 


ARISTOTELIANISM 


stinate  psora.  A.  odoratissima,  of  the 
West  Indies,  is  alexipharmic.  The  A. 
fragrantissima,  of  Peru,  is  given  in  dys- 
enteries, fevers,  rheumatism,  etc.;  A.  ser- 
pentaHa  (the  Virginian  snake  root),  be- 
sides being  given  in  the  worst  forms  of 
typhus  fever,  is  deemed  of  use  against 
snake-bite;  as  is  also  A.  trilobata. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE^  (ar-is-to-lo-ke- 
a'se-i),  an  order  of  plants  placed  by  Lind- 
ley  under  his  last  or  asaral  alliance  of 
perigynous  exogens.  It  has  hermaphro- 
dite flowers,  six  to  ten  epigynous  stamina, 
a  three  or  six  celled  inferior  ovary  and 
wood  without  concentric  zones.  There 
are  about  130  species.  Many  are  climb- 
ing plants.  In  their  qualities  they  are 
tonic   and   stimulating. 

ARISTOPHANES  (ar-is-tof 'gr-nes) , 
the  greatest  of  the  Greek  writers  of 
comedy  (b.  c.  448-385),  born  at  Athens. 
His  comedy,  "The  Knights,"  is  said  to 
have  been  put  on  the  stage  when  the  au- 
thor was  but  20  years  old.  Of  his  44  plays 
only  11  have  come  down  to  us.  These  are 
"The  Knights,"  "The  Clouds,"  "The 
Wasps,"  "The  Acharnians,"  "The  Peace," 
and  "The  Lyristrate,"  arguments  for  con- 
cord among  Grecian  states;  "The  Birds," 
a  satire  against  the  "Greater  Athens" 
idea;  "The  Thesmophoriazusae";  "The 
Frogs,"  directed  against  Euripides,  as  the 
cause  of  the  degeneration  of  dramatic 
art;  in  "The  Ecclesiazusse,"  or  "Ladies 
of  Parliament,"  he  reduces  to  absurdity 
the  overweening  expectation  of  the  right- 
ing of  all  wrongs  through  political  re- 
forms. Aristophanes  first  appeared  as 
a  poet  in  the  fourth  year  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (b.  C.  427),  and  his 
sarcasms  twice  brought  him  to  trial  on 
charges  of  having  unlawfully  assumed 
the  title  of  an  Athenian  citizen. 

ARISTOTLE  (ar'is-totl),  the  most  re- 
nowned of  Greek  philosophers,  born  at 
Stagira,  Macedonia,  384  B.  c;  was  for 
20  years  a  student  of  philosophy  in  the 
school  of  Plato  at  Athens,  but  at  the 
same  time  a  teacher.  After  Plato's  death, 
he  opened  a  school  of  philosophy  at  the 
court  of  Hermias,  King  of  Atarneus,  in 
Mysia,  whose  adopted  daughter  he  after- 
ward married.  At  the  invitation  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  he  undertook  the  edu- 
cation of  his  son,  Alexander.  When  Al- 
exander succeeded  to  the  throne,  the 
philosopher  returned  to  Athens  and 
opened  a  school  in  the  Lyceum.  From 
being  held  in  the  covered  walk  (peri- 
patos)  of  the  Lyceum,  the  school  ob- 
tained the  name  of  the  Peripatetic.  The 
number  of  his  .separate  treati.ses  is  given 
by  Diogenes  Laertius  as   146;   only  46 


separate  works  bearing  the  name  of  the 
philosopher  have  come  down  to  our  time. 
He  died  at  Chalcis,  Eubcea,  in  the  year 
322  B.  C. 


ARISTOTLE 

ARISTOTELIANISM,  or  PERIPA- 
TETICISM,  the  doctrine  of  philosophy  of 
Aristotle.  Aristotle  attempted  to  steer 
a  medium  course  between  the  ultraideal- 
ism  of  his  master  Plato,  and  the  low  sen- 
sationalism of  the  physical  school  of  Elea. 
His  genius  was  as  wide  as  nature.  He 
keenly  combated  the  ideal  theory  of  Plato, 
or  that  which  expounded  the  deity  as 
holding  in  himself  the  archetypal  ideas 
after  which  the  world  was  fashioned,  and 
which  it  was  the  business  of  reason  and 
science  to  discover.  But  while  denying 
these  ideas  of  his  master,  he  nevertheless 
agreed  with  him  in  the  view  that  knowl- 
edge contains  an  element  radically  dis- 
tinct from  sensation.  He  also  differed 
from  the  Eleatics  and  the  Epicureans, 
inasmuch  as  he  denied  that  sensation 
could  account  for  the  whole  of  knowledge; 
but  maintained,  with  them,  that  without 
this  sensation,  knowledge  would  be  im- 
possible. The  celebrated  maxim  that 
"there  is  nothing  in  the  intellect  which 
was  not  previously  in  the  sense,"  if  not 
Aristotle's,  at  least  well  expresses  a  side 
of  his  doctrine;  but,  when  he  insists  upon 
the  distinction  between  the  necessary  and 
the  contingent,  the  absolute  and  the  rela- 
tive, he  rises  altogether  above  the  sphere 
of  sensation,  and  takes  emphatically  his 
place  with  reason.  Philosophy,  according 
to  Aristotle,  is  properly  science  arising 
from  the  love  of  knowledge.    There  are 


AKiSTOTELIANISM 


249 


ARITHMETIC 


two  sorts  of  knowledge:  mediate,  and 
immediate.  From  immediate  knowledge, 
which  we  gain  through  the  experience  of 
particulars,  we  derive  mediate  knowledge, 
by  means  of  argumentation,  whose  theory 
it  is  the  office  of  logic  to  properly  ex- 
pound. Logic  is,  therefore,  the  instru- 
ment of  all  science;  but  only  quoad 
formam,  for  it  is  experience  which  sup- 
plies the  matter  to  be  worked  upon.  The 
formal  part  of  reasoning  he  accordingly 
expounds  better  than  any  man  either  be- 
fore or  since  his  time.  He,  indeed, 
created  logic,  and  this  system  stands  erect 
through  the  changes  of  centuries.  He 
most  profoundly  bases  his  logic  upon  the 
laws  of  contradiction,  and  he  even  rec- 
ognizes that  of  sufficient  reason  as  a  reg- 
ulative principle  in  the  evolution  of  truth. 
After  logic,  he  took  up  all  the  sciences, 
rational,  empirical,  and  mixed,  except  one 
alone,  viz.,  history. 

He  seems  to  have  divided  philosophy 
into  logic,  physics,  and  ethics,  or  into 
speculative  and  practical  knowledge,  (1) 
Speculative  philosophy  contemplates  the 
real  order  of  things,  -rrespective  of  hu- 
man control;  practical  philosophy  dis- 
cusses affairs  voluntary  and  accidental. 
Real  substances  are  either  invariable,  or 
variable;  while  sublunary  matters  are 
variable,  and  perishable;  the  deity  alone 
is  imperishable,  ".nc  unchangeable.  Do 
men  pursue  the  real  in  an  abstract  way? 
Then,  metaphysics  and  mathematics 
emerge.  Do  they  pursue  knowledge  as  to 
its  objects?  Then  physics,  cosmology, 
psychology,  theology  emerge.  (2)  Prac- 
tical philosophy  again  comprehends 
ethics,  politics,  and  economy.  A  word 
or  two  on  each  of  these  heads',  and  first 
,  of  speculative  philosophy. 

1.  Physics,  or  natural  philosophy.  Na- 
ture is  the  sum  of  all  existences,  which 
are  disclosed  to  us  by  our  perceptive 
faculties.  The  knowledge  of  nature  is 
properly  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
bodies  in  motion.  Nature,  cause,  ac- 
cident, end,  change,  infinitude,  space, 
time,  and  motion,  are  included  in  this 
science.  In  his  "Cosmology,"  Aristotle 
discusses  astronomy,  using  that  term  in 
its  widest  signification.  It  appears  to 
Us  modems  obscure  and  inconsistent,  and 
is  by  no  means  satisfactory.  Physiology 
is  indebted  to  Aristotle  for  its  first  essay. 
The  soul  is,  according  to  him,  the  active 
principle  of  organized  life.  It  is  distinct 
from  the  body,  yet,  considered  as  its  form 
or  entelechy,  it  is  inseparable  from  it. 
Its  faculties  are  production,  nutrition, 
sensation,  thought,  and  will  or  impulse. 

2.  The  ruling  idea  of  his  practical  phi- 
losophy was  that  of  a  sovereign  good,  and 
final  end  or  aim  of  action.     This  final 


end  he  denominated  happiness,  which  is 
the  result  of  the  perfect  energies  of  the 
soul,  and  is  the  highest  of  which  our 
nature  is  capable.  It  arises  from  the 
perfect  exercise  of  reason,  and  is  or- 
dinarily called  virtue.  This  he  describes 
as  the  mean  between  two  extremes,  which 
is  the  character  of  nearly  the  whole  of 
his  philosophy.  He  distinguishes  the 
moral  virtues  into  seven  cardinal  ones, 
of  which  justice,  in  a  sense,  embraces 
all  the  rest.  Under  the  head  of  right, 
he  distinguishes  that  belonging  to  a 
family  from  that  belonging  to  a  city.  A 
perfect  unity  of  plan  prevails  throughout 
his  morals,  politics  and  economics.  Both 
of  the  latter  have  for  their  object  to 
show  how  this  perfect  virtue,  already 
described,  may  be  attained  in  the  civil 
and  domestic  relationships,  through  a 
good  constitution  of  the  state  and  the 
household.  The  principle  of  the  science 
of  politics  is  expediency,  and  its  per- 
fection consists  of  suitableness  of  means 
to  the  end  proposed.  By  this  principle 
Aristotle  proves  the  legality  of  slavery; 
and  all  education  he  refers  to  the  ulti- 
mate end  of  political  society. 

ARISTOXENUS  (ar-is-tox'e-nus),  an 
ancient  Greek  musician  and  philosopher 
of  Tarentum,  born  about  B.  C.  324.  He 
studied  music  under  his  father  Mnesias, 
and  philosophy  under  Aristotle,  whose 
successor  he  aspired  to  be.  He  en- 
deavored to  apply  his  musical  knowledge 
to  philosophy,  and  especially  to  the 
science  of  mind.  We  have  a  work  on 
the  "Elements  of  Harmony"  by  him. 

ARITHMETIC.  Viewed  as  a  science, 
arithmetic  is  a  branch  of  mathematics; 
lookea  on  as  an  art,  its  object  is  to  carry 
out  for  practical  nurposes  certain  rules 
regarding  numbers,  without  troubling  it- 
self to  investigate  the  foundation  on 
which  those  rules  are  based. 

It  is  variously  divided,  as  into  integral 
and  fractional  arithmetic,  the  former 
treating  of  integers  and  the  latter  of 
fractions.  Integral  arithmetic  is  some- 
times called  vulgar  or  common  arithme- 
tic; and  from  fractional  arithmetic  is 
sometimes  separated  decimal  arithmetic, 
treating,  as  the  name  implies,  of  decimals. 
There  are  also  logarithmic  arithmetic  for 
computation  by  logarithms,  and  instru- 
mental arithmetic  for  calculation  by 
means  of  instruments  or  machines.  An- 
other division  is  into  theoretical  arith- 
metic, treating  of  the  science  of  numbers, 
and  practical  arithmetic,  which  points 
out  the  best  method  of  practically  work- 
ing questions  or  sums.  Political  arith- 
metic is  arithmetic  applied  to  political 
economy,  as  is  done  in  the  statistical  re- 


ARITHMETICAL   COMPLEMENT    250 


ARIZONA 


turns  so  continually  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment or  Congress.  Finally,  universal 
arithmetic  is  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  algebra.  The  chief  subjects  generally 
treated  under  the  science  or  art  of  arith- 
metic are:  (1)  numeration  and  notation; 
(2)  addition;  (3)  subtraction;  (4)  mul- 
tiplication; (5)  division;  (6)  reduction; 
(7)  compound  addition;  (8)  compound 
subtraction;  (9)  compound  multiplica- 
tion; (10)  compound  division;  (11) 
simple  proportion  (rule  of  three);  (12) 
compound  proportion;  (13)  vulgar  frac- 
tions; (14)  decimal  fractions;  (15) 
duodecimals;  (16)  involution;  (17)  evo- 
lution; (18)  ratios,  proportions,  and 
progressions;  (19)  fellowship  or  part- 
nership; (20)  simple  interest;  (21)  com- 
pound interest,  and  (22)  position.  Of 
these,  the  most  important  are  the  simple 
processes  of  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication and  division,  the  judicious  use 
of  which,  singly  or  in  combination,  will 
solve  the  most  complex  arithmetical 
questions. 

ARITHMETICAL  COMPLEMENT, 
that  which  a  number  wants  to  make  it 
reach  the  next  highest  decimal  denomi- 
nation. Thus  the  arithmetical  comple- 
ment of  4  is  6,  for  4  -h  6  are  =  10,  and 
that  of  642  is  358,  because  642  -t-  358  are 
=  1,000.  The  arithmetical  complement 
of  a  logarithm  is  what  it  wants  to  make 
it  reach  10. 

ARITHMETICAL  MEAN.  (1)  The 
number,  whether  it  be  an  integer  or  a 
fraction,  which  is  exactly  intermediate 
between  two  others.  Thus,  5  is  the  arith- 
metical mean  between  2  and  8 ;  for  2  -|-  8 
are  =  5,and  5  +  3are  =  8.  To  find  such  a 
mean  add  the  numbers  together  and  di- 
vide their  sum  by  2;  thus,  2+8=10,  and 
10-^2=5.  (2)  Any  one  of  several  num- 
bers in  an  arithmetical  ratio  interposed 
between  two  other  numbers.  Thus,  if 
6,  9  and  12  be  interposed  between  3  and 
15,  any  one  of  them  may  be  called  an 
arithmetical  mean  between  these  two 
numbers. 

ARITHMETICAL  PROGRESSION,  a 
series  of  numbers  increasing  or  diminish- 
ing uniformly  by  the  same  number.  If 
they  increase,  the  arithmetical  progres- 
sion is  said  to  be  ascending,  and  if  they 
decrease,  descending.  Thus  the  series  3, 
6,  9,  12,  15  is  an  ascending  arithmetical 
progression,  mounting  up  by  the  con- 
tinued addition  of  3;  and  the  series  8,  6, 
4,  2  is  a  descending  one,  falling  regular- 
ly by  2. 

ARITHMETICAL  PROPORTION,  the 

relation  existing  between  four  numbers, 
of  which  the  first  is  as  much  greater  or 
less  than  the  second  as  the  third  is  of 


the  fourth;  the  equality  of  two  differ- 
ences or  arithmetical  ratios.  In  such 
cases  the  sum  of  the  extremes  is=that 
of  the  means. 

ARI  THORGILSSON  (a-re  tor'gils- 
son),  the  father  of  Icelandic  literature 
(1067-1148).  He  was  the  first  Icelander 
to  use  his  mother  tongue  as  a  literary 
medium  in  writing  his  "Islendingabok," 
a  concise  history  of  Iceland  from  its 
settlement  (about  870)  until  1120.  This 
work  was  finished  between  1134  and  1138, 

ARIUS,  the  founder  of  Arianism.  See 
Arian. 

ARIZONA,  a  State  of  the  Western 
Division  of  the  North  American  Union, 
bounded  by  Nevada,  Utah,  New  Mexico, 
California  and  the  Mexican  State  of  So- 
nora;  gross  area,  113,870  square  miles; 
organized  Feb.  14,  1863;  pop.,  (1900) 
122,931;  (1910)  204,354;  (1920)  334,162. 
Capital,  Phoenix. 

Topography. — The  surface  in  general 
is  a  series  of  plateaus,  ranging  in  alti- 
tude from  80  to  7,500  feet  above  sea- 
level.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Northside, 
San  Francisco,  Blacky  Black  Mesa,  Gila, 
Dragon,  Santa  Ana,  Zuni,  Santa  Cata- 
rina,  MogoUon  and  Fenaleno  Mountains, 
with  peaks  stretching  to  an  extreme 
height  of  12,572  feet  (Humphrey  Peak). 
The  watercourses  are  the  Colorado  river 
and  its  tributaries,  the  Little  Colorado, 
Gila,  Zuni,  San  Juan,  and  several  smaller 
streams.  The  principal  rivers  pass 
through  canons  that  are  among  the 
greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  Dot- 
ting the  plains  are  enormous  mesas  or 
tablelands,  some  with  perpendicular 
sides  more  than  1,000  feet  high.  No  part 
of  the  world  has  so  rich  a  field  of  archseo- 
logical  and  ethnological  investigation  as 
Arizona.  Long-buried  dwellings  and  cit- 
ies, with  other  ruins  of  an  exceedingly 
ancient  people,  are  being  continually  dis- 
closed. 

Geology. — The  weird  canons  are  re- 
markable in  that  they  exhibit  all  the  geo- 
logical formations  of  North  America. 
Geologists  declare  that  the  Colorado 
river,  in  its  whole  course,  has  cut 
through  strata  representing  a  thickness 
of  25,000  feet,  and  exposed  the  grada- 
tions from  the  quarternary  alluvial  de- 
posits through  volcanic  alterations  to  the 
primary  azoic  rocks.  The  Grand  Caiion 
of  the  Colorado  alone  shows  upper  car- 
boniferous limestone,  cross-stratified 
sandstone,  red  calcareous  sandstone  with 
gypsum,  lower  carboniferous  limestone, 
shales,  grits,  Potsdam  sandstone  and 
granite   and    other   formations. 

Mineral  Production. — Arizona  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  mineral 
producing  States.     Its    most    important 


rl 


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ARIZONA 


251 


ARIZONA 


mineral  products  are  copper,  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  lead.  It  also  has  valuable  de- 
posits of  zinc,  coal,  iiickel,  graphite, 
tungsten,  and  other  metals.  The  copper 
production  has  increased  steadily  in  re- 
cent years.  The  smelter  output  in  1918 
was  769,522,729  pounds,  compared  with 
719,034,514  pounds  in  1917.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  copper,  Arizona  far  exceeds 
any  other  State.  The  gold  production 
in  1918  was  278,647  fine  ounces,  valued 
at  $5y760,200;  the  silver  production  was 
6,771,490  fine  ounces,  valued  at  $6,771,- 
490.  The  zinc  production  exceeds  in 
value  $2,000,000  annually.  The  value  of 
the  lead  produced  is  also  in  excess  of 
$2,000,000.  Gold  production  in  1919  was 
valued  at  $5,716,200.  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  products  of  the  State  in 
1917  was  $212,615,978. 

Soil. — Of  the  total  area,  embracing  over 
72,500,000  acres,  only  a  comparatively 
small  portion,  approximating  5,000,000 
acres,  is  arable  land,  and  of  this  part 
about  500,000  acres  are  under  irrigation 
and  highly  productive.  The  construction 
of  irrigating  canals  and  water  storage 
reservoirs  is  daily  adding  largely  to 
the  agricultural  area.  The  pine  timber 
land  covers  an  area  of  nearly  4,000,000 
acres. 

AgriGulture. — The  principal  crops  are 
wheat  and  hay.  Within  recent  years 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  beets,  date  palms, 
melons,  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and 
the  canaigre  plant,  used  in  tanning.  Al- 
monds, peanuts,  oranges,  lemons,  apri- 
cots, potatoes,  corn,  barley,  oats,  and  root 
products  generally  do  well  under  irriga- 
tion. The  production  and  value  of  the 
principal  crops  in  1919  were  as  follows: 
Corn,  1,287,000  bushels,  valued  at  $2,- 
574,000;  oats,  533,000  bushels,  valued  at 
$533,000;  barley,  1,102,000  bushels,  val- 
ued at  $1,543,000;  wheat,  1,204,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $2,709,000;  hay,  676,- 
000  tons,  valued  at  $13,520,000;  cotton, 
75,000  bales,  valued  at  $19,125,000. 

Manufactures.  —  Natural  conditions 
have  made  Arizona  more  of  a  mining 
and  agricultural  region  than  a  manufac- 
turing one.  The  chief  productions  were 
flour,  grist,  and  lumber  in  various  forms. 
In  1914  there  were  in  the  State  322  manu- 
facturing establishments,  employing  6,898 
wage  earners.  The  capital  invested  was 
$40,300,000;  wages  paid  amounted  to 
$6,229,000;  value  of  materials  used  was 
$39,283,000;  and  the  value  of  the  finished 
product  was  valued  at  $64,090,000. 

Education. — The  school  population  in 
1919  was  about  78,000.  There  were  en- 
rolled in  the  grammar  schools  63,714 
pupils  and  in  the  high  schools,  4,504.  The 
daily  attendance  in  the  grammar  schools 


was  38,139  and  in  the  high  schools, 
3,220.  There  were  1,702  teachers  in  the 
public  schools.  The  total  expenditure 
for  education  purposes  in  1919  was  $2,- 
973,339.  For  higher  instruction  there 
were  public  high  schools  at  Phoenix  and 
Prescott,  St.  Joseph's  Academy  at  Pres- 
cott,  a  public  normal  school  at  Tempe, 
and  the  University  of  Arizona  at  Tuc- 
son, opened  in  1891.  Schools  for  Indian 
youth  are  maintained  at  the  Colorado 
river.  Fort  Apache,  Navajo  and  San 
Carlos  agencies,  and  at  Phoenix,  Sacaton, 
Supai,  Hualapai,  and  Hackberry. 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions numerically  are  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic; Latter-Day  Saints;  Methodist  Epis- 
copal, South;  Baptist;  Presbyterian; 
Protestant  Episcopal;  and  Congrega- 
tional. 

Railroads. — The  railway  mileage  is 
about  2,500.  About  30  miles  of  new 
track  were  constructed  in  1919. 

Finances. — The  total  receipts  for  the 
fiscal  year  1919  were  $7,089,715,  and  the 
disbursements  $5,760,454.  There  was  a 
balance  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  $1,329,- 
260.  The  total  bonded  indebtedness  of 
the  State,  including  county  and  city  in- 
debtedness, in  1919  was  $2,996,275. 

Government. — Arizona  became  a  State 
as  a  result  of  the  passage  in  Jan.  20, 
1910,  of  an  Enabling  Act  which  author- 
ized the  election  of  delegates  for  the  con- 
stitutional convention.  This  election  was 
held  on  September  12,  1910.  The  Con- 
vention was  in  session  from  Oct.  15  to 
Dec.  10,  1910.  The  constitution  prepared 
by  this  body  was  extremely  radical,  in- 
cluding the  recall  of  judges,  initiative 
and  refei'endum,  and  other  provisions  of 
a  like  nature.  It  was  ratified  on  Feb. 
7,  1911,  by  a  vote  of  12,000  to  7,500. 
Congress,  as  a  result  of  action  on  the 
part  of  President  Taft,  passed  a  resolu- 
tion providing  for  the  admission  of  Ari- 
zona as  a  State  if  the  provision  for  the 
recall  of  judges  should  be  eliminated 
from  the  Constitution.  This  action  was 
eliminated  on  Dec.  12,  1911.  The  procla- 
mation formally  admitting  Arizona  to 
the  Union  as  a  State  was  signed  on  Feb. 
14,  1912.  At  the  first  election  held  on 
Dec.  12,  1911,  officers  and  members  to 
Congress  were  elected.  Democrats 
elected  all  the  officers.  An  amendment 
providing  for  woman  suffrage  was  cai*- 
ried  at  this  election  as  well  as  an  amend- 
ment to  the  constitution  restoring  the 
provision  for  the  recall  of  judges.  The 
Legislature  is  composed  of  19  members 
of  the  Senate  and  35  members  of  the 
House.  There  is  one  representative  in 
Congress.  The  Governor  is  elected  for 
a  term  of  four  years. 
History. — The  country  now  included  in 


ARIZONA,   UNIVERSITY  Or        252 


ARKANSAS 


Arizona  and  New  Mexico  was  partly 
explored  in  1539  by  Marco  de  Nizan,  in 
quest  of  the  precious  metals,  and  on  his 
report  Vasquez  de  Coronado  organized 
an  expedition  in  the  following  year  and 
visited  the  Moqui  villages  and  the  New 
Mexican  pueblos.  About  1596  the  first 
colony  was  established;  in  1680  the 
Spaniards  were  driven  out  of  the  coun- 
try; by  1695  they  had  recovered  nearly 
all  of  it,  and  by  1720  Jesuit  missionaries 
had  established  a  number  of  missions, 
ranches  and  mining  stations.  There  were 
serious  Indian  outbreaks  in  1802  and 
1827,  and  what  is  now  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  was  acquired  by  the  United 
States  by  treaties  in  1848  and  1853. 

ARIZONA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Tucson,  organ- 
ized in  1891,  reported  at  the  end  of  1919: 
Professors  and  instructors,  90;  students, 
968;  volumes  in  the  library,  32,000; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $85,000 ; 
productive  funds,  $10,500;  income,  $700,- 
000;  president,  Rufus  B.  Von  Kleinsmid, 
Ph.  D. 

ARJISH  DAGH  (ar'yesh-dach') ,  the 
loftiest  peak  of  the  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Anti-Taurus  Range,  13,150  feet;  an  ex- 
hausted volcano;  on  the^  N.  and  N.  E. 
slopes  are  extensive  glaciers. 

ARK,  a  chest  or  coffer  for  the  safe- 
keeping of  any  valuable  thing;  a  deposi- 
tory. The  large  floating  vessel  in  which 
Noah  and  his  family  were  preserved 
during  the  deluge. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  in  the  syna- 
gogue of  the  Jews,  was  the  chest  or 
vessel  in  which  the  tables  of  the  law 
were  preserved.  This  was  a  small  chest 
or  coffer,  three  feet  nine  inches  in  length, 
two  feet  three  inches  in  breadth  and  the 
same  in  height,  in  which  were  contained 
the  various  sacred  articles.  It  was  made 
of  shittim  wood,  overlaid  within  and 
without  with  gold  and  was  covered  with 
the  mercy  seat,  called  also  the  propitia- 
tory, as  the  Septuagint  expresses  it,  that 
is,  the  lid  or  cover  of  propitiation;  be- 
cause, in  the  typical  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, those  sins  which  are  forgiven  are 
said  to  be  covered. 

ARKANSAS,  a  State  in  the  South 
Central  Division  of  the  North  American 
Union;  bounded  by  Missouri,  Tennessee, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Okla- 
homa; gross  area,  53,850  square  miles; 
admitted  into  the  Union,  June  15,  1836; 
seceded,  March  4,  1861 ;  readmitted,  June 
22,  1868;  number  of  counties,  75:  pop. 
(1890)  1,128,179;  (1900)  1,311,564; 
(1910)  1,574,449;  (1S20)  1,752,204.  Cap- 
ital, Little  Rock. 


Topogmphy.  —  The  surface  presents 
the  features  of  mountains,  prairies,  hills, 
valleys  and  swamps.  The  Ozark,  Boston, 
Ouachita  and  other  ranges,  from  1,500  to 
2,000  feet  high,  occupy  the  W.  and  N.  W. 
parts,  with  numerous  spurs  and  outlying 
hills  of  considerable  altitude;  the  central 
part  is  rolling  ground;  and  the  E.  part 
is  low,  with  many  lakes  and  swamps  and 
is  liable  to  overflows  of  the  Mississippi. 
Drainage  is  by  the  Mississippi,  Arkan- 
sas, St.  Francis,  Black,  White,  Ouachita, 
Saline  and  Red  rivers.  Compensation 
for  the  absence  of  a  sea-coast  is  had  in 
the  navigability  of  long  stretches  of  the 
principal  rivers,  thus  permitting  a  valu- 
able water  traffic  with  adjoining  States. 

Geology. — The  upper  mountainous, 
forest  and  mineral  lands  may  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  lowlands  and  alluvial 
plains  by  a  line  drawn  across  the  State 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  The  principal  for- 
mations are  the  lower  Silurian  in  the  N.; 
the  sub-carboniferous  on  the  S.;  the  cre- 
taceous in  the  S.  W.,  and  the  tertiary, 
overlaid  by  quarternary  sands  and  clays. 
Hot  and  mineral  springs  are  numerous 
and  some  of  them  are  widely  known. 
The  valley  of  the  St.  Francis  in  the  N. 
E,  is  a  continuous  swamp  covered  with 
a  heavy  growth  of  cypress,  gum,  oak, 
hickory  and  sycamore,  while  in  the 
higher  land  there  is  an  abundance  of 
white  oak  and  hickory.  In  the  Arkansas 
valley  are  red  cedar,  Cottonwood,  maple 
and  several  varieties  of  oak.  Other  for- 
est growths  of  value  are  ash,  walnut, 
elm,  willow,  and  papaw. 

Mineralogy. — The  State  contains  semi- 
anthracite,  cannel,  and  bituminous  coal; 
iron  and  zinc  ores;  galena,  frequently 
bearing  silver;  manganese;  gypsum,  oil- 
stone of  superior  quality;  marble;  ala- 
baster; rock  crystal;  copper;  granite; 
kaolin;  marl;  mineral  ochers,  and  salt. 
The  State  is  an  important  producer  of 
coal  and  of  bauxite,  the  mineral  from 
which  aluminum  is  extracted.  Other 
minerals  produced  in  considerable  quanr- 
tities  are  lime,  manganese,  natural  gas, 
lead,  and  zinc.  The  coal  production  in 
1917  was  2,228,000  long  tons.  The  pro- 
duction of  zinc  is  valued  at  $1,500,000 
annually.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
products  in  1917  was  $12,061,702. 

Soil. — The  soil  varies  with  the  geo- 
logical characteristics  and  surface  condi- 
tions already  described.  Agriculturally, 
the  most  valuable  soil  is  found  in  the 
river  bottom-lands,  and  as  the  surface 
rises  from  these  bottoms  the  soil  becomes 
less  productive.  There  are  large  sub- 
merged tracts  that  only  require  proper 
drainage  to  make  them  valuable  to  the 
farmer.  The  uplands  generally  are  well 
timbered  and  well  watered. 


ABKANSAS 


253      ARKANSAS,   UNIVERSITY  OF 


Agriculture. — The  production  and  the 
value  of  the  principal  crops  in  1919  were 
as  follows:  Corn,  48,726,000  bushels, 
valued  at  $79,911,000;  oats,  9,240,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $8,131,000;  wheat, 
3,230,000  bushels,  valued  at  $6,525,000; 
rice,  6,162,000  bushels,  valued  at  $14,- 
789,000;  hay,  770,000  tons,  valued  at 
$15,785,000;  cotton,  830,000  bales,  valued 
at  $151,060,000;  potatoes,  3,321,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $6,808,000;  sweet  po- 
tatoes, 4,600,000  bushels,  valued  at  $5,- 
201,000.  Of  farm  and  ranch  animals  the 
most  numerous  are  swine  and  cattle. 

Manufactures. — There  were  in  1914 
2,604  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  41,979  wage  earners.  The  capital 
invested  was  $77,162,000;  the  amount 
paid  in  wages,  $20,752,000;  the  value  of 
materials  used,  $44,907,000;  and  the 
value    of    finished    product,    $83,940,000. 

Banking. — In  1919  there  were  78  Na- 
tional banks  in  operation,  having  $5,557,- 
000  in  capital  and  $3,437,220  in  out- 
standing circulation.  There  were  also 
386  State  banks,  with  $14,062,000  in 
capital,  $101,896,000  in  deposits,  and 
$145,181,000  in  resources. 

Education. — Conditions  have  never 
been  favorable  in  Arkansas  for  educa- 
tional development  owing  to  the  large 
percentage  of  negro  population.  There 
is  a  compulsory  education  law,  but  sev- 
eral counties  are  exempted  from  its  pro- 
visions. Enrollment  in  the  public  schools 
is  about  450,000  and  the  average  daily 
attendance  about  300,000.  There  are 
about  11,000  teachers.  The  expenditure 
for  public  schools  is  between  $4,000,000 
and  $5,000,000  annually.  In  1917  the 
Legislature  passed  measures  providing 
for  aid  for  the  establishment  of  rural 
high  schools. 

The  principal  universities  and  colleges 
are  Arkansas  College,  Hendrix  College, 
Ouachita  College,  Arkansas  Cumberland 
College,  University  op  Arkansas  {q.y.). 

Churches. — The  strongest  denomina- 
tions numerically  in  the  State  are  the 
Methodist  Episcopal,  South;  Regular 
Baptist,  Colored;  Regular  Baptist, 
South;  African  Methodist  Episcopal; 
Disciples  of  Christ;  and  the  Methodist 
Episcopal. 

Railroads. — The  total  railway  mile- 
age of  the  State  is  5,400.  There  has 
been  little  new  construction  in  recent 
years. 

Finances. — The  assessed  realty  valua- 
tion in  1919  was  $359,436,376.  The 
State  debt  was  $2,008,166.  The  internal 
revenue  receipts  amounted  to  $7,515,009. 

State  Government. — The  Governor  is 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  Legisla- 
tive sessions  are  held  biennially,  and  are 
limited  to  60  days  each.     The  Legisla- 


ture has  35  members  in  the  Senate  and 
100  in  the  House.  There  are  7  represen- 
tatives in  Congress.  In  politics  the  State 
is   strongly    Democratic. 

History. — This  portion  of  the  original 
Territory  of  Louisiana,  named  after  a 
tribe  of  Indians  found  there  by  the 
earliest  explorers  of  record,  was  first 
settled  by  the  French  in  1670.  It  became 
a  part  of  Louisiana  Territory  in  1803,  of 
Missouri  Territory  in  1812;  was  organ- 
ized as  Arkansas  Territory,  with  the 
present  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma 
Territory  in  1819;  and  was  detached 
from  Indian  Territory  and  created  a 
State  in  1836.  It  was  settled  almost  ex- 
clusively by  people  from  the  Southern 
States,  and  early  became  a  battle  ground 
in  the  Civil  War.  Following  the  seizure 
of  Federal  arsenals  by  the  State  authori- 
ties after  the  State  had  seceded,  came 
the  defeat  of  the  Confederates  in  the 
battle  at  Pea  Ridge,  May  6-7,  1862,  and 
in  that  of  Prairie  Grove,  or  Fayetteville, 
Dec.  7  following;  the  occupation  by  the 
Union  forces  of  Helena;  and  the  capture 
of  Arkansas  Post  by  a  combined  Union 
military  and  naval  force,  Jan.  11,  1863, 
and  of  Little  Rock,  Sept.  10,  following. 
The  State  was  under  military  control  in 
1864-1868  and  adopted  its  present  Con- 
stitution in  1874. 

ARKANSAS  CITY,  a  city  of  Kansas, 
in  Cowley  co.  It  is  on  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Missouri  Pacific, 
the  Kansas  Southwestern,  the  Midland 
Valley,  and  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Fran- 
cisco railroads.  The  city  has  an  Indian 
school,  a  training  college,  a  library,  and 
other  public  buildings.  A  canal  connect- 
ing  the  Arkansas  and  Walnut  rivers 
furnishes  water  power  for  manufactur- 
ing. It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
agricultural  and  stock-raising  commu- 
nity, and  also  has  manufactures  of  lum- 
ber, carriages,  and  creamery  products. 
Fop.  (1910)  7,518;  (1920)  11,253. 

ARKANSAS  RIVER,  a  tributary  of 
the  Mississippi,  rising  in  central  Colo- 
rado and  flowing  E.  into  Kansas.  It  then 
flows  S.  E.  across  Oklahoma  and  diag- 
onally across  Arkansas.  It  is  about 
2,000  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  to 
Wichita,  Kan.,  a  distance  of  about  650 
miles. 

ARKANSAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  co- 
educational institution  organized  in  1872, 
with  academic  and  technical  departments 
in  Fayetteville,  law  and  medical  depart- 
ments in  Little  Rock,  and  normal  school 
for  colored  students  in  Pine  Bluff;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  90;  students,  720;  presi- 
dent, John  Clinton  Farrell. 


ARKONA 


254 


ABM 


ARKONA,  the  N.  E.  promontory  of  the 
island  of  Riigen,  in  the  Baltic. 

ARKWRIGHT,    SIR   RICHARD,    an 

English  inventor,  born  at  Preston,  in 
Lancashire,  in  1732.  The  youngest  of  13 
children,  he  was  bred  to  the  trade  of  a 
barbel'.  When  about  35  years  of  age 
he  gave  himself  up  exclusively  to  the 
subject  of  inventions  for  spinning  cot- 
ton. The  thread  spun  by  Hargreaves' 
jenny  could  not  be  used  except  as  w^eft, 
being  destitute  of  the  firmness  or  hard- 
ness required  in  the  longitudinal  threads 
or  warp.  But  Arkwright  supplied  this 
deficiency  by  the  invention  of  the  spin- 
i.ing  frame,  which  spins  a  vast  number 
of  threads  of  any  degree  of  fineness  and 
hardness,  leaving  the  operator  merely 
to  feed  the  machine  with  the  cotton  and 
to  join  the  threads  when  they  happen  to 
break.  His  invention  introduced  the 
system  of  spinning  by  rollers,  the  card- 
ing, or  roving,  as  it  is  technically  termed 
(that  is,  the  soft,  loose  strip  of  cotton), 
passing  through  one  pair  of  rollers,  and 
being  received  by  a  second  pair,  which 
are  made  to  revolve  with  (as  the  case 
may  be)  three,  four,  or  five  times  the 
velocity  of  the  first  pair.  By  this  con- 
trivance the  roving  is  drawn  out  into  a 
thread  of  the  desired  degree  of  tenuity 
and  hardness.  Having  taken  as  part- 
ners two  men  of  means,  Arkwright  erect- 
ed his  first  mill  at  Nottingham  and  took 
out  a  patent  for  spinning  by  rollers  in 
1769.  As  the  mode  of  working  the  ma- 
chinery by  horse  power  was  found  too 
expensive,  he  built  a  second  factory  on 
a  much  larger  scale  at  Cromford,  in 
Derbyshire,  in  1771,  the  machinery  of 
which  was  turned  by  a  water-wheel. 
Having  made  several  additional  discov- 
eries and  improvements,  he  took  out  a 
fresh  patent  for  the  whole  in  1775,  and 
thus  completed  a  series  of  the  most  inge- 
nious and  complicated  machinery.  Not- 
withstanding a  series  of  lawsuits  in  de- 
fense of  his  patent  rights,  and  the  de- 
struction of  his  property  by  mobs,  he 
amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  was  knight- 
ed by  George  III.,  in  1786,  and  died  in 
1792. 

ARLES  (arl),  a  city  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  on  the 
Rhone,  44  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Marseilles. 
It  is  principally  notable  as  having  been 
an  important  town  when  Gaul  was  inva- 
ded by  Caesar.  It  afterward  became  a  Ro- 
man colony,  and  was  long  a  rich  and  pros- 
perous city.  The  Roman  amphitheater, 
capable  of  accommodating  30,000  spec- 
tators, yet  remains  noble  in  its  ruins.  The 
great  obelisk,  and  innumerable  artistic 
remains,  attest  the  former  magnificence 


of  this  city.  The  Emperor  Constantino 
embellished  Aries,  and  his  son  Constan- 
tine  II.  was  born  here.  In  855  it  became 
the  capital  of  the  Arletan  kingdom, 
which  was,  in  933,  united  to  that  of  Bur- 
gundy.    Pop.  about  17,500. 

ARLINGTON,  a  town  of  Massachusetts 
in  Middlesex  co.,  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  railroad.  It  is  about  6  miles 
N.  W.  of  Boston  and  is  practically  a  sub- 
urb of  that  city.  It  has  important  manu- 
factures of  piano  cases  and  machinery. 
Truck  farming  is  also  carried  on  exten- 
sively. The  town  has  a  public  library, 
hospital,  and  other  public  buildings.  It 
was  settled  in  1650.  Pop.  (1910)  11,187; 
(1920)   18,665. 

ARLINGTON  HEIGHTS,  a  range  of 
hills  in  Fairfax  co.,  Va.,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, opposite  Washington.  They  were 
strongly  fortified  during  the  Civil  War. 
Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee  had  a  residence  here. 
The  place  is  now  the  site  of  a  National 
Soldiers'  Cemetery. 

ARLISS,  GEORGE,  an  English  actor, 
born  in  London  in  1868.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  that  city  and  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  in  1887.  In 
1901  he  toured  America  with  Mrs.  Pat- 
rick Campbell,  and  in  the  following 
year  played  with  Blanche  Bates.  He  was 
later  leading  man  for  Mrs.  Fiske.  He 
made  a  great  success  in  the  title  roles  of 
"  The  Devil  "  and  of  "Disraeli."  He  was 
successful  also  in  the  play  "Hamilton," 
1917. 

ARM,  the  upper  limb  in  man,  con- 
nected with  the  thorax  or  chest  by  means 
of  the  scapula  or  shoulder-blade,  and  the 
clavicle  or  collar-bone.  It  consists  of 
three  bones,  the  arm-bone  (humerus), 
and  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  (ra- 
dius and  ulna),  and  it  is  connected  with 
the  bones  of  the  hand  by  the  carpus  or 
wrist.  The  head  or  upper  end  of  the 
arm-bone  fits  into  the  hollow  called  the 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula,  so  as  to 
form  a  joint  of  the  ball-and-socket  kind, 
allowing  great  freedom  of  movement  to 
the  limb.  The  lower  end  of  the  humer- 
us is  broadened  out  by  a  projection  on 
both  the  outer  and  inner  sides  (the  outer 
and  inner  condyles),  and  has  a  pulley- 
like surface  for  articulating  with  the 
fore-arm  to  form  the  elbow- joint.  This 
joint  somewhat  resembles  a  hinge,  allow- 
ing of  movement  only  in  one  direction. 
The  ulna  is  the  inner  of  the  two  bones 
of  the  fore-arm.  It  is  largest  at  the 
upper  end,  where  it  has  two  processes, 
the  coronoid  and  the  olecranon,  with  a 
deep  groove  between  to  receive  the  hu- 
merus. The  radius — the  outer  of  the 
two  bones — is   small  at  the  upper   and 


ABMADA 


255 


ABMATXJIIE 


expanded  at  the  lower  end,  where  it 
forms  part  of  the  wrist-joint.  The  mus- 
cles of  the  upper  arm  are  either  flexors 
or  extensors,  the  former  serving  to  bend 
the  arm,  the  latter  to  straighten  it  by 
means  of  the  elbow-joint.  The  main  flex- 
or is  the  biceps,  the  large  muscle  which 
may  be  seen  standing  out  in  front  of  the 
arm  when  a  weight  is  raised.  The  chief 
opposing  muscle  of  the  biceps  is  the  tri- 
ceps. The  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  are, 
besides  flexors  and  extensors,  pronators 
and  supinators,  the  former  turning  the 
hand  palm  downward,  the  latter  turning 
it  upward.  The  same  fundamental  plan 
of  structure  exists  in  the  limbs  of  all  ver- 
tebrate animals. 

ARMADA,  a  fleet  of  armed  ships;  a 
squadron;  particularly  applied  to  that 
great  naval  armament,  which  was  called 
the  Invincible  Armada,  fitted  out  in 
1588,  by  Philip  II.,  against  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. It  consisted  of  129  ships,  carrying 
about  20,000  soldiers  and  8,000  sailors. 
The  loss  of  the  Marquis  of  Santa  Cruz, 
their  admiral,  and  a  violent  tempest,  the 
day  after  they  sailed,  retarded  for  some 
time  the  operations  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  arrived  on  the  coast  of  the  Nether- 
lands in  July,  were  thrown  into  disorder 
by  a  stratagem  of  Lord  Howard,  and  in 
this  situation  were  attacked  with  such 
impetuosity  that  it  became  necessary  to 
attempt  to  return.  Contrary  winds 
obliged  the  Spanish  admiral,  the  Duke 
of  Medina  Sidonia,  to  make  the  circuit 
of  Great  Britain  with  the  wreck  of  this 
magnificent  armament.  In  passing  the 
Orkneys,  it  was  attacked  by  a  violent 
storm,  and  only  a  feeble  remnant  re- 
turned to  Spain. 

ARMADILLO,  the  Spanish-American 
name  now  imported  into  English,  of  va- 
rious mammalia  belonging  to  the  order 
edentata,  the  family  dasypodidse,  and  its 
typical  genus  dasypus.  The  name  arma- 
dillo, implying  that  they  are  in  armor, 
is  applied  to  these  animals  because  the 
upper  part  of  their  body  is  covered  with 
large,  strong  scales  or  plates,  forming  a 
helmet  for  their  head,  a  buckler  for  their 
shoulders,  transverse  bands  for  their 
back,  and  in  some  species  a  series  of 
rings  for  the  protection  of  their  tail.  The 
fore  feet  are  admirably  adapted  for  dig- 
ging, and  the  animal,  when  it  sees  dan- 
ger, can  extemporize  a  hole  and  vanish 
into  it  with  wonderful  rapidity.  If  ac- 
tually captured,  it  rolls  itself  into  a  ball, 
withdrawing  its  head  and  feet  under  its 
strong  armor.  There  are  several  species 
— such  as  the  great  armadillo,  or  tatu 
(dasypus  gigas),  the  three-banded  ar- 
madillo,  or  apara    (D.   apar),   the   six- 


banded  armadillo  (D.  sexcinctus),  and 
the  hairy  armadillo  (D.  villostis).  They 
feed  chiefly  on  ants  and  other  insects 


ARMADILLO 


and  worms,  and  are  peculiar  to   South 
America. 

It  is  also  the  name  of  a  genus  of  crus- 
taceans belonging  to  the  order  isopoda, 
and  the  family  oniscidx,  the  type  of 
which  is  the  well-known  wood-louse.  It 
is  so  called  partly  from  its  being  covered 
with  a  certain  feeble  kind  of  armor;  but 
chiefly  from  its  rolling  itself  up  into  a 
ball  after  the  fashion  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican mammalian  armadillos. 

ARMAGEDDON  (-ged'don),  the  great 
battlefield  of  the  Old  Testament,  where 
the  chief  conflicts  took  place  between  the 
Israelites  and  their  enemies — the  table- 
land of  Esdraelon  in  Galilee  and  Samaria, 
in  the  center  of  which  stood  the  town 
Megiddo,  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Lej- 
jun;  used  figuratively  in  the  Apocalypse 
to  signify  the  place  of  "the  battle  of  the 
great  day  of  God." 

ARMAGH  (ar-ma'),  a  city,  and  capi- 
ital  of  Armagh  co.,  Ireland;  and  the 
archiepiscopal  seat  of  the  Primate  of  all 
Ireland;  70  miles  N.  W.  of  Dublin.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Patrick, 
A.  D.  450.     Pop.  about  7,000. 

ARMATURE,  armor  worn  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  body,  or,  more  frequently, 
the  armor  in  which  some  animals  are 
enveloped  for  their  protection  against 
their  natural  foes. 

In  magnetism,  the  armatures,  called 
also  the  keepers,  of  a  magnetic  bar  are 
pieces  of  soft  iron  placed  in  contact  with 
its  poles.  These,  by  being  acted  on  in- 
ductively, become  magnets,  and,  reacting 
in  their  turn,  not  merely  preserve,  but 
even  increase,  the  magnetism  of  the 
original  bar.  Magnets  thus  provided  are 
said  to  be  armed.  Sometimes  an  arma- 
ture is  made  of  steel  and  is  permanently 
magnetized.  Such  an  armature  is  termed 
a  polai'ized  armature,  and  is  used  in 
various  appliances,  magneto  generators, 
telegraphic  instruments,  etc.  In  dyn- 
amic electricity,  the  armature  is  the 
shaft   or   central   revolving  arm   of  an 


ARMED  NEUTRALITY 


256 


ARMENIA 


electric  generator,  by  the  movement  of 
which  the  current  is  generated. 

In  electricity  (a)  the  internal  and  ex- 
ternal armatures,  or  coatings  of  a  Ley- 
den  jar,  and  the  coatings  of  tinfoil  on  its 
interior,  and  part  of  its  exterior,  sur- 
face; (b)  Siemens'  armature  or  bobbin, 
an  armature  designed  for  magneto-elec- 
trical machines,  in  which  the  insulated 
wire  is  wound  longitudinally  on  the 
core,  instead  of  transversely,  as  is  the 
ordinary  arrangement. 

In  architecture,  iron  bars,  employed 
for  the  consolidation  of  a  building. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY,  the  condition 
of  affairs  when  a  nation  assumes  a 
threatening  position,  and  maintains  an 
armed  force  to  repel  any  aggression  on 
the  part  of  belligerent  nations  between 
which  it  is  neutral.  This  condition  pre- 
vailed between  the  United  States  and 
Germany  for  several  weeks  in  1917,  prior 
to  the  declaration  of  war  on  April  6. 

ARMENIA,  a  mountainous  country  of 
western  Asia,  of  great  historical  interest, 
as  the  original  seat  of  one  of  the  oldest 
civilized  peoples  in  the  world.  It  was 
shared  until  the  World  War  of  1914-1918 
between  Turkey,  Persia,  and  Russia.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  137,000  square 
miles,  and  is  intersected  by  the  Euphra- 
tes, which  divides  it  into  the  ancient  di- 
visions, Armenia  Major  and  Armenia 
Minor. 

Topography. — The  country  is  an  ele- 
vated plateau,  inclosed  on  several  sides 
by  the  ranges  of  Taurus  and  Anti-Tau- 
rus, and  partly  occupied  by  other  moun- 
tains, the  loftiest  of  which  is  Ararat. 
Several  important  rivers  take  their  rise 
in  Armenia,  namely,  the  Kur  or  Cyrus, 
and  its  tributary  the  Aras  or  Araxes, 
flowing  E.  to  the  Caspian  Sea;  the  Halys 
or  Kizil-Irmak,  flowing  N.  to  the  Black 
Sea;  and  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
which  flow  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
chief  lakes  are  Van  and  Urumiyah.  The 
climate  is  rather  severe.  The  soil  is  on 
the  whole  productive,  though  in  many 
places  it  would  be  quite  barren  were  it 
not  for  the  great  care  taken  to  irrigate 
it.  Wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  hemp,  grapes, 
and  cotton  are  raised;  and  in  some  of 
the  valleys  apricots,  peaches,  mulberries, 
and  walnuts  are  grown. 

People. — The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
of  the  genuine  Armenian  stock,  a  branch 
of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race. 
The  total  number  of  Armenians  is  esti- 
mated at  3,000,000.  Almost  one  half  of 
these,  previous  to  the  World  War,  lived 
in  Transcaucasia,  about  650,000  in  Turk- 
ish Armenia,  about  500,000  in  what  was 
formerly  European  Turkey,  about  600,- 


000  in  Asiatic  Turkey  outside  of  Arme- 
nia, about  100,000  in  Persia,  and  about 
15,000  in  Hungaria,  Transylvania  and 
Galicia.  In  the  last  15  years  Armenian 
emigration  to  the  United  States  has 
been  considerable,  almost  10,000  coming 
in  in  1913,  the  year  before  the  World 
War.  Thirty-nine  times  the  Armenians 
by  force  of  arms  have  won  the  indepen- 
dence of  their  country,  only  to  lose  it 
again.  During  the  period  the  Turks  were 
in  control  of  the  country  everything  pos- 
sible was  done  to  destroy  the  military 
spirit  of  the  people.  The  Armenians 
were  not  allowed  to  bear  arms,  being 
compelled  instead  to  pay  a  tax  or  indem- 
nity to  the  Turks.  This  was  only  one  of 
the  many  taxes  levied  upon  them,  the 
total  reaching  a  large  and  almost  crush- 
ing amount.  In  the  collection  of  these 
taxes  the  Turks  were  cruelly  ingenious. 

Langioage. — The  Armenian  language 
belongs  to  the  Indo-European  family  of 
languages,  and  is  most  closely  connected 
with  the  Iranic  group.  The  old  Armenian 
or  Haikan  language,  which  is  still  the 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  language,  is 
distinguished  from  the  new  Armenian, 
the  ordinary  spoken  language,  which  con- 
tains a  large  intermixture  of  Persian 
and  Turkish  elements. 

Religious  Belief. — The  Armenians  re- 
ceived Christianity  as  early  as  the  2d 
century.  During  the  Monophysitic  dis- 
putes they  held  with  those  who  rejected 
the  twofold  nature  of  Christ,  and,  being 
dissatisfied  with  the  decisions  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  they  sepa- 
rated from  the  Greek  Church  in  536.  The 
Popes  have  at  diflferent  times  attempted 
to  gain  them  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  There  are  small  numbers  here 
and  there  of  United  Armenians,  who  ac- 
knowledge the  spiritual  supremacy  of 
the  Pope,  agree  in  their  doctrines  with 
the  Catholics,  but  retain  their  peculiar 
ceremonies  and  discipline.  But  the  far 
greater  part  are  yet  Monophysites,  and 
have  remained  faithful  to  their  old  reli- 
gion and  worship.  Their  doctrine  differs 
from  the  orthodox  chiefly  in  their  ad- 
mitting only  one  nature  in  Christ,  and 
believing  the  Holy  Spirit  to  proceed 
from  the  Father  alone. 

History. — Little  is  known  of  the  early 
history  of  Armenia,  but  it  was  a  separate 
state  as  early  as  the  8th  century  b.  C., 
when  it  became  subject  to  Assyria,  as  it 
also  did  subsequently  to  the  Medes  and 
the  Persians.  It  was  conquered  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  325  B.  C,  but  regained 
its  independence  about  190  B.  C.  Its 
King  Tigranes,  son-in-law  of  the  cele- 
brated Mithridates,  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans    under    LucuUus    and    Pompey 


ARMENIAN  MASSACRES 


257 


ARMENIAN  MASSACRES 


about  69-66  B.  C,  but  was  left  on  the 
throne.  Since  then  its  fortunes  have 
been  various  under  the  Romans,  Parthi- 
ans,  Byzantine  emperors,  Persians,  Sara- 
cens, Turks,  etc.  A  considerable  portion 
of  it  was  acquired  by  Russia  in  the  19th 
century,  part  of  this  in  1878. 

Within  recent  years  thousands  of  Ar- 
menians have  been  massacred  or  have 
perished  of  starvation.  In  1894-1896  they 
suffered  terrible  atrocities  in  the  Sasun 
district.  The  Great  Powers  forced  the 
Sultan  to  accept  a  scheme  of  reforms. 
In  spite  of  the  Sultan's  acquiescence  the 
atrocities  broke  out  afresh  in  1895,  and 
lasted  till  the  spring  of  1896.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1896  the  persecutions  recom- 
menced and  terrible  massacres  occurred 
at  Harpoot  and  Egin.  It  is  estimated 
that  over  80,000  people  perished  in  the 
various  outbreaks.  In  Harpoot  the  fury 
of  the  mob  seemed  to  be  directed  against 
the  American  and  English  mission  sta- 
tions. Several  American  missionaries 
were  killed.    See  Armenian  Massacres. 

After  Turkey  entered  the  European 
War  of  1914-1918,  a  systematic  extermi- 
nation of  the  Armenian  people  was 
started.  The  American  Committee  for 
Armenian  Relief  reported  in  1916  that 
between  600,000  and  850,000  Armenians 
were  killed  or  perished  from  privations. 

In  1920  the  Great  Powers  in  the 
League  of  Nations  offered  the  United 
States  the  mandate  of  the  Armenian 
Republic,  but  it  was  declined.  See  Ar- 
menian Republic. 

ARMENIAN  MASSACRES.  Shortly 
after  the  oubreak  of  the  war  Turkish 
so-called  "patriotic"  societies  began  to 
send  threatening  letters  to  the  Armenian 
press  in  Constantinople.  Bands  of  Turk- 
ish "nationalists"  were  at  this  time  go- 
ing nightly  through  the  Armenian  quar- 
tier  of  Constantinople  making  threats  of 
death  upon  the  doors  of  houses,  churches 
and  schools.  Shortly  after  the  Young 
Turk  Government  made  a  definite  at- 
tempt to  win  the  Armenians  over  to  the 
side  of  the  Central  Powers,  whose  cause 
they  had  espoused;  but  one  leading  au- 
thority at  least  believes  that  even  then 
their  ultimate  destruction  had  been  de- 
termined upon — was  indeed  a  foregone 
conclusion  with  so  good  a  pretext  as  the 
outbreak  of  a  general  war.  The  Young 
Turks  started  their  oppression  of  the  Ar- 
menians of  Turkey  by  "requisitioning" 
their  property  recklessly,  and  by  send- 
ing exclusive  battalions  to  the  most  ex- 
posed French  and  British  fronts.  The 
Turks  now  felt  that  they  had  a  free 
course.  The  restraining  hand  of  Europe 
was  no  longer  upon  them.  Indeed  they 
had  the  countenance  of  Germany,  whom 


they  believed  to  be  invincible.  The  Ar- 
menians as  a  people  were  in  many  cases 
armed  and  the  government's  first  step 
was  to  make  them  defenseless.  The 
program  they  decided  upon  was  to  mur- 
der all  the  Armenian  soldiery  every- 
where at  one  blow — at  the  same  time 
to  decoy  and  murder  the  Armenian  lead- 
ers— and  finally  to  fall  on  the  popula- 
tion. In  less  than  a  year  the  program 
had  been  carried  out  to  the  eternal  shame 
of  the  Ottoman  Government  and  the  hor- 
ror of  civilization.  The  Armenians  of 
Turkey  to  the  number  of  about  a  million, 
old  and  young,  rich  and  poor,  and  of  both 
sexes,  had  been  collectively  drowned, 
burned,  bayonetted,  starved,  bastinadoed 
or  otherwise  tortured  to  death,  or  else 
deported  on  foot  penniless  and  without 
food,  to  the  burning  Arabian  deserts. 

Lord  Bryce  in  his  report  to  the  House 
of  Lords,  Oct.  6,  1915,  said :  "The  whole 
Armenian  population  of  each  town  or 
village  was  cleaned  out  by  a  house-to- 
house  search.  Every  inmate  was  driven 
into  the  street.  Some  of  the  men  were 
thrown  into  prison,  where  they  were  put 
to  death,  sometimes  with  torture;  the 
rest  of  the  men  with  the  women  and 
children  were  marched  out  of  the  town. 
When  they  had  got  some  little  distance 
they  were  separated,  the  men  being  taken 
to  some  place  among  the  hills  where  the 
soldiers,  or  the  Kurdish  tribes  who  were 
called  to  help  in  the  work  of  slaughter, 
despatched  them  by  shooting  or  bayonet- 
ing; the  women  or  children,  and  old  men 
were  sent  off  under  convoy  of  the  lowest 
kind  of  soldiers  —  many  of  them  just 
drawn  from  gaols,  to  their  distant  desti- 
nation which  was  sometimes  one  of  the 
unhealthy  districts  in  the  center  of  Asia 
Minor,  but  more  frequently  the  large 
desert  in  the  province  of  Der-El-Lor, 
which  lies  east  of  Aleppo,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Euphrates.  They  were  driven 
along  by  the  soldiers  day  after  day,  all 
on  foot,  beaten  or  left  behind  to  perish 
if  they  could  not  keep  up  with  the  cara- 
van; many  fell  by  the  way,  and  many 
died  of  hunger.  No  provisions  were  given 
them  by  the  Turkish  Government,  and 
they  had  already  been  robbed  of  every- 
thing they  possessed.  Not  a  few  of  the 
women  were  stripped  naked  and  made  to 
travel  in  that  condition  beneath  a  burn- 
ing sun.  Some  of  the  mothers  went  mad, 
and  threw  away  their  children,  being 
unable  to  carry  them  further.  The  cara- 
van route  was  marked  by  a  line  of 
corpses,  and  comparatively  few  seem  to 
have  arrived  at  their  destination — 
chosen,  no  doubt,  because  return  was  im- 
possible and  because  there  was  little 
prospect  that  any  would  survive  their 
hardships."    Before  the  deportations  be- 


ABMENIAN  MASSACBE3 


258 


ARMENTIEBES 


gan,  many  Armenian  women  were  seized 
by  Turkish  officers  and  officials  for  their 
harems.  Others  were  sold  in  the  slave- 
market  to  Moslem  purchasers  only.  Boys 
and  girls  in  large  numbers  were  also 
sold  as  slaves,  sometimes  for  as  low  as 
two  or  three  dollars.  Other  boys  were 
delivered  to  the  dervishes  to  be  made 
Mussulmans.  Some  idea  of  the  thorough 
and  remorseless  fashion  of  carrying  out 
the  massacres  may  be  obtained  from 
the  instance  of  Trebizond.  Here  the  Ar- 
menian residents  were  hunted  out  from 
house  to  house  and  driven  in  a  great 
crowd  down  the  streets  to  the  sea.  Here 
they  were  all  put  aboard  sailing-boats, 
carried  out  into  deep  water  and  thrown 
overboard  and  drowned.  Almost  the  en- 
tire population  of  Trebizond,  numbering 
nearly  10,000  souls,  was  wiped  out.  Ab- 
solutely fiendish  methods  were  employed 
on  occasion.  At  Kouroukhan,  in  the 
search  for  arms,  one  man  was  shod  like 
a  horse,  and  another  done  to  death  by 
placing  a  red-hot  iron  crown  on  his  head. 
The  treatment  of  the  women  was  un- 
speakable. At  Sivas,  the  terminus  of  the 
Anatolian  railway  to  Erzerum,  the  sol- 
diers like  famished  wolves  consumed 
everything  they  found,  and  they  out- 
raged every  woman  they  saw.  In  the 
last  week  of  June  and  early  in  July  the 
massacres  began  on  a  large  scale 
throughout  the  province.  All  the  male 
adult  population  were  led  away  from 
their  women  and  herded  together  into 
camps  or  prisons,  and  then  massacred  in 
small  batches  in  some  neighboring  val- 
ley. At  Mattepe,  an  hour's  ride  east  of 
Sivas,  20  Armenian  officials  in  the  Gov- 
ernment service  were  hacked  to  pieces. 
At  Hubash,  east  of  Sivas,  3,800  Arme- 
nians of  the  neighborhood  were  pole-axed, 
bayonetted,  or  stoned  in  blood-curdling 
circumstances.  At  Cotni,  a  village  con- 
taining 120  Armenian  families,  bands  of 
criminals  just  released  from  prison  glo- 
ried in  the  exploit  of  having  killed  every 
male  above  twelve,  and  outraged  every 
female  above  the  same  age.  The  women 
of  Malatia  were  stripped  naked,  and 
amil  the  jibes  and  jeers  of  the  rabble 
were  led  on  their  way  into  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  desert.  Many  of  these  unfortu- 
nate women  actually  went  mad;  others 
employed  painful  means  to  end  their 
lives.  Throughout  the  province  of  Sivas 
150,000  Armenians  were  killed  or  de- 
ported— the  latter  being  equivalent  to 
massacre,  as  hardly  any  escaped  death 
by  starvation. 

From  May  to  October  of  1915,  the 
Turkish  Government  steadily  pursued  its 
program  of  extermination.  A  general 
order  for  deportation  of  every  Armenian 
to  Mesopotamia  was  sent  to  every  prov- 


ince in  Asia  Minor,  and  no  exceptions 
were  made  for  the  aged,  the  ill  or  even 
women  in  pregnancy.  Only  the  rich  and 
the  best-looking  women  and  girls  were 
allowed  the  opportunity  to  accept  Islam- 
ism — and  very  few  of  them  did  so. 

The  time  given  to  depart  was  two  to 
six  hours,  and  nothing  but  food  and  bed- 
ding was  to  be  taken  along,  and  only 
so  much  as  each  person  could  carry.  The 
journey  consumed  from  three  to  eight 
weeks,  and  very  few  survived  it. 

When  they  passed  through  Christian 
villages  where  the  deportation  order  had 
not  yet  been  received,  the  travelers  were 
not  allowed  to  receive  food  or  ministra- 
tions of  any  sort.  The  sick  and  the  aged 
and  the  children  fell  by  the  roadside  and 
did  not  rise  again. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  two  hundred 
thousand  of  the  Armenian  population 
managed  to  escape  to  the  Caucasian  bor- 
ders and  took  refuge  under  the  standard 
of  Russia. 

Lord  Bryce  estimated  that  four-fifths 
of  the  entire  nation  had  been  wiped  out, 
and  added,  "there  is  no  case  in  history, 
certainly  not  since  the  time  of  Tamer- 
lane, in  which  any  crime  so  hideous  and 
upon  so  large  a  scale  has  been  recorded. 
The  Armenian  atrocities  have  been  called 
'the  blackest  page  of  modern  history.*  '* 

A  final  report  of  the  Armenian  and 
Syrian  Relief  Committee,  published  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1915,  showed  thou- 
sands dying  in  the  concentration  camps 
along  the  Euphrates  chiefly  of  starva- 
tion. 

ARMENIAN  REPUBLIC.  The  Turk- 
ish peace  treaty  handed  to  the  Ottoman 
delegates  in  Paris  May  11,  1920,  had  as 
one  of  its  conditions  the  recognition  by 
Turkey  of  Armenia  as  a  free  and  inde- 
pendent state.  It  was  also  stipulated 
that  Turkey  should  consent  to  accept  the 
arbitration  of  President  Wilson  as  to  the 
frontier  in  the  provinces  of  Erzerum, 
Trebizond,  Van,  and  Bitlis,  and  to  the  ac- 
cess of  Armenia  to  the  sea.  The  de  facto 
existence  of  the  Armenian  Republic  had 
already  been  recognized  by  the  Supreme 
Council  of  the  Allies,  in  January,  1920, 
and  by  the  United  States  in  April  of  the 
same  year.  The  Republic,  whose  exist- 
ence had  been  self-proclaimed  in  May, 
1918,  is  governed  by  a  Parliament  and 
by  a  Cabinet  of  six  ministers,  one  of 
whom  acts  as  Minister-President.  The 
latter  post  was  held  in  1920  by  Al  Kha- 
tissian,  who  had  been  formerly  Mayor  of 
Tiflis  under  Russian  control. 

ARMENTIERES,  a  town  of  the  de- 
partment Nord,  France,  on  the  river  Lys, 
near  the  Belgian  frontier  and  about  ten 
miles  west-northwest  of  the  gn^eat  manu- 


ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD 


259 


ARMINIANISM 


facturing  center  of  Lille.  Its  population 
previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  was  28,620.  It  had  important  in- 
dustries in  woolen  cloth,  linen,  calicoes, 
Jace,  thread,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  Brick- 
making  was  extensively  carried  on.  Ar- 
mentieres  was  occupied  by  the  Germans 
in  the  course  of  their  first  invasion  in 
1914,  and  all  through  the  conflict  it  was 
in  the  zone  of  the  fighting.  It  was  the 
scene  of  terrific  conflicts  during  the  re- 
treat of  the  British  in  the  great  German 
drive  in  the  spring  of  1918.  When  at 
leng^th  the  tide  of  battle  turned  and  the 
Germans  were  driven  back  in  defeat, 
the  town  was  a  desolate  and  ghastly 
ruin. 

ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  con- 
dition of  the  great  powers  following  the 
World  War  wrought  an  entirely  differ- 
ent status  in  the  composition  and  forma- 
tion of  their  armies.  While  there  was  a 
strong  effort  to  incorporate  in  the  cov- 
enant of  the  League  of  Nations  provi- 
sions providing  for  practical  disarma- 
ment, it  was  found  impossible  to  bring 
about  this  result,  and  the  victorious  na- 
tions were  left  practically  free  to  raise 
and  equip  armies,  although  the  general 
principle  was  enunciated  that  the  League 
had  some  sort  of  control  which  would 
prevent  the  creation  of  armies  beyond 
the  size  required  for  national  protec- 
tion. 

The  composition  and  organization  of 
the  army  of  the  United  States  is  de- 
scribed under  the  title  Military  Organi- 
zation OF  THE  United  States.  Follow- 
ing the  close  of  hostilities  the  army  of 
Great  Britain  was  demobilized  until  it 
reached  about  1,200,000  men,  which  in- 
cluded about  200,000  volunteer  regulars. 
These  were  distributed  in  Germany, 
India,  and  in  the  various  British  pos- 
sessions. Following  the  ratification  of 
peace,  the  army  of  the  Rhine  was  re- 
duced from  ten  to  two  divisions.  The 
total  reductions  were  about  600,000.  The 
regular  army  of  Great  Britain  was  then 
composed  of  about  250,000  men.  It  was 
stated  by  British  war  officials  that  the 
size  of  the  army  would  remain  practi- 
cally the  same  as  before  the  begrinning 
of  the  World  War. 

By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace, 
the  strength  of  the  German  army  was 
established  at  a  maximum  of  100,000 
men.  Disturbances  in  Germany,  how- 
ever, in  1919  and  1920  called  for  a  much 
larger  military  establishment.  This  was 
made  up  of  various  reserve  forces,  some 
of  which  were  used  as  police  in  the  vari- 
ous cities.  It  was  estimated  on  Jan. 
1,  1920,  that  the  German  armed  forces 
amounted  to  nearly  1,000,000  men,  com- 

18— Vol.  I— Cyc 


posed  of  400,000  regulars,  12,000  troops 
of  the  navy,  50,000  armed  constabulary, 
from  150,000  to  200,000  temporary  volun- 
teers,  and  from  300,000  to  400,000  civic 
guards.    See  Germany. 

While  universal  service  was  still  main- 
tained in  France  following  the  World 
War,  its  burdens  were  considerably  lifted. 
It  was  proposed  to  reduce  the  army  to  a 
strength  of  350,000  men,  of  whom  200,- 
000  were  men  doing  compulsory  service, 
50,000  long-service  men,  50,000  colonial 
troops,  and  50,000  commissioned  and 
non-commissioned  officers.  Conditions  in 
Germany  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe 
made  it  impossible  to  carry  out  this  plan 
in  1920,  so  that  a  much  larger  force  was 
maintained  during  that  year  than  was 
provided  for  by  these  plans. 

From  the  conditions  in  Russia  prevail- 
ing in  1919  and  1920  it  was  impossible 
to  arrive  at  any  satisfactory  estimate  as 
to  the  size  or  composition  of  its  armies. 
In  Austria  the  army  had  practically 
ceased  to  exist.  In  the  other  countries 
of  Europe  the  unsettled  conditions  made 
it  necessary  to  maintain  comparatively 
large  armies.  This  was  especially  true 
in  Poland,  where  active  hostilities  were 
carried  on  with  Russia,  and,  in  Italy, 
where  disturbances  threatened  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulties  in  settling  the 
boundaries. 

The  composition  and  strength  of  the 
armies  in  the  other  important  countries 
of  the  world  will  be  found  in  the  articles 
on  those  countries. 

ARMILLARY  SPHERE,  an  astro- 
nomical instrument  consisting  of  an  ar- 
rangement of  rings,  all  circles  of  one 
sphere,  intended  to  represent  the  princi- 
pal circles  of  the  celestial  globe,  the 
rings  standing  for  the  meridian  of  the 
station,  the  ecliptic,  the  tropics,  the 
Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  circles,  etc.,  in 
their  relative  positions.  Its  main  use  is 
to  give  a  representation  of  the  apparent 
motions  of  the  solar  system. 

ARMINIANISM,  the  doctrine  of  Ar- 
minius,  a  Protestant  divine,  who  main- 
tained that  God  had  predestinated  the 
salvation  or  condemnation  of  individuals 
only  from  having  foreseen  who  would 
and  who  would  not  accept  of  offered 
mercy.  After  the  death  of  Arminius 
his  followers  rapidly  increased,  and  were 
vehemently  attacked  by  the  Calvinists. 
In  1610,  they  addressed  a  petition  to  the 
states  of  Holland  for  protection,  from 
which  they  got  the  name  of  Remon- 
strants. The  Calvinists  put  forth  a 
counter  remonstrance,  and,  in  1614,  the 
states  issued  an  edict  granting  full  tol- 
eration to  both  parties.  This  displeased 
the  Calvinists,  who  continued  their  per- 


ARMINIANISM 


260 


ARMINIX7S 


seeutions,  and  at  length,  in  1619,  the 
doctrines  of  the  Arminians  were  con- 
demned by  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  their 
clergy  were  driven  from  their  churches, 
and  forbidden  the  exercise  of  their  min- 


dwindled  to  a  small  body,  but  their 
tenets,  especially  regarding  predestina- 
tion, have  been  adopted  by  various  other 
denominations,  as  the  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dists. 


GERMAN  TERRITORY 
OCCUPIED  BY  ALLIES 
AND  AMERICAN  TROOPS 
UNDER  ARMISTICE  TERMS 

^>^^;y/^  OCCUP/ED  G£/^MAN 
-^^^^^^    TERRITORY 
r^yy><>i^    QQUfjpfyl^YUN£Of 
"  6MILE N£UTf?fiL  ZO/^£ 

UNITS  0F30MILE 
D£MIUTfiRIZ£D  AR£A 

iCAL£  OF  MILES 


OCCUPATION    OF   GERMANY  UNDER  TERMS  OF  THE  ARMISTICE 


istry  in  public.  Owing  to  this  step,  many 
left  the  country,  and  found  refuge  in 
France,  England,  and  other  places.  After 
1630  the  Arminians  were  again  tolerated 
in  Holland;  but  from  that  time,  their 
opinicus  underwent  a  considerable 
change.  They  chiefly  build  on  the  neces- 
sity of  moral  duties  and  good  works, 
and  allow  each  one  to  interpret  the  Holy 
Scriptures  for  himself.     The  Arminians 


ARMINIUS,  or  HERMANN,  who  by 
his  intrepidity  and  success  acquired  the 
title  of  "the  Deliverer  of  Germany,"  was 
son  of  Segimer,  a  chief  of  Cherusci.  Hav- 
ing been  sent  to  Rome  as  a  hostage, 
he  was  there  educated,  served  in  the 
Roman  army  and  for  his  valor  was 
raised  to  citizenship  and  knighted.  But 
his  attachment  to  his  native  country  in- 
duced him  to  revolt  and  he  became  one 


ARMINIUS 


261 


ARMOR 


of  the  most  powerful  leaders  of  the  dis- 
contented German  nations.  He  drew 
Varus,  the  Roman  commander  on  the 
Rhine,  into  that  ambuscade  in  which  he 
and  nearly  all  his  troops  were  slain, 
and  completely  baffled  Germanicus;  but, 
after  having  for  years  withstood  the  vast 
power  of  Rome,  Arminius  was  assassi- 
nated by  one  of  his  own  countrymen,  in 
the  37th  year  of  his  age,  A.  D.  19. 


tween  two  countries,  the  latter,  limited 
to  particular  places,  as  between  two 
armies  or  between  a  besieged  fortress 
and  its  assailants.  The  former  ordina- 
rily requires  ratification,  but  the  latter 
is  in  the  power  of  the  commanders  of 
the  respective  troops.    See  World  War. 

ARMOR,  a  word  formerly  applied  to 
all  such  contrivances  as  served  to  defend 


HEAVY  BLACK  LlNe'f§ 
afiiTTLE   LINE    ON 
ARMI5TIC£  DA^ 
NOV.  II.  I ^18 


THE   BATTLE   LINE  ON   ARMISTICE   DAY,    NOV.    11,    1918. 


ARMINIUS,  JACOBUS,  a  Protestant 
divine,  born  at  Oudewater,  Holland,  1560, 
founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Arminians.  In 
his  public  and  private  life  Arminius  has 
been  admired  for  his  moderation.  A  life 
of  perpetual  labor  and  vexation  of  mind 
shortened  his  days  and  he  died  in  1609. 

ARMISTICE,  the  term  given  to  a  truce 
or  suspension  of  hostilities  between  two 
armies  or  nations  at  war,  by  mutual  con- 
sent. It  sometimes  occurs  owing  to  the 
exhaustion  of  both  parties;  at  other 
times  it  is  had  recourse  to  with  a  view 
to  arrange  terms  of  peace.  It  may  be 
either  general  or  partial;  the  former,  be- 


the  body  from  wounds  or  to  annoy  the 
enemy.  Hence  it  was  divided  into  two 
kinds,  defensive  and  offensive.  A  com- 
plete suit  of  defensive  armor  anciently 
consisted  of  a  casque  or  helm,  a  gorget, 
cuirass,  gauntlets,  tasses,  brassets, 
cuishes  and  covers  for  the  legs,  to  which 
the  spurs  were  fastened.  This  was 
called  armor  cap-a-pie,  and  was  worn  by 
cavaliers  and  men-at-arms.  The  in- 
fantry had  only  part  of  it,  viz.,  a  pot  or 
head-piece,  a  cuirass  and  tasses;  all  of 
them  made  light.  The  horses  had  ar- 
mor which  covered  the  head  and  neck. 
Of  all  this  equipment  of  war  scarcely 
anything  is   now  retained  except,  in   a 


AEMOBED  TRAIN 


262 


ARMORED  TRAIN 


few  cases,  the  cuirass.  One  of  the  few 
picturesque  features  of  the  World  War 
was  the  revival  of  the  use  of  armor  in 
other  protective  devices  of  metal. 


a  locomotive  with  boiler  plate  and 
equipped  cars,  similarly  protected,  with 
field  guns  and  put  them  to  effective  prac- 
tical use.  But  the  germ  of  the  idea  goes 
back  further  than  1882.  When  the  Ger- 
mans closed  their  vise-like  grip  upon 
Paris,  the  French  made  frequent  sorties 
from  the  city,  and  in  many  of  these  at- 
tacks the  guns  were  mounted  on  rail- 
road cars  protected  at  vital  points  by 


ITALIAN   ARMOR,    1460 

The  word  is  applied  to  the  metal  pro- 
tection given  to  ships  of  war,  usually 
the  employment  of  steel  helmets,  and 
consisting  of  super-carbonized  steel  or 
nickel  steel.     See  Armor  Plates. 

ARMORED  TRAIN,  one  of  the  modern 
instruments  of  war.  Credit  has  been 
given  to  Admiral  Fisher  of  the  British 
navy  for  the  first  use  of  the  armored 
train  in  war,  when,  in  1882,  he  covered 


ENGLISH  armor  OF   THE   16TH   CENTURY 

steel  plates.  Great  Britain  employed  ar- 
mored trains  in  the  Boer  War  which 
served  as  a  model  for  all  others  that  fol- 
lowed. 

The  protected  engine  carries  a  Maxim 
gun,  and  the  protected  cars  have  heavy 
field  guns,  operated  by  machinery,  so 
that  any  part  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
try can  quickly  be  covered.  Arrange- 
ments are  made  to  compensate  for  the 
recoil,  and  also  to  give  steadiness  and 


ARMOR-PIERCING   SHELLS 


263 


ARMOR  PLATES 


stability  to  the  cars.  This  latter  is 
accomplished  by  an  arrangement  for 
clamping  the  truck  to  the  rails  by  strong 
screw  clips  whenever  the  gun  is  fired. 
There  are  also  several  steel-plated  vans 
accompanying  the  train,  in  which  horses 
and  soldiers  can  be  safely  conveyed. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  train  can 
change  its  base  of  action  renders  it  a 
difficult  object  for  the  batteries  of  an 
enemy  to  hit,  and  almost  the  only  way 


but  a  capped  ball  moving  at  the  rate  of 
2,500  feet  pierced  it.  A  Harveyized  plate 
has  been  pierced  to  the  depth  of  14 
inches  by  a  six-inch  projectile. 

Steel,  though  costlier  than  chilled  iron, 
for  projectiles  is  in  every  way  superior. 
Chilled  iron  shells  often  break  up  be- 
fore the  charge  explodes.  The  steel- 
shell  casing,  moreover,  because  it  can 
be  rolled  thinner,  can  carry  a  much 
heavier  charge. 


ARMORED  TRAIN 


to  defeat  its  operations  is  to  wreck  or 
derail  it;  then  it  becomes  a  helpless  tar- 
get for  long-range  guns. 

Probably  the  first  attempt  in  the 
United  States  to  provide  an  armored 
car  was  that  made  by  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral Railroad  Company,  on  the  order  of 
the  American  Express  Company,  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  valuable  arti- 
cles carried  on  its  special  express  trains. 
These  armored  or  "arsenal  cars"  were 
so  constructed  as  to  make  the  center  of 
them  with  its  steel  plating  a  thoroughly 
bullet-proof  room,  with  apertures  so  dis- 
posed as  to  enable  the  guards  within  to 
resist  an  attack  by  thieves  from  any 
quarter. 

During  the  remarkable  dash  of  the 
American  troops  in  the  Philippines  into 
the  northern  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon, 
in  search  of  the  fugitive  insurgent  leader 
Aguinaldo,  in  1899,  much  effective  work 
was  accomplished  by  an  improvised 
armored  train.  In  the  World  War  ar- 
mored trains  were  used  on  a  limited 
scale. 

ARMOR-PIERCING  SHELLS,  pro- 
jectiles so  constructed  as  to  bore  through 
the  metallic  plates  with  which  modern 
ships  of  war  are  coated,  It  has  been 
stated  as  an  axiom  that  any  armor-plate 
which  may  be  carried  on  a  ship  may 
be  penetrated.  A  Ki'uppized  plate,  eight 
inches  thick,  resisted  a  shell  striking  it 
with  a  velocity  of  2,300  feet  a  second. 


ARMOR  PLATES,  slabs  of  metal  with 
which  the  sides  of  war  vessels  are  cov- 
ered for  the  purpose  of  rendering  them 
shot-proof.  The  idea  of  using  slabs  of 
iron  or  steel  for  protection  against  mis- 
siles is  not  a  recent  invention.  The  first 
attempt  to  use  armor-plate  on  the  sides 
of  ships  was  made  by  John  Stevens,  of 
Hoboken,  in  1812.  He  built  a  vessel 
shaped  somewhat  similar  to  the  later 
vessels  of  the  "Monitor"  type,  and 
sheathed  it  along  the  water  line  with 
laminated  iron  plates.  His  vessel  was 
offered  to  the  United  States  Government 
but  was  not  accepted.  The  French  were 
the  first  to  adopt  armor-plating.  In  1854 
they  sent  floating  batteries  to  the  Black 
Sea,  sheathed  with  4%  inches  of  lami- 
nated iron,  which  was  proof  against  the 
fire  of  the  68-pounders,  then  the  most 
powerful  guns.  The  British  admiralty, 
following  this  example,  sent  out  very 
slow  and  unmanageable  iron-clad  batter- 
ies in  1855-1856.  These  batteries  pro- 
tected the  ships  very  well  against  round 
balls  from  the  unrifled  cannon  of  the 
day.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War  that  armor-plating  came 
into  general  use.  The  Confederate  ram 
"Merrimac"  was  the  first  practical  ar- 
mor-plated vessel  in  the  United  States, 
her  sheathing  consisting  of  railroad  raite. 
Her  successful  opponent,  the  "Monitor," 
was  heavily  sheathed  with  laminated 
iron  plates  extending  several  feet  be- 
low the  water  line. 


ARMORY 


264 


Harvey  introduced  the  process  of  car- 
bonizing the  face  of  armor -plate,  great- 
ly increasing  its  hardness.  The  plate, 
having  been  placed  in  a  furnace,  is  cov- 
ered with  a  layer  of  carbonizing  mate- 
rial about  a  foot  thick,  over  which  is 
laid  a  covering  of  brick  to  exclude  the 
flame  and  air  from  the  carbonizing  mate- 
rial. The  doors  of  the  furnace  are 
bricked  up  and  a  high  heat  maintained 
for  about  100  hours.  The  plate  is  re- 
moved and  its  surface  cleared  when  cold, 
it  is  then  reheated,  and  sprayed  with  cold 
water,  producing  an  exceedingly  hard 
surface.  This  Harveyized  steel  was  used 
for  nearly  all  the  American  and  foreign 
men-of-war,  until,  in  1895,  a  process  was 
discovered  at  the  iron  works  of  Krupp, 
at  Essen,  by  which  the  face  of  the  plate 
was  n\ade  so  hard  that  it  cut  glass  like 
a  diamond,  while  the  back  remained  so 
tough  that  it  would  suffer  no  injury  from 
cracks  when  struck  by  a  projectile.  The 
Krupp  process  is  somewhat  similar  to, 
and  an  improvement  on,  the  Harvey 
process. 

A  Harveyized  plate  has  been  pierced 
to  a  depth  of  14  inches  by  a  6-inch  soft- 
capped  projectile,  so  that  the  cap  showed 
on  the  back.  The  Krupp  armor  is  per- 
forated, but  not  cracked,  by  a  projectile 
with  a  velocity  exceeding  2,500  feet  per 
second.  The  Harvey  plate  is  cracked  but 
rarely  perforated  at  a  velocity  of  less 
than  2,000  feet  per  second.  The  projec- 
tiles used  for  testing  purposes  vary  from 
100  pounds  to  850  pounds  in  weight. 

ARMORY,  a  building  used  for  the 
housing,  assembling,  and  drilling  of 
troops,  for  the  storage  of  arms  and 
equipment,  or  for  purposes  of  defense. 
In  the  United  States  the  term  is  gener- 
ally employed  in  speaking  of  local  head- 
quarters of  the  National  Guard. 

ARMOUR,   JONATHAN  OGDEN,   an 

American  capitalist,  born  in  Milwaukee 
in  1863.  He  studied  at  Yale,  but  with- 
out having  completed  his  course,  he  en- 
tered the  meat-packing  business  of  his 
father,  Philip  D.  Armour,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  became  head  of  the 
firm  of  Armour  &  Co.  In  this  capacity 
he  came  in  constant  conflict  with  com- 
mittees appointed  to  investigate  the 
meat-packing  business,  from  1914  to 
1920.  He  strongly  defended  the  course 
of  the  meat  packers  throughout  the  war 
m  newspapers  and  periodicals.  He 
wrote  "The  Packers  and  the  People" 
(1906). 

ARMOTTR,  PHILIP  DANFORTH,  an 

American  merchant  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  May  16, 
1832;  received  a  common  school  educa- 


FOSB 


ARMOR-PIERCING  SHELL 


ARMOUR  INSTITUTE 


265 


ARMSTRONG 


tion;  was  a  miner  in  California  in  1852- 
1856;  in  the  commission  business  in  Mil- 
waukee in  1856-1863;  and  later  became 
the  head  of  a  large  meat-packing  con- 
cern in  Chicago.  He  founded  the  Ar- 
mour Mission  and  the  Armour  Institute 
of  Technology,  both  in  Chicago;  the  for- 
mer at  a  cost  of  about  $250,000,  and  the 
latter  with  an  endowment  of  $1,500,000, 
subsequently  increased.  He  died  Jan.  6, 
1901. 

ARMOUR  INSTITUTE  OF  TECH- 
NOLOGY, a  coeducational  (non-secta- 
rian) institution,  founded  in  Chicago,  111., 
by  Philip  D.  Armour,  in  1893;  reported 
in  1919:  Professors,  67;  students,  615; 
graduates,  1,216;  president,  F.  W.  Gun- 
saulus,  D.  D. 

ARMS,  a  term  applied  to  weapons  of 
offense,  which  are  divisible  into  two 
distinct  sections — firearms,  and  arms 
used  without  gunpowder  or  other  explo- 
sive substance.  The  first  arms  of  of- 
fense would  probably  be  wooden  clubs, 
then  would  follow  wooden  weapons  made 
more  deadly  by  means  of  stone  or  bone, 
stone  axes,  slings,  bows  and  arrows, 
with  heads  of  flint  or  bone,  and  after- 
ward various  weapons  of  bronze.  Sub- 
sequently a  variety  of  arms  of  iron  and 
steel  were  introduced,  which  comprised 
the  sword,  javelin,  pike,  spear  or  lance, 
dagger,  axe,  mace,  chariot  scythe,  etc.; 
with  a  rude  artillery  consisting  of  cata- 
pults, ballistae,  and  battering-rams.  The 
most  characteristic  weapon  of  the  Ro- 
man legionary  soldier  was  the  pilum, 
which  was  a  kind  of  pike  or  javelin, 
some  6  feet  or  more  in  lengfth.  The  pilum 
was  sometimes  used  at  close  quarters, 
but  more  commonly  it  was  thrown.  The 
favorite  weapons  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
manic races  were  the  battle-axe,  the 
lance,  or  dart,  and  the  sword.  The 
weapons  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were 
spears,  axes,  swords,  knives,  and  maces 
or  clubs.  The  Normans  had  similar 
weaponsj  and  were  well  furnished  with 
archers  and  cavalry.  The  cross-bow  was 
a  comparatively  late  invention  intro- 
duced by  the  Normans.  Gunpowder  was 
not  used  in  Europe  to  discharge  projec- 
tiles till  the  beginning  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Cannon  are  first  mentioned  in  Eng- 
land in  1338,  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that  they  were  used  by  the  English 
at  the  siege  of  Cambrai  in  1339.  Tlie 
projectiles  first  used  for  cannon  were 
of  stone.  Hand  firearms  date  from 
the  15th  century.  At  first  they  required 
two  men  to  serve  them,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  rest  the  muzzle  on  a  stand  in 
aiming  and  firing.  The  first  improve- 
ment was  the  invention  of  the  match- 
lock, about  1476;  this  was  followed  by 


the  wheel-lock,  and  about  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century  by  the  flint-lock,  which 
was  in  universal  use  until  it  was  super- 
seded by  the  percussion-lock,  the  inven- 
tion of  a  Scotch  clergyman  early  in  the 
19th  century.  The  needle-gun  dates 
from  1827.  The  only  important  weapon 
not  a  firearm  that  has  been  invented 
since  the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  is 
the  bayonet,  which  is  believed  to  have 
been  invented  about  1650.  The  principal 
weapons  used  in  modern  warfare  will 
be  found  under  their  respective  names. 

ARMS,  COAT  OF,  or  ARMORIAL 
BEARINGS,  a  collective  name  for  the  de- 
vices borne  on  shields,  banners,  etc.,  as 
marks  the  dignity  and  distinction,  and, 
in  the  case  of  family  and  feudal  arms, 
descending  from  father  to  son.  They 
were  first  employed  by  the  crusaders, 
and  became  hereditary  in  families  at  the 
close  of  the  12th  century.  They  took 
their  rise  from  the  knights  painting  their 
banners  or  shields  each  with  a  figure  or 
figures  proper  to  himself,  to  enable  him 
to  be  distinguished  in  battle  when  clad 
in  armor. 

ARMSTRONG,  JOHN,  an  American 
author  and  soldier,  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa., 
Nov.  25,  1758;  served  in  the  War  of  the 
Revolution  on  the  staff  of  General  Gates; 
was  United  States  Minister  to  France, 
1804-1810,  afterward  to  Spain;  and  Sec- 
retary of  War,  1813-1814.  Author  of 
"Newburg  Letters,"  begun  in  camp, 
1783,  anonymously,  and  intended  to 
arouse  Congress  to  redress  army  griev- 
ances. He  also  wrote  "Notices  of  the 
War  of  1812"  (1836).  He  died  at  Red 
Hook,  N.  Y.,  April  1,  1843. 

ARMSTRONG,  SAMUEL  CHAPMAN, 
an  American  educator,  born  in  Hawaii 
in  1839,  a  son  of  Richard  Armstrong,  an 
American  missionary  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  In  1860  he  came  to  the  United 
States;  in  1862  was  graduated  at  Wil- 
liams College;  and  in  June  of  the  same 
year  he  organized  a  company  for  the 
125th  Regiment  of  New  York  Infantry, 
and  with  it  was  assigned  to  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.  At  Harper's  Ferry  he 
was  captured  and  held  prisoner  for  three 
months.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  serv- 
ice with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 
During  his  service  he  volunteered  for  the 
command  of  a  regiment  of  colored  troops, 
with  whom  he  served  two  years.  In 
1866  he  took  up  the  work  of  the  F  reed- 
man's  Bureau  and  at  first  had  the  over- 
sight of  the  colored  people  in  10  coun- 
ties of  Virginia.  After  two  years  in 
this  work  he  founded  a  school  which 
af<"erward  became  famous  as  the  Hamp- 


ARMSTRONG 


266 


ARMY 


ton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute. 
The  United  States  Government  began 
sending  Indian  youths  there  in  1878. 
General  Armstrong  was  president  of  the 
Institute  till  his  death,  May  11,  1893. 

ARMSTRONG,  WILLIAM  GEORGE, 
LORD,  an  English  inventor,  born  in  1810 
at  Newcastle.  He  was  articled  to  a  solici- 
tor, and  became  a  partner  in  the  firm. 
In  1840  he  produced  a  much  improved 
hydraulic  engine,  and  in  1845  the  hydrau- 
lic crane.  In  1842  he  brought  to  perfection 
an  apparatus  for  producing  electricity 
from  steam.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1846;  and  shortly 
afterward  commenced  the  Elswick  En- 
gine Works,  Newcastle,  producing  hy- 
draulic cranes,  engines,  accumulators, 
and  bridges,  but  was  soon  to  be  famous 
for  the  production  of  ordnance.  During 
the  Crimean  War,  Armstrong  was  em- 
ployed by  the  War  Office  to  make  explo- 
sive apparatus  for  blowing  up  the  ships 
sunk  at  Sebastopol.  This  led  him  to  de- 
vise the  form  of  cannon  which  bears  his 
name.  The  essential  feature  of  the  Arm- 
strong gun,  whether  rifled  or  smooth  bore, 
breech-loading  or  muzzle-loading,  is  that 
the  barrel  is  built  up  of  successive  coils 
of  wrought-iron,  welded  round  a  man- 
drel into  a  homogeneous  mass  of  great 
tenacity,  the  breech  being  especially 
strengthened  on  similar  principles.  The 
actual  results  obtained  by  these  guns, 
even  of  the  earlier  patterns,  were  almost 
incredible.  An  ordinary  32-pounder 
weighed  5,700  pounds.  Armstrong's  32- 
pounder  weighed  2,600  pounds.  The  for- 
mer required  10  pounds  of  powder  as  a 
charge;  for  the  latter  5  pounds  sufficed. 
The  former  would  send  a  shot  or  shell 
3,000  yards;  the  range  of  the  latter  ex- 
ceeded 9,000  yards.  Armstrong  offered 
to  the  government  all  his  inventions; 
and,  till  1863,  there  existed  a  kind  of 
partnership  between  the  government  and 
the  Elswick  firm,  Armstrong  being 
knighted  in  1858,  and  appointed  chief- 
engineer  of  rifled  ordnance.  Already  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies,  he 
was  in  1863  President  of  the  British  As- 
sociation. Cambridge  and  Oxford  con- 
ferred honorary  degrees  on  Armstrong, 
who  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Armstrong  in  1887.  He  died  Dec.  27, 
1900. 

ARMY,  the  national  militia  of  a 
country.  The  organization  of  an  army  is 
of  two  kinds — tactical  and  administrative. 
The  former  enables  the  leader  of  an  army 
to  transmit  his  orders  to  three  or  four 
subordinate  commanders,  who  pass  them 
on,  the  latter  deals  with  the  paying,  feed- 
ing, clothing,  arming  and  transportation 
of  the  military  forces. 


Ancient  Armies. — The  earliest  regular 
military  organization  is  attributed  to  Se- 
sostris,  who  flourished  in  Egypt  about  16 
centuries  b.  c.  This  extraordinary  con- 
queror divided  Egypt  into  36  military 
provinces,  and  established  a  sort  of  mili- 
tia or  warrior  caste.  With  this  army  he 
overran  Asia  as  far  as  India,  and  from 
the  Ganges  to  the  Caspian.  After  him 
little  further  progress  was  made  in  mili- 
tary art  until  the  Persian  empire  rose. 
Its  soldiers  introduced  the  mass  forma- 
tion, with  cavalry  in  intervals  of  squares; 
but  the  most  important  feature  of 
the  Persian  organization  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  what  was  practically  a  stand- 
ing army,  apportioned  as  garrisons 
throughout  the  conquered  provinces,  and 
under  the  control  of  military  governors 
distinct  from  the  satraps.  In  Greece  it 
was  not  a  standing  army,  but  a  sort  of 
national  militia,  that  gained  Marathon, 
Flatjea,  and  Mycale.  The  Lacedemo- 
nians invented  the  famous  phalanx,  a 
particular  mass  formation  for  foot-sol- 
diers; and  to  this  the  Athenians  added 
lighter  troops  to  cover  the  front  and 
harass  the  enemy  in  march.  The  The- 
bans  introduced  the  column  formation, 
which,  being  deeper  and  narrower  than 
the  phalanx,  was  intended  to  pierce  the 
enemy's  line  at  some  point  and  throw 
them  into  confusion.  Philip,  the  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  established,  in 
Macedonia,  the  world's  second  standing- 
army.  He  brought  into  use  the  Mace- 
donian pike,  a  formidable  weapon  24 
feet  in  length.  About  200  B.  c.  every 
Roman  from  the  age  of  17  to  46  was  lia- 
ble to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  a  sol- 
dier. The  Roman  legion,  in  its  best 
days,  excelled  all  other  troops  alike  in 
discipline  and  in  esprit.  With  a  gradual 
laxity  in  discipline  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  power  commenced. 

Medieval  Armies. — With  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  power  all  that  remained 
of  scientific  warfare  was  lost  for  a  time. 
The  Northern  invaders  made  little  use 
of  tactics,  but  relied  chiefly  on  their 
personal  bravery.  The  conquerors  of  the 
Roman  Empire  at  first  recognized  no 
superior  save  the  community,  of  which 
all  conquests  were  the  property.  What 
all  had  aided  to  acquire  all  demanded 
equally  to  share.  Hence  arose  a  divi- 
sion of  the  conquered  territory,  indivi- 
dual chiefs  rewarding  their  own  follow- 
ers with  gifts  of  the  land  they  had 
helped  to  conquer.  The  growth  of  a  feel- 
ing that  such  gifts  could  be  revoked,  and 
that  they  implied  an  obligation  to  future 
service,  marks  the  beginning  of  the  feu- 
dal system,  under  which  national  armies 
disappeared,  and  each  baron  had  a  small 


ARMY 


267 


ABMY  WAR  COLLEGE 


iarmy  composed  of  his  own  retainers, 
available  for  battle  at  short  notice.  The 
contest  of  these  small  armies,  sometimes 
combined  and  sometimes  isolated,  make 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  military  an- 
nals of  the  Middle  Ages.  From  this 
period  dates  the  modern  recognition  of 
the  importance  of  an  army  which  under 
the  franchise  extended  to  the  towns,  and 
the  superiority  of  which,  since  the  over- 
throw of  the  Burgundian  chivalry  by 
Swiss  infantry,  in  the  three  disastrous 
battles  of  1476-1477,  has  never  been  dis- 
puted. The  invention  of  gunpowder  af- 
fected much  less  change  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
art  of  making  good  cannon  and  hand- 
guns grew  up  gradually,  like  other  arts; 
and  armies  long  continued  to  depend 
principally  on  the  older  weapons,  spears, 
darts,  arrows,  axes,  maces,  swords  and 
daggers.  As  to  army  formation,  there 
was  still  little  that  could  deserve  the 
name;  there  was  no  particular  order  of 
battle. 

Modern  Armies. — The  Turkish  Jani- 
zaries, the  earliest  standing  army  in  Eu- 
rope, were  fully  organized  in  1632;  but 
the  formation  of  standing  armies  among 
Western  Powers  dates  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  compagnies  d'ordonnance  by 
Charles  VII.,  of  France,  nearly  a  cen- 
tury later.  These  companies  of  men-at- 
arms  amounted,  with  their  attendants,  to 
9,000  men;  to  whom  the  King  afterward 
added  16,000  franc-archers.  The  superi- 
ority of  such  a  force  over  militia  forced 
its  adoption  on  the  surrounding  states. 
Between  the  beginning  of  the  16th  and 
the  end  of  the  18th  centuries  the  propor- 
tion of  musketeers  gradually  increased; 
the  pike  was  abandoned  for  the  bayonet. 
The  improvement  in  weapons  naturally 
effected  the  formation.  During  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648)  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  and  Wallenstein  adopted 
opposite  modes  of  dealing  with  masses  of 
infantry;  the  former  spread  them  out 
to  a  great  width,  and  only  six  ranks  in 
depth,  whereas  the  latter  adopted  a  nar- 
rower front  with  a  depth  of  20  or  30 
ranks.  In  Louis  XIV. 's  reign  the  pro- 
longed wars  introduced  the  larger  group- 
ing in  brigades  and  divisions.  Frederick 
the  Great,  in  the  next  century,  reduced 
the  depth  of  his  infantry  formation  to 
three  ranks,  and  introduced  a  most  rigid 
and  exact  system  of  tactics  and  drill,  so 
that  when  able  to  maneuver  he  nearly 
always  won  his  battles.  The  French 
Revolution  effected  almost  as  great 
changes  in  the  military  as  in  the  political 
organization  of  Europe.  In  1798,  a  law 
was  passed  establishing  compulsory  mili- 
tary service.  Every  citizen  was  liable 
to  five  years'  service,  and  all  between  the 


ages  of  20  and  25  were  enrolled.  The 
immense  advantage  which  this  terrible 
power  gave  Napoleon  compelled  other 
nations  to  follow  the  example  of  France, 
and  in  Europe  voluntary  enlistment  has 
since  survived  in  England  alone.  Great 
Britain  organized  and  developed  mounted 
infantry  which  were  used  effectively  in 
the  Boer  War  and  in  the  World  War 
(1914-1918).  They  were  employed  by 
the  United  States  in  Indian  and  Philip- 
pine campaigns,  but  it  was  only  as  a 
temporary  expedient.  It  may  be  inter- 
esting here  to  mention  certain  distinc- 
tions in  the  application  of  the  word 
army.  A  covering  army  is  encamped  for 
the  protection  of  the  different  passes  or 
roads  which  lead  to  the  town  or  other 
place  to  be  protected.  A  siege  army  is 
ranged  around  or  in  front  of  a  fortified 
place,  to  capture  it  by  a  regular  process 
of  besieging.  A  blockading  army,  either 
independent  of,  or  auxiliary  to,  a  siege 
army,  is  intended  to  prevent  all  ingress 
and  egress  at  the  streets  or  gates  of  a 
besieged  place.  An  army  of  observation 
takes  up  an  advanced  position,  and  by 
celerity  of  movement  keeps  a  close  watch 
on  all  the  maneuvers  of  the  enemy.  An 
army  of  reconnaissance  has  a  more  spe- 
cial duty  at  a  particular  time  and  place, 
to  ascertain  the  strength  and  position  of 
the  enemy's  forces.  A  flying  column  is 
a  small  army  carrying  all  its  supplies 
with  it,  so  as  to  be  able  to  operate 
quickly  and  in  any  direction,  independ- 
ently of  its  original  base  of  operations. 

ARMY  CORPS,  one  of  the  largest 
divisions  of  an  army  in  the  field,  com- 
prising all  arms,  and  commanded  by  a 
general  officer;  subdivided  into  divisions, 
which  may  or  may  not  comprise  al) 
arms. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.  See  Military  Ed- 
ucation. 

ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE,  a  depart- 
ment of  the  United  States  military  edu- 
cational establishment  authorized  by 
Congress  in  1900.  Brig.-Gen.  William 
Ludlow  was  made  chief  of  the  board 
which  drafted  the  regulations.  The  fac- 
ulty of  the  college  study  the  military 
organization  of  the  United  States  with 
an  eye  to  a  complete  understanding  of 
its  practical  efficiency  of  operations,  and 
constitute  an  advisory  board  to  which  the 
Secretary  of  War  can  turn  at  any  time 
for  details  and  recommendations  as  to 
any  point  in  the  mechanism  of  the  whole 
military  service.  The  study  of  plans  of 
campaign  by  the  college  and  the  accu- 
mulation of  military  information  make 
the  inauguration  of  a  campaign,  in  case 
of  war,  only  a  matter  of  the  issuing  of 
the  necessary  orders  by  the  Secretary. 


ABMY  WORM 


268 


ARNOLD 


ARMY  WORM,  the  very  destructive 
larva  of  the  moth  heliophila  or  leucania 
unipmictu,  so  called  from  its  habit  of 
marching  in  compact  bodies  of  enormous 
number,  devouring  almost  every  green 
thing  it  meets.  It  is  about  IVa  inches 
long,  greenish  in  color,  with  black 
stripes,  and  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  but  is  particularly  destructive 
in  North  America.  The  larva  of  sciara 
viilitaris,  a  European  two-winged  fly,  is 
also  called  army  worm. 

ARNAULD,  the  name  of  a  French 
family,  several  members  of  which  great- 
ly distinguished  themselves.  Antoine, 
an  eminent  French  advocate,  was  born 
1560,  died  1619.  Distinguished  as  a 
zealous  defender  of  the  cause  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  for  his  powerful  and  successful 
defense  of  the  University  of  Paris 
against  the  Jesuits  in  1594.  His  fam- 
ily formed  a  nucleus  of  the  sect  of  the 
Jansenists  in  France.  His  son  Antoine, 
called  the  Great  Amauld,  was  born  Feb. 
6,  1612,  at  Paris;  died  Aug.  9,  1694,  at 
Brussels.  He  devoted  himself  to  the- 
ology, and  was  received,  in  1641,  among 
the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  en- 
gaged in  all  the  quarrels  of  the  French 
Jansenists  with  the  Jesuits,  the  clergy, 
and  the  government,  was  the  chief  Jan- 
senist  writer,  and  was  considered  their 
head.  Excluded  from  the  Sorbonne,  he 
retired  to  Port  Royal,  where  he  wrote, 
in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Nicole, 
a  celebrated  system  of  logic  (hence 
called  the  "Port  Royal  Logic").  On  ac- 
count of  persecution  he  fled,  in  1679,  to 
the  Netherlands.  His  works,  which  are 
mainly  controversies  with  the  Jesuits  or 
the  Calvinists,  are  very  voluminous. 
His  brother  Robert,  born  in  1588,  died  in 
1674,  was  a  person  of  influence  at  the 
French  court,  but  latterly  retired  to 
Port  Royal,  where  he  wrote  a  transla- 
tion of  "Josephus"  and  other  works.  Rob- 
ert's daughter  ANGfiLlQUE,  born  in  1624, 
died  in  1684,  was  eminent  in  the  reli- 
gious world,  and  was  subjected  to  prose- 
cution on  account  of  her  unflinching  ad- 
herence to  Jansenism. 

ARNDT,  ERNST  MORITZ,  a  German 

writer  and  patriot,  born  at  Schoritz, 
Isle  of  Rugen,  Dec.  29,  1769.  On  the  pub- 
lication, in  1806,  of  the  first  series  of  his 
"Spirit  of  the  Times,"  which  kindled  pa- 
triotic enthusiasm  throughout  the  Ger- 
man lands,  he  was  compelled  to  take  ref- 
uge in  Sweden.  In  1848,  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly,  he  belonged  to  the 
so-called  imperial  party,  advocating  the 
union  of  Germany  under  the  leadership 
of  Prussia.  On  his  90th  birthday  (1859) 
the  whole  nation  united  in  paying  him 
homage.     Many  of  his  poems  have  be- 


come national  lyrics.  Among  them  are 
"What  is  the  German's  Fatherland?" 
and  "The  Song  of  the  Field  Marshal." 
He  died  in  Bonn,  Jan.  29,  1860. 

ARNEE,  one  of  the  numerous  Indian 
varieties  of  the  buffalo  (bubalis  ami), 
remarkable  as  being  the  largest  animal 
of  the  ox  kind  known.  It  measured 
about  7  feet  high  at  the  shoulders,  and 
from  9  to  10^  feet  long  from  the  muz- 
zle to  the  root  of  the  tail.  It  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  forests  at  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas. 

ARNHEM  (ar'nem) ,  or  ARNHEIM,  a 
town  in  Holland,  capital  of  province  of 
Gelderland,  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Zutphen, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  It  con- 
tains many  interesting  public  buildings; 
manufactures  cabinet  wares,  mirrors, 
carriages,  mathematical  instruments, 
etc.;  has  paper-mills,  and  its  trade  is 
important.  In  1795  it  was  stormed  by 
the  French,  who  were  driven  from  it  by 
the  Prussians  in  1813.  Pop.  (1917) 
70,664. 

ARNICA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  asteracex,  or  composites; 
also  the  English  name  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  above-mentioned  genus,  and 
especially  of  the  A.  montaim,  the  moun- 
tain arnica,  or  German  leopard's-bane.  It 
is  common  in  the  alpine  parts  of  Ger- 
many, Sweden,  Lapland,  and  Switzer- 
land. It  is  a  perennial,  of  a  slightly  fetid 
odor,  and  a  bitterish,  acrid  taste.  Given 
in  large  quantities  it  produces  deleterious 
effects,  but  the  powdered  leaves,  in  mod- 
erate doses,  of  5  to  10  grains,  have 
been  found  serviceable  in  paralysis,  con- 
vulsions, amaurosis,  chlorosis,  gout,  and 
rheumatism.  As  an  outward  application, 
arnica  is  in  constant  use  as  a  remedy 
for  sores,  wounds,  bruises,  and  ailments 
of  a  similar  kind. 

ARHO,  a  river  of  Italy,  which  rises  in 
the  Etruscan  Apennines,  makes  a  sweep 
to  the  south  and  then  trends  westward, 
divides  Florence  into  two  parts,  washes 
Pisa,  and  falls,  4  miles  below  it,  into  the 
Tuscan  Sea,  after  a  course  of  about  130 
miles. 

ARNOLD,  BENEDICT,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Norwich,  Conn., 
Jan.  14,  1741.  He  was  settled  in  exten- 
sive business  at  New  Haven  when  the 
War  of  Independence  broke  out.  After 
the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington,  he 
raised  a  body  of  volunteers,  and  received 
a  colonel's  commission.  After  command- 
ing, for  a  short  time,  a  small  fleet  upon 
Lake  Champlain,  he  was  with  General 
Montgomery,  charged  with  the  difficult 
duty  of  leading  a  force  of   1,100   men 


ARNOLD 


269 


ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA 


across  the  wilds  of  the  country  to 
Quebec,  to  stir  up  rebellion  there,  and 
displace  the  British  garrison.  In  this  un- 
successful attempt  Montgomery  was  killed 


BENEDICT  ARNOLD 

and  Arnold  severely  wounded.  After 
this,  we  find  him  in  various  important 
commands,  but  as  often  involved  in  quar- 
rels with  Congress  and  his  fellow-officers, 
Washington  valued  him  for  his  acts  of 
daring,  and  would  gladly  have  over- 
looked his  faults;  but  Congress  and  his 
brother-officers  regarded  him  with  dis- 
like, and  sought  every  possible  means  to 
humble  and  annoy  him.  After  many  dis- 
putes about  the  honor  that  was  due  to 
him  for  his  services,  he  was  invested  with 
the  government  of  Philadelphia.  There 
his  imprudence  was  most  marked  and  he 
was  court-martialed  and  reprimanded. 
Arnold  felt  humiliated,  and  decided  to 
desert  to  the  enemy,  opening  communi- 
cation with  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  British 
commander.  Major  Andre  was  sent  by 
Sir  Henry  to  negotiate  with  Arnold,  and 
they  had  an  interview  near  West  Point, 
which  fortress  Arnold  had  offered  to  sur- 
render to  the  enemy.  On  his  way  to 
the  British  camp,  however,  the  young 
ofiicer  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, and  the  whole  plot  was  of  course 
discovered.  The  news  of  Andre's  captui'e 
reached  Arnold  just  in  time  to  enable 
him  to  make  his  escape  and  reach  the 
British  camp  in  safety.  There  he  re- 
tained his  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and 
fought  with  as  much  daring  against  the 
cause  of  American  independence.  After- 
ward he  served  in  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
West  Indies,  and  at  last  settled  in  Lon- 
don, England,  where  he  died  June  14, 
1801. 


ARNOLD,   SIR   EDWIN,   an   English 

poet  and  journalist,  born  at  Gravesend, 
June  10,  1832.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford  in  1853;  taught  for  a  while  in 
Birmingham;  and  became  principal  of 
the  Sanskrit  College  at  Poona,  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency.  Returning  to  Lon- 
don in  1861,  he  joined  the  editorial  staff 
of  the  "Daily  Telegraph."  He  twice  vis- 
ited the  United  States  on  lecture  tours. 
Of  his  original  poetry,  inspired  by  Orien- 
tal themes  and  legends,  the  most  famous 
work  is  "The  Light  of  Asia,  a  Poetic 
Presentation  of  the  Life  and  Teaching 
of  Gautama"  (1876).  "Indian  Idvlls" 
(1883) ;  "Pearls  of  the  Faith,"  "Sa'di  in 
the  Garden,"  "The  Light  of  the  World," 
"Potiphar's  Wife  and  Other  Poems,"  "In- 
dia Revisited,"  "Japonica,"  and  "The 
Tenth  Muse  and  Other  Poems,"  are 
among  his  many  works.  He  died  March 
24,  1904. 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW,  an  English 
poet,  critic,  and  essayist,  born  at  Lale- 
ham,  Dec.  24,  1822;  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1844,  and  was  Professor  of 
Poetry  there  from  1857  to  1867.  The 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred 
by  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1869, 
and  by  Oxford  in  1870.  He  was  govern- 
ment inspector  of  schools  from  1851,  and 
repeatedly  visited  the  Continent  to  in- 
quire into  and  report  upon  systems  of 
education.  In  1883-1884  he  made  a  lec- 
turing tour  through  the  United  States. 
His  works  include  "The  Strayed  Reveler 
and  Other  Poems"  (1848)  ;  "Empedocles 
on  Etna"  (1853)  ;  "Merope,"  a  tragedy 
(1857),  and  "New  Poems"  (1868).  His 
prose  writings  comprise  "Essays  in 
Criticism"  (1865,  2d  series,  1888) ;  "Lec- 
tures on  the  Study  of  Celtic  Literature" 
(1867);  "Culture  and  Anarchy"  (1869); 
"Friendship's  Garland"  (1871),  a  humor- 
ous work;  "Literature  and  Dogma" 
(1873) ;  "Last  Essays  on  Church  and 
Religion"  (1877);  "Mixed  Essays" 
(1879);  "Irish  Essays"  (1882),  and 
"Discourses  on  America"  (1885).  Arnold 
first  became  known  as  a  poet  of  classical 
taste  by  the  volume  of  poems  and  selec- 
tions issued  under  his  name  in  1854.  He 
died  in  Liverpool,  April  15,  1888. 

ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA,  one  of  the  re- 
formers prior  to  the  Reformation,  a 
disciple  of  Abelard  of  Paris,  and  of 
Berengarius.  As  eai-ly  as  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century,  his  bold  spirit,  his 
scriptural  knowledge,  and  his  eloquence, 
had  succeeded  in  arousing  France  and 
Italy  against  the  abuses  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Driven  by  the  clergy  from 
Italy,  he  sought  refuge  in  Zurich,  where 
he  made  many  converts.  At  length, 
through  the  instigation  of  St.  Bernard  of 


ARNOLD  OF  WINKELRIED 


270 


AROMATIC 


Clairvaux,  he  was  charged  with  heresy, 
and  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent 
II.  At  this  juncture,  serious  popular 
tumults  occurred  at  Rome,  and  Arnold, 
hastening  thither,  was  received  with 
great  cordiality,  and  soon  vested  with 
supreme  power.  In  1155,  however, 
Adrian  IV.  interdicted  and  expelled  him 
from  the  city.  For  a  time  he  lived  in 
Campagna,  but  was  seized,  and  taken 
back  to  Rome,  where  he  was  executed, 
and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into  the 
Tiber.  His  followers  were  called  Arnold- 
ists,  and  held  the  same  opinions  as  the 
Waldenses. 

ARNOLD  OF  WINKELRIED,  a  Swiss 
hero,  who,  at  the  battle  of  Sempach,  in 
1386,  sacrificed  himself  to  insure  victory 
to  his  countrymen.  The  Austrian 
knights,  dismounted,  had  formed  them- 
selves into  a  phalanx,  which  the  Swiss 
vainly  strove  to  pierce;  when  Arnold, 
rushing  on  the  spear  points  of  the  en- 
emy, and  burying  several  in  his  breast, 
thus  opened  a  gap  in  the  fence  of  steel. 
The  Swiss  rushed  in  through  the  open- 
ing, and  routed  the  Austrians  vnth  great 
slaughter. 

ARNOLD,  RALPH,  a  geologist  and 
engineer,  born  in  Marshalltown,  la.,  in 
1875.  He  was  educated  at  the  Throop 
Polytechnic  Institute  and  the  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  University.  Graduating 
from  the  latter  in  1889,  he  was  assistant 
in  geology  at  that  institution  until  1903. 
After  serving  in  various  capacities  he 
became,  in  1908,  geologist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  From  1911  he 
was  consulting  petroleum  engineer  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Mines  and  en- 
gaged also  in  private  practice.  He  took 
charge  of  many  investigations  in  petro- 
leum fields  in  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries,  was  special  lecturer 
on  petroleum  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago and  other  universities  and  colleges, 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies, 
and  contributed  many  papers  on  geologi- 
cal subjects  to  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical reports  and  professional  periodi- 
cals. 

ARNOLD,  THOMAS,  an  English 
clergyman  and  historian,  bom  in  Cowes, 
Isle  of  Wight,  June  13,  1795.  He  en- 
tered Oxford  University  in  1811,  and 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College  in 
1815.  In  1828,  Arnold  was  elected  to 
the  head-mastership  of  Rugby  School, 
which  office  he  held  until  his  death,  and 
raised  it,  by  the  enlightened  system  of 
education  he  inaugurated,  to  the  highest 
rank  among  the  great  public  schools  of 
England.  In  politics  he  was  an  ad- 
vanced Liberal,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that 
he  was  at  one  time  denounced  by  some 


of  the  clergy  for  what  they  termed  the 
Jacobinism  of  his  views.  In  1841  he  waa 
appointed  Regius  Professor  of  Modem 
History  at  Oxford,  and  died  June  12j 
1842.  As  a  writer,  Arnold's  works  con« 
sisted  mainly  of  a  "History  of  Rome,"^ 
completed  to  the  end  of  the  Punic  War; 
a  "Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,* 
and  a  "Treatise  on  Church  and  State." 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Dean  Stan- 
ley, one  of  his  old  pupils. 

ARNOLFO  DI  CAMBIO  (ar-nol'fo), 
or  DI  LAPO,  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor,  born  in  Florence,  in  1232.  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  architectural 
works  are  the  churches  of  Santa  Croce, 
the  Cathedral,  and  Or  San  Michele,  at 
Florence,  in  which  the  gradual  transition 
from  the  Gothic  severity  to  the  Italian 
elegance  is  markedly  represented.  This 
structure  was  completed,  after  the  death 
of  Arnolfo,  by  Brunelleschi,  between 
1420  and  1444.    He  died  in  1300. 

ARNON,  a  river  in  Palestine,  the  bound- 
ary between  the  country  of  the  Moa- 
bites  and  that  of  the  Amorites,  latterly 
of  the  Israelites,  a  tributary  of  the  Dead 
Sea. 

ARNOTTO.  (1)  The  waxy-looking  pulp 
which  envelops  the  seeds  in  the  arnotto 
tree.  This  is  detached  by  throwing  the 
seed  into  water,  after  which  it  is  dried 
partially,  and  made  up  first  into  soft 
pellets,  rolled  in  leaves,  in  which  state  it 
is  called  flag,  or  roll  arnotto.  After- 
ward, becoming  quite  dry,  it  is  formed 
into  cakes,  and  becomes  cake  arnotto. 
The  South  American  Indians  color  their 
bodies  red  with  it;  farmers  here  and 
elsewhere  use  it  to  stain  cheese;  in  Hol- 
land, the  Dutch  employ  it  to  color  but- 
ter; the  Spaniards  put  it  in  their  choco- 
late and  soups;  dyers  use  it  to  produce 
a  reddish  color,  and  varnish  makers,  to 
impart  an  orange  tint  to  some  varnishes. 
As  a  medicine,  it  is  slightly  purgative 
and  stomachic.  This  substance  is  very 
frequently  adulterated. 

(2)  In  botany,  the  arnotto  tree,  the 
hixa  orellana  of  Linnaeus,  has  a  five- 
dentate  calyx,  10  petals,  many  hypogy- 
nous  stamina,  and  a  two-valved  hispid 
capsule.  It  is  from  20  to  30  feet  in 
height,  and  grows  in  tropical  America. 
It  is  the  type  of  the  old  order  bixacess, 
now  more  generally  called  fiacourtiacese. 

ARNTJLF,  a  great-grandson  of  Charle- 
magne, elected  King  of  Germany  in  A.  D. 
887;  invaded  Italy,  captured  Rome,  and 
was  crowned  Emperor  by  the  Pope 
(896)  ;  died  A.  D.  899. 

AROMATIC.  (1)  In  chemistry,  acids 
whose  radical  has  the  form  C^B.^^ — sOa, 
as  the  benzoic,  the  toluic,  and  the  cun>- 


AROMATIC  VINEGAR 


271 


A^BAS 


mic,  or  cumic.  There  are  also  aromatic 
alcohols,  aldehydes,  hydrocarbons,  and 
ketones.  (2)  A  plant  or  a  substance 
which  exhales  a  fragrant  odor,  conjoined 
in  general  with  a  warm,  pungent  taste. 

AROMATIC  VINEGAR,  a  very  vol- 
atile and  powerful  perfume,  made  by 
adding  the  essential  oils  of  lavender, 
cloves,  etc.,  and  often  camphor,  to  crys- 
tallizable  acetic  acid.  It  is  a  powerful 
excitant  in  fainting,  languor,  and  head- 
ache. 

AROOSTOOK,  an  American  river ;  rises 
in  Piscataquis  co.,  Me.;  flows  more 
than  120  miles  in  a  circuitous  course, 
receiving  many  important  tributaries; 
and  enters  the  St.  John  River  in  New 
Brunswick.  It  was  an  important  factor 
in  the  settlement  of  the  long-pending  dis- 
pute concerning  the  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  British  America. 

AROUET.  See  Voltaire. 

ARPAD,  the  conqueror  of  Hungary, 
and  founder  of  the  Arpad  dynasty,  which 
reigned  till  1301,  was  born  in  the  second 
half  of  the  9th  century.  He  was  the  son 
of  Almus,  whom  the  seven  Magyar  clans 
dwelling  in  the  steppes  N.  E.  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  had  elected  their  hereditary 
chief  about  889.  Thus  united  into  one 
nation,  the  Magyars,  mustering  about 
25,000  warriors,  crossed  the  Carpathians 
and  conquered  Hungary,  when  Arpad 
was  elected  their  prince.  Arpad  was 
unable  completely  to  transform  their  no- 
madic hordes  into  an  agricultural  nation. 
He  died  in  907. 

ARPEGGIO  (ar-pej'6),  the  distinct 
sound  of  the  notes  of  an  instrumental 
chord;  the  striking  the  notes  of  a  chord 
in  rapid  succession,  as  in  the  manner  of 
touching  the  harp  instead  of  playing 
them  simultaneously. 

ARPENT  (ar-pan),  formerly  a  French 
measure  for  land,  equal  to  five-sijaths  of 
an  English  acre;  but  varying  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  France. 

ARPINO  (ar-pe'no),  a  town  of  south 
Italy,  province  of  Caserta,  94  miles  N. 
W.  of  Naples.  It  is  the  ancient  Arpinum, 
birthplace  of  Caius  Marius,  Agrippa, 
and  Cicero;  pop.  about  10,000. 

ARQTJA  (ar'kwa),  a  town  of  north 
Italy,  12  miles  S.  W.  of  Padua,  in  which 
province  it  is  situated.  It  is  famous  for 
having  been  the  residence  of  Petrarch 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and 
the  place  where  he  died  in  1374.  His 
sarcophagus  is  still  to  be  seen. 

ARQUEBUS,  a  hand-gun;  a  species  of 
firearm  resembling  a  musket,  anciently 


used.  It  was  fired  from  a  forked  rest, 
and  sometimes  cocked  by  a  wheel,  and 
carried  a  ball  that  weighed  nearly  two 
ounces.  A  larger  kind  used  in  fortresses 
carried  a  heavier  shot. 

ARRACACHA,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  order  apiacese,  or  umbel- 
lifers.  A.  esculenta  is  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  its  root  which  is  used  as  an 
esculent  in  the  elevated  portions  of 
equinoctial  America. 

ARRACK,  a  term  used,  in  the  countries 

to  which  the  Arabs  have  penetrated,  for 
distilled  spirits,  especially  those  distilled 
from  rice  and  the  sap  of  palm  trees. 

ARRAH,  a  town  of  British  India,  iv. 
Shahabad  district,  Bengal,  rendered  fa- 
mous during  the  mutiny  of  1857  by  the 
heroic  resistance  of  a  body  of  20  civilians 
and  50  Sikhs,  cooped  up  within  a  de- 
tached house,  to  a  force  of  3,000  Sepoys, 
who  were  ultimately  routed  and  over- 
thrown by  the  arrival  of  a  small  Euro- 
pean reinforcement.     Pop.  about  50,000. 

ARRAIGNMENT,  in  the  practice  of 
criminal  law  the  calling  of  a  prisoner  by 
his  name  to  the  bar  of  the  court  to  an- 
swer the  matter  charged  upon  him  in  the 
indictment. 

ARRAS  (ar-a'),  a  city  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  60  miles  S.  E.  of  Calais,  and  100 


-^?>;..,t,jiX- 


TOWN    HALL  AT   ARRAS,    FRANCE,    BEFORE 
THE    WORLD    WAR 

miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Paris.  It  is  a  very 
ancient  city,  and  previous  to  the  World 
War  was  replete  with  fine  old  architec- 
tural   remains,   and   also   possessing   a 


ARRAS,  BATTLES  OP 


272 


ARRIAGA 


large  commerce  in  cotton  and  stuffs, 
hosiery,  lace,  pottery,  etc.  Arras  has 
been  the  theater  of  many  memorable 
historical  events,  and  was  fortified  by 
Vauban,in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  Robes- 
pierre was  born  here,  as  was  also  Da- 
miens,  the  assassin  of  Louis  XV.  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  Arras  was  famed 
for  its  tapestry,  richly  figured  hangings 
that  adorned  the  halls  of  the  kings  and 
the  nobles.  They  were  known  under  the 
name  of  arras;  but  have  been  for  a  long 
time  superseded  by  the  tapestry  of  the 
Gobelins.  Arras  was  the  capital  of  the 
Celtic  Atrebates  (whence  the  name), 
and  consequently  of  the  province  of 
Artois.  As  such  it  was  long  a  part  of 
Burgundy.  It  was  ceded  to  France  in 
1482;  attached  to  Austria  in  1493;  and 
finally  became  French  in  1640,  when 
Louis  XIII.  took  it  after  a  long  siege. 
In  the  World  War  the  town  was 
wrecked  by  bomdardments.  The  Ger- 
mans attacked  the  place  three  times  in 
October,  1914.  From  Oct.  20  to  26 
Arras  was  under  heavy  fire.  Eventually 
the  French  under  General  Maud'huy 
drove  the  Germans  back  so  far  that  their 
howitzers  could  no  longer  threaten  the 
town.    Pop.  about  26,000. 

ARRAS,  BATTLES  OF,  a  series  of  im- 
portant engagements  in  the  World  War 
which  took  place  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  city  of  Arras,  France.  This  area, 
from  the  autumn  of  1914,  following  the 
German  attempt  to  break  through  the 
Allied  lines  to  the  channel  ports,  was  the 
scene  of  almost  continual  operations. 
The  city  itself  was  exposed  to  repeated 
bombardments  and  was  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed.  The  most  important 
offensive  in  the  vicinity  was  undertaken 
by  the  British  in  the  spring  of  1917.  It 
was  carried  on  a  12-mile  front  N.  and 
S.  of  AiTas,  and  was  gradually  ex- 
tended to  an  offensive  over  the  whole 
line  from  Arras  to  St.  Quentin.  The 
defense  was  prepared  by  an  artillery 
bombardment  which  lasted  four  days. 
On  the  fifth  day  of  the  battle  the  Cana- 
dian troops  stormed  Vimy  Ridge,  cap- 
turing 4,000  prisoners  and  large  quan- 
tities of  war  material.  The  advance 
continued  on  April  11  when  Monchy  and 
other  towns  were  captured.  On  April 
13  the  British  swept  forward  from  a 
new  position  E.  of  Arras  and  drove  the 
Germans  back  on  a  12-mile  front,  captur- 
ing six  villages  and  seriously  threaten- 
ing the  city  of  Lens.  The  outskirts  of 
that  city  were  entered  on  April  15. 
After  a  pause  of  several  days,  the  Brit- 
ish on  April  24  pushed  forward  E.  of 
Monchy.  Three  days  later  they  broke 
the  Oppy  Une,  a  switch  of  the  Hinden- 


burg  line.  On  May  3  they  captured 
Fresnoy  and  a  part  of  Bullecourt,  but 
were  later  obliged  to  give  these  up.  The 
battle  reached  a  standstill  on  May  15, 
1917.  The  British  were  driven  back,  in 
the  first  two  weeks  of  June,  E.  of  Loos. 
The  chief  effects  of  the  battle,  aside  from 
the  capture  of  over  15,000  Germans  and 
200  guns,  was  the  placing  of  Lens  im  a 
pocket  which  constantly  tightened  until 
its  final  capture  by  the  British.  See 
World  War. 

ARRHENATHERUM,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  order  grami- 
ruicese,  or  grasses.  A  species  g^rows  wild 
in  England,  A.  avenaceum,  or  tall,  oat- 
like grass.  It  is  also  cultivated  occasion- 
ally in  England,  and  much  more  fre- 
quently in  France,  but  is  not  very  nutri- 
tious. 

ARRHENIUS,  SVANTE,  a  Swed- 
ish chemist,  bom  in  1849  near  Upsala. 
He  was  educated  in  the  university  of  that 
city  and,  after  teaching  for  a  short  time, 
spent  several  years  abroad  carrying  on 
original  investigations  in  physical  chem- 
istry. In  1891  he  became  professor  at 
the  University  of  Stockholm.  His  con- 
tributions to  the  study  of  electrolytic 
phenomena  and  the  chemical  and  physi- 
cal properties  of  substances  are  of  the 
utmost  importance.  He  established  the 
so-called  theory  of  electrolytic  dissocia- 
tion. Arrhenius  wrote  much  on  chem- 
ical subjects  and  in  1907  published  a 
series  of  lectures  delivered  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  In  1903  he  re- 
ceived the  Nobel  Prize  for  chemistry. 
Perhaps  his  most  popular  work  is 
"Worlds  in  the  Making"  (1908),  in 
which  he  combatted  the  theory  that  the 
universe  is  tending  to  destruction  by  loss 
of  heat  and  motion. 

ARRIA  (ar'e-a),  a  celebrated  Roman 
matron,  wife  of  Cascinna  Paetus,  consul 
during  the  reign  of  Claudius,  about  A.  D. 
41.  Pjetus  having  raised  an  unsuccess- 
ful revolt  against  Claudius,  in  lUyria, 
was  condemned  to  die.  He  was,  however, 
allowed  the  option  of  ending  his  life  by 
suicide,  which  the  Romans  did  not  deem 
a  crime.  Psetus  hesitated;  Arria  seized 
the  dagger,  plunged  it  into  her  bosom, 
and  then  presenting  it  to  her  husband, 
said,  "It  is  not  painful,  Paetus."  This, 
with  other  instances  of  her  conjugal  de- 
votion, has  immortalized  her. 

ARRIAGA,  MANOEL  DE,  a  Portu- 
guese statesman,  born  in  1842  at  Horta 
in  the  Azores.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Coimbra,  and  after  study- 
ing law  he  practiced  in  Lisbon.  For 
many  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Chamber   of   Representatives   as   a    Re- 


ARROW 


273 


ARSENAL 


publican.  He  violently  opposed  the  mon- 
archy and  in  1911  took  an  active  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  republic.  On 
Aug.  24  of  that  year  he  was  elected 
the  first  president  of  Portugal,  serving 
until  May  27,  1915,  when  he  resigned  as 
the  result  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  that  year. 
He  was  well  known  as  a  poet  and  a 
writer  on  economic  subjects.  He  died 
March  5,  1917. 

ARROW,  a  missile  weapon,  designed 
to  be  propelled  by  the  impulse  communi- 
cated by  the  snapping  of  the  string  of 
a  bow,  temporarily  bent  into  an  angular 
form,  back  to  its  normal  state  of  rest 
in  a  straight  line.  To  make  the  wound 
it  inflicts  more  deadly,  and  prevent  its 
being  easily  pulled  out,  it  is  barbed  at 
the  tip,  and  often  poisoned,  while  at  the 
other  extremity  it  is  feathered,  to  make 
it  move  more  directly  forward. 

ARROWHEAD,  a  genus  of  aquatic 
plants  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
within  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones, 
natural  order  alismacese,  distinguished 
by  possessing  barren  and  fertile  flowers, 
with  a  three-leaved  calyx  and  three  col- 
ored petals.  The  common  arrowhead 
(S.  sagittifolia)  has  a  tuberous  root, 
nearly  globular,  and  is  known  by  its 
arrow-shaped  leaves  with  lanceolate 
straight  lobes. 

ARROW  LAKE,  an  expansion  of  the 
Columbia  river,  in  British  Columbia, 
Canada;  about  95  miles  long  from  N.  to 
S. ;  often  regarded  as  forming  two  lakes 
— Upper  and  Lower  Arrow  Lake. 

ARROWROOT.  (1)  In  botany,  the 
English  name  of  the  botanical  genus 
maranta,  the  type  of  the  endogenous 
order  Marantaceae.  The  flowers  of 
maranta  are  in  long,  close,  spike-like 
panicles,  with  Irregular  corollas.  The 
root  is  a  fleshy  corm,  which,  when 
washed,  grated,  strained  through  a  sieve, 
and  again  repeatedly  washed,  furnishes 
the  substance  so  much  prized  as  good  for 
invalids,  which  is  described  under  2. 

(2)  In  commerce,  the  starch  extracted 
from  the  rhizomes  of  a  maranta,  and  ex- 
ported to  England  in  large  quantities 
from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
from  Africa,  each  importation  taking  the 
name  of  the  place  from  which  it  comes. 
Thus  they  have  East  Indian  arrowroot, 
Bermuda  arrowroot,  St.  Vincent  arrow- 
root. Natal  arrowroot,  etc. 

Arrowroot  is  adulterated  either  by  the 
mixing  together  of  various  qualities  of 
arrowroot,  or  by  the  admixture  of  other 
starches,  such  as  potato  or  tapioca. 

ARROYO  MOLINOS  (ar-oi'o-m5-le'- 
nos),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Estremadura, 
27  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Caceres.    Here,  on 


Oct.  28,  1811,  a  body  of  the  French  sent 
out  by  Soult  on  a  foraging  expedition 
was  surprised  by  a  much  larger  Eng- 
lish force  under  Lord  Hill.  An  engage- 
ment took  place,  the  result  of  which  is 
differently  appreciated  by  the  historians 
of  the  two  nations.  The  English  took 
1,300  prisoners,  but  the  French  retreated 
in  good  order. 

ARRU  ISLANDS  (ar'6),  a  group  of 
over  80  islands  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
lying  W.  of  New  Guinea,  with  a  united 
area  of  about  2,650  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  about  23,000.  The  largest 
island  is  Tanna-Besar  (77  miles  long  by 
50  broad).  The  surface  is  low,  and  the 
coasts  are  steep  and  inaccessible,  on  the 
E.  side  fringed  with  coral  reefs.  The 
soil  is  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant 
vegetation.  The  islands  are  remarkably 
rich  in  animal  life.  The  inhabitants  re- 
semble the  Melanesians  of  New  Guinea 
more  than  the  natives  of  the  Moluccas. 
There  is  an  active  trade,  but  not  in  na- 
tive hands.  Cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
iron  and  copper  wares,  Chinese  pottery, 
knives,  rum,  rice,  opium,  and  arrack  are 
imported,  and  bartered  for  mother-of- 
pearl,  trepang,  edible  nests,  pearls,  tor- 
toise-shell, and  the  skins  of  birds  of 
paradise. 

ARSACES,  founder  of  the  Parthian 
monarchy.  He  induced  his  countrymen 
to  rise  against  the  Macedonian  yoke,  250 
B.  C,  on  which  they  raised  him  to  the 
throne.  Arsaces  was  slain  in  battle, 
after  a  reign  of  38  years.  He  was  the 
first  of  a  long  line  of  monarchs  of  the 
same  name,  the  last  of  whom  was  put  to 
death  about  226  A.  D. 

ARSACES  TIRANUS,  King  of  Ar- 
menia, who,  being  taken  prisoner  by 
Sapor,  King  of  Persia,  was  cast  into 
prison  at  Ecbatana,  where  he  died  362 
B.  C.  His  country  then  became  a  Persian 
province. 

ARSENAL,  a  place  appointed  for  the 
making,  repairing,  keeping  and  issuing 
of  military  stores.  An  arsenal  of  the  first 
class  should  include  factories  for  guns 
and  gun-carriages,  small-arms,  small- 
arms  ammunition,  harness,  saddlery, 
tents  and  powder;  a  laboratory  and  large 
storehouses.  In  arsenals  of  the  second 
class,  workshops  take  the  place  of  the 
factories.  The  Royal  Arsenal  at  Wool- 
wich, England,  which  manufactures  war- 
like implements  and  stores  for  the  Eng- 
lish army  and  navy,  was  formed  about 
1720,  and  comprises  factories,  labora- 
tories, etc.,  for  the  manufacture  and  final 
fitting  up  of  almost  every  kind  of  arms 
and  ammunition.  Great  quantities  of 
military  and  naval  stores  are  kept  at 
the  dockyards  of  Chatham,  Portsmouth, 


ARSENIC 


274 


ABT 


Plymouth,  and  Pembroke.  In  France 
there  are  various  arsenals  or  depots 
of  war  material  at  L'Orient,  Rochefort, 
Cherbourg,  Mezieres,  Toulouse,  etc.;  the 
great  naval  arsenals  are  Brest  and 
Toulon.  The  chief  German  arsenals 
were  at  Spandau,  Strasburg,  and  Dant- 
zig,  that  at  the  first-mentioned  place 
having  been  the  great  center  of  the  mili- 
tary manufactories.  The  chief  Austrian 
arsenal  was  the  immense  establishment 
at  Vienna,  which  includes  gun  factory, 
laboratory,  small-arms  and  carriage 
factories,  etc.  Russia  had  her  principal 
arsenal  at  Petrograd  with  supplemen- 
tary factories  of  arms  and  ammunition 
at  Briansk,  Kiev,  and  elsewhere.  In 
Italy  Turin  is  the  center  of  the  military 
factories. 

The  principal  arsenals  of  the  United 
States  are  at  Pittsburgh  (Pa.) ;  Augusta 
(Ga.) ;  Benecia  (Cal.) ;  Columbia 
(Tenn.) ;  Fort  Monroe  (Va.) ;  Frankford 
(Pa.) ;  Indianapolis  (Ind.) ;  Augusta 
(Me.) ;  New  York  (N.  Y.) ;  Rock  Island 
(111.) ;  San  Antonio  (Tex.) ;  Watertown 
(Mass.);  and  Watervliet  (N.  Y.). 
There  were  also  powder  depots  at  St. 
Louis  (Mo.),  and  Dover  (N.  J.) ;  a  noted 
armory  at  Springfield  (Mass.),  and  ord- 
nance proving  grounds  at  Sandy  Hook 
(N.  J.)  and  Aberdeen   (Md.). 

ARSENIC,  (symbol  As,  at.  wt.  75,  sp. 
gr.  5.76),  a  metallic  element  of  very  com- 
mon occurrence,  being  found  in  combi- 
nation with  many  of  the  metals  in  a 
variety  of  minerals.  It  is  of  a  dark  gray 
color,  and  readily  tarnishes  on  exposure 
to  the  air,  first  changing  to  yellow,  and 
finally  to  black.  In  hardness  it  equals 
copper;  it  is  extremely  brittle,  and  very 
volatile,  beginning  to  sublime  before  it 
melts.  It  burns  with  a  blue  flame,  and 
emits  a  smell  of  garlic.  It  forms  alloys 
with  most  of  the  metals.  Combined  with 
sulphur  it  forms  orpiment  and  realgar, 
which  are  the  yellow  and  red  sulphides 
of  arsenic.  Orpiment  is  the  true  arsen- 
icum  of  the  ancients.  With  oxygen  ar- 
senic forms  two  compounds,  the  more  im- 
portant of  which  is  arsenious  oxide  or 
arsenic  trioxide  (AS2O3)  which  is  the 
white  arsenic  or  simply  arsenic  of  the 
stores.  It  is  used  as  a  flux  for  glass,  and 
also  for  forming  pigments.  The  arsenite 
of  copper  (Scheele's  green)  and  a  double 
arsenite  and  acetate  of  copper  (emerald 
green)  are  largely  used  by  painters; 
they  are  also  used  to  color  paper  hang- 
ings for  rooms.  Arsenic  has  been  too 
frequently  used  to  give  that  bright  green 
often  seen  in  colored  confectionery. 

ARSINOE  (ar^sin'o-e),  a  city  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  on  Lake  Moeris,  said  to  have 
been  founded  about  B.  c.  2,300,  but  re- 


named after  Arsinoe,  wife  and  sister  of 
Ptolemy  II.,  of  Egypt,  and  called  also 
Crocodilopolis,  from  the  sacred  croco- 
diles kept  at  it. 

ARSINOE,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  I., 
King  of  Egypt,  born  316  B,  C,  married 
at  16  the  aged  Lysimachus,  King  of 
Thrace,  whose  eldest  son,  Agathocles, 
had  already  wedded  Lysandra,  her  half- 
sister.  Desirous  of  securing  the  throne 
for  her  own  children,  Arsinoe  prevailed 
on  her  husband  to  put  Agathocles  to 
death.  Later  Lysimachus  was  slain.  In 
279,  she  married  her  own  brother, 
Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus. 

ARSON,  the  malicious  and  willful  burn- 
ing of  a  dwelling-house  or  out-house  be- 
longing to  another  person  by  directly  set- 
ting fire  to  it,  or  even  by  igniting  some 
edifice  of  one's  own  in  its  immediate  vi- 
cinity. If  a  person,  by  maliciously  set- 
ting fire  to  an  inhabited  house,  cause 
the  death  of  one  or  more  of  the  inmates, 
the  deed  is  murder,  and  capital  pun- 
ishment may  be  inflicted.  When  no  one 
is  fatally  injured  the  crime  is  not  capi- 
tal, but  is  still  heavily  punishable;  it  is 
a  penal  ofl^ense  also  to  attempt  to  set  a 
house  on  fire,  even  if  the  endeavor  do  not 
succeed. 

ART,  the  power  of  doing  something 
not  taught  by  nature  or  instinct;  as,  to 
walk  is  natural,  to  dance  is  an  art; — 
power  or  skill  in  the  use  of  knowledge; 
the  practical  application  of  the  rules 
or  principles  of  science.  A  system  of 
rules  to  facilitate  the  performance  of 
certain  actions;  contrivance;  dexterity; 
address;  adroitness. 

In  esthetics,  art  as  distinguished  from 
science  consists  of  the  truths  disclosed 
by  that  species  of  knowledge  disposed  in 
the  most  convenient  order  for  practice, 
instead  of  the  best  order  for  thought. 
Art  proposes  to  itself  a  given  end,  and, 
after  defining  it,  hands  it  over  to  science. 
Science,  after  investigating  the  causes 
and  conditions  of  this  end,  returns  it 
to  art,  with  a  theorem  of  the  combina- 
tion of  circumstances  under  which  the 
desired  end  may  be  effected.  After  re- 
ceiving them,  art  requires  whether  any 
or  all  of  those  scientific  combinations 
are  within  the  compass  of  human  power 
and  human  means,  and  pronounces  the 
end  inquired  after  obtainable  or  not.  The 
grounds  of  every  rule  of  art  are  to  bo 
found  in  the  theorems  of  science.  An 
art  can  then  only  consist  of  rules,  to- 
gether with  as  much  of  the  speculative 
propositions  (which  lose  all  their  specu- 
lative look  as  soon  as  they  come  into  the 
artist's  hands)  as  comprises  the  justifi- 
cation of  those  rules.    Though  art  must 


ART,  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OF  275 


ARTAVASDES 


assume  the  same  general  laws  as  science 
does,  yet  it  follows  them  only  into  such 
of  their  detailed  consequences  as  have 
led  to  certain  practical  rules,  and  pries 
into  every  secret  corner,  as  well  as  into 
the  open  stores  of  the  household  of  sci- 
ence, bent  on  finding  out  the  necessities 
of  which  she  is  in  search,  and  which  the 
exigencies  of  human  life  demand. 

The  several  arts  may  be  arranged  in 
two  groups — (a)  the  mechanical,  and, 
(b)  the  liberal  or  fine  arts.  The  me- 
chanical arts  are  those  which  may  be 
successfully  followed  by  one  who  does  not 
possess  genius,  but  has  acquired  the  fa- 
cility of  working  with  his  hands  which 
long  practice  imparts.  Such  are  the  arts 
of  the  carpenter,  the  blacksmith,  the 
watchmaker,  etc.  They  are  often  called 
trades.  The  liberal  or  fine  arts  are  such 
as  give  scope  not  merely  to  manual  dex- 
terity, but  to  genius;  as  music,  painting, 
sculpture,  architecture,  etc. 

The  seven  liberal  arts,  which,  in  the 
palmy  days  of  Rome,  plebians  were  not 
allowed  to  study,  were  thus  divided: 
(1)  The  Trivium — viz.,  grammar,  rhet- 
oric, and  logic.  (2)  The  Quadrivium — 
viz.,  arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and 
astronomy, 

ART,  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM 
OF,  the  chief  art  museum  of  New  York 
City  and  the  largest  and  most  inclusive 
in  the  United  States.  It  was  established 
in  1870  and  in  the  following  year  the 
State  Legislature  appropriated  $500,000 
for  a  building  at  Central  Park.  The  first 
building  of  the  museum  was  completed 
in  1879,  and  the  center  portion  of  the 
Fifth  Avenue  front  was  finished  in  1902. 
It  was  built  from  designs  prepared  by 
Richard  Morris  Hunt  and  cost  $1,200,000. 
A  further  appropriation  was  made  in  1904 
for  the  north  part  of  the  Fifth  Avenue 
front.  Additional  extensions  were  mrde 
in  1907  and  in  years  following.  The 
total  cost  of  the  buildings  of  the  museum 
is  about  $20„000,000.  The  museum  is 
governed  by  a  Board  of  Trustees  se- 
lected from  the  Fellows  of  the  institution 
which  compose  a  corporation.  It  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  director,  secretary, 
treasurer,  and  other  officials.  The  city 
appropiiates  about  $200,000  annually  to- 
ward its  support,  while  the  remainder  of 
the  expenses,  which  amount  to  about 
$500,000,  are  met  through  contributions 
and  through  sums  received  for  ad- 
mission on  certain  days. 

The  museum  possesses  collections  of 
the  first  rank.  The  department  of  paint- 
ings is  especially  notable  for  Flemish, 
Dutch,  Old  English,  French,  and  Ameri- 
can masters.  Many  of  the  finest  col- 
lections of  antiquities  are  housed  here. 

19— Vol.  I— Cyc 


These  include  the  Cesnola  collection  of 
Cypriote  antiquities;  one  of  the  largest 
Egyptian  collections  in  the  world,  and 
many  important  and  representative  col- 
lections of  sculpture,  examples  of  decor- 
ative arts,  and  a  notably  large  and  fine 
collection  of  medieval  armor. 

The  museum  has  received  from  time 
to  time  large  sums  of  legacies  and  be- 
quests. These  include  Jacob  H.  Rogers* 
bequest  of  about  $7,000,000  in  1904,  a 
bequest  from  Francis  L.  Leland  of  $1  - 
000,000  in  1912,  a  bequest  from  Frederick 
T.  Hewitt  of  $1,000,000,  and  other  be- 
quests and  gifts  from  other  friends  of 
the  institution. 

The  museum  has  held  many  notable 
exhibitions.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  was  the  Hudson-Fulton  Memo- 
rial exhibition  of  Dutch  paintings  and 
early  memorial  art,  in  1909.  There  have 
also  been  displayed  from  time  to  time 
important  loan  collections  including  those 
of  old  masters  and  other  objects  of  art 
of  J-  P.  Morgan.  Following  the  death 
of  Mr.  Morgan,  his  son  gave  to  the 
museum  a  large  portion  of  the  wonder- 
ful collections  of  his  father.  To  house 
these  collections  an  additional  wing  was 
built  called  the  Pierpont  Morgan  Wing. 
This  was  completed  in  1918.  The  museum 
receives  important  accessions  to  its 
various  collections  each  year.  It  carries 
on  educational  courses  and  it  is  yearly 
visited  by  an  increased  number  of  people. 
The  director  from  1910  was  Edward 
Robinson,  who  succeeded  Sir  Caspar 
Purdon  Clark. 

ART AB ANUS  (-ba'nus)  IV.,  the  last 
of  the  Parthian  monarchs.  Having  in- 
cited his  subjects  to  revolt,  he  was  cap- 
tured in  226,  and  put  to  death.  Thus 
ended,  in  the  3d  century,  the  Parthian 
empire. 

ARTABAZUS  (-ba'zus),  the  name  of 
several  distinguished  Persians  under  the 
djmasty  of  the  Achaemenidae.  When 
Xerxes  advanced  against  Greece,  an  Ar- 
tabazus  led  the  Parthians  and  Choras- 
mians.  Another  Artabazus  was  general 
under  the  Persian  king,  Artaxerxes  II., 
and  afterward  revolted  against  Artax- 
erxes III.  For  this  offense  he  was  for- 
given, through  the  exertions  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Mentor,  a  staunch  sup- 
porter of  the  next  king,  Darius,  whom  we 
subsequently  find  Artabazus  faithfully 
attending  after  the  battle  of  Arbela. 

ARTAVASDES'  (-vas'des)  I.,  a  King 
of  Armenia,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Tigranes.  He  joined  the  Roman  forces 
commanded  by  Crassus,  but  deserted  to 
the  enemy,  causing  the  defeat  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  death  of  Crassus.  He  simi- 


ARTAXERXES 


276 


ARTERY 


larly  betrayed  Mark  Antony  when  en- 
gaged against  the  Medes;  but  afterward 
falling  into  Antony's  power,  Artavasdes 
was  taken  with  his  wife  and  children  to 
Alexandria,  where  they  were  dragged  at 
the  victor's  chariot-wheels  in  golden 
chains.  After  the  battle  of  Actium,  Cleo- 
patra caused  his  head  to  be  struck  off 
and  sent  to  the  King  of  Media.  Reigned 
in  the  1st  century  B.  C. 

ARTAXERXES  (-zerks'ez)  I.,  sur- 
named  Longimanus,  was  the  third  son 
of  Xerxes,  King  of  Persia,  and,  having 
murdered  his  brother  Darius,  ascended 
the  throne  465  B.  C.  He  died  in  424  B.  C. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
Xerxes.  This  prince  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  Ahasuerus  of 
Scripture. 

ARTAXERXES  II.,  surnanied 
Mnemon,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Darius 
Nothus,  and  began  his  reign  405  B.  c 
His  brother  Cyrus  formed  a  conspiracy 
against  him,  for  which  he  was  sentenced 
to  death;  but  at  the  intercession  of  his 
mother,  Parysatis,  the  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  banishment  to  Asia  Minor.  Cy- 
rus repaid  this  act  of  clemency  by  mus- 
tering a  large  army  of  Asiatics,  and 
some  Greek  troops  under  Clearchus,  with 
whom  he  marched  to  Babylon;  but,  being 
encountered  by  Artaxerxes,  he  was  de- 
feated and  slain.  Artaxerxes  died  at  the 
age  of  94,  after  reigning  46  years. 

ARTAXERXES  III.,  succeeded  Ar- 
taxerxes II.,  his  father,  359  B.  c.  To 
pave  his  way  to  the  succession,  he  mur- 
dered two  of  his  brothers,  and  afterward 
put  to  death  all  the  remaining  branches 
of  the  family.  He  suppressed  several  in- 
surrections, and  in  Egypt  slew  the  sacred 
bull  Apis,  and  gave  the  flesh  to  his  sol- 
diers. For  this,  his  eunuch,  Bagoas,  an 
Egyptian,  caused  him  to  be  poisoned  in 
339  B.  c. 

ARTEMIS  (ar'te-mis),  an  ancient 
Greek  divinity,  identified  with  the  Ro- 
man Diana.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Leto  or  Latona, 
and  was  the  twin  sister  of  Apollo,  born 
in  the  island  of  Delos.  She  is  variously 
represented  as  a  huntress,  with  bow 
and  arrows;  as  a  goddess  of  the  nymphs 
in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  stags;  and 
as  the  moon  goddess,  with  the  crescent 
of  the  moon  above  her  forehead.  She 
was  a  maiden  divinity,  never  conquered 
by  love,  except  when  Endymion  made 
her  feel  its  power.  She  demanded  the 
strictest  chastity  from  her  worshippers, 
and  she  is  represented  as  having 
changed  Actaeon  into  a  stag,  and  caused 
him  to  be  torn  in  pieces  by  his  own 
dogs,   because  he  had  secretly  watched 


her  as  she  was  bathing.  The  Artemisia 
was  a  festival  celebrated  in  her  honor 
at  Delphi. 

ARTEMISIA  (ar-te-me'ze-a),  worm- 
wood; named  after  Artemis,  the  Greek 
goddess,  corresponding  to  the  Roman 
Diana.  A  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  astemcex,  or  composites.  It 
contains  four  British  species,  the  A. 
campestris,  or  field  southernwood;  the 
A.  vulgaris,  or  common  mugwort;  the 
A.  absinthium,  or  common  wormwood; 
and  the  A.  maritima,  or  sea-wormwood. 
The  common  wormwood  grows  luxu- 
riantly among  the  sage  brush  of  the 
Rocky    Mountain    regions. 

ARTEMISIA  I.,  daughter  of  Lyg- 
damis,  and  Queen  of  Caria,  who  assisted 
Xerxes  in  person  against  the  Greeks,  and 
behaved  with  such  valor  that  the  Athe- 
nians offered  a  reward  for  her  capture, 
and  the  Spartans  erected  a  statue  to 
her.     Lived  in  the  5th  century  B.  C. 

ARTEMISIA  II.,  Queen  of  Caria,  who 
erected  so  magnificent  a  monument  to 
the  memory  of  her  husband  Mausolus, 
that  every  splendid  structure  of  this 
kind  has  been  since  styled  a  mausoleum. 
Lived  in  the  4th  century  B.  c. 

ARTEMISIUM,  a  promontory  in 
Eubcea,  an  island  of  the  ^Egean,  near 
which  several  naval  battles  between  the 
Greeks   and   Persians  were  fought. 

ARTEMUS  WARD.  See  BROWNE, 
Charles  Farrar. 

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS,  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  arteries,  arising  in  the 
internal  coat  as  an  inflammatory  proc- 
ess, and  resulting  finally  in  the  hard- 
ening of  the  muscular  elastic  coat.  This 
produces  an  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  the  connective  tissue  of  the  walls 
which  results  in  a  contraction  of  the 
blood  vessels  supplying  the  arteries.  As 
a  result  these  become  weakened  and 
easily  ruptured.  The  disease  is  in- 
duced by  a  sedentary  life  and  by  over- 
eating and  drinking.  In  recent  years 
it  has  become  steadily  more  prevalent. 

ARTERY  (from  aer=air,  and  tereo= 
to  watch  over;  teros=:a  watch,  a  guard. 
So  called  because  the  ancients,  finding 
that,  in  the  dead  bodies  which  they  ex- 
amined, the  arteries  were  empty  of  blood, 
formed  the  idea  that  they  were  designed 
for  the  circulation  of  air  through  the 
system.  The  arteries  are  long,  cylin- 
drical tubes,  with  three  coats,  an  exter- 
nal tunic  commonly  called  the  cellular 
coat,  a  middle  or  fibrous  tunic  or  coat, 
and  an  epithelial  tunic.  The  coating 
of    the    arteries    is    very    elastic.     The 


ARTESIAN  WELLS 


277 


ARTEVELD 


largest  arteries  which  leave  the  heart 
are  the  aorta  and  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery; both  spring  from  the  base  of  the 
heart  in  front.  They  branch  and  anas- 
tomose to  a  large  extent.  The  contrac- 
tility of  the  arteries  forces  the  blood 
to  the  extremities  from  the  heart,  the 
valves  of  which  prevent  its  return. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS,  deep  wells  bored 
through  impervious  rock  strata  to  a 
porous  water  bearing  rock  stratum 
whence  the  water  flows  to  the  surface 
and  is  discharged  from  the  bore.  The 
principal  condition  of  an  artesian  well 
is  a  pervious  stratum  protected  above 
and  below  by  a  water-tight  bed.  These 
layers  come  to  the  surface  in  some  ele- 
vated region  where  they  get  their  rain 
flow,  then  pitch  downward  to  a  consider- 
able depth  and  then  rise  again,  thus 
forming  a  great  basin  which  retains 
the  water.  Rain  water  and  surface 
water  fill  the  porous  stratum  to  the 
brim.  If  it  be  tapped  any,  the  water 
will  rise  in  the  bore  and  be  discharged 
as  long  as  the  supply  equals  the  de- 
mand. The  whole  Mississippi  valley  is 
ideally  adapted  for  wells  of  this  kind. 
The  Chinese  and  Egyptians  were  early 
acquainted  with  artesian  wells.  The 
oldest  known  in  Europe  is  at  Lillers,  in 
Artois  (hence  the  name  artesian),  and 
was  sunk  in  1126.  In  1836,  the  first 
artesian  well  was  dug  in  the  eastern 
Sahara  and  at  a  depth  of  nearly  200 
feet  struck  water  which  poured  forth 
4,500  liters  a  minute.  In  1860  there 
were  50  wells,  averaging  735  liters  a 
minute.  In  the  province  of  Constantine 
alone  there  are  more  than  150.  The  re- 
sult is  proving  beneficial  not  only  to 
the  country  materially,  but  also  to  the 
'  character  and  habits  of  its  nomadic 
Arab  inhabitants.  Several  tribes  have 
already  settled  down  around  these  wells, 
and,  forming  thus  the  centers  of  settle- 
ments, have  constructed  villages,  planted 
date  palms,  and  entirely  renounced 
their  previous  wandering  existence.  The 
earliest  exploration  for  artesian  water 
in  Colorado  was  at  Kit  Carson  Station 
on  the  Kansas  Pacific  railroad.  It  was 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,300  feet  without 
obtaining  water.  In  1879,  a  well  was 
drilled  for  petroleum  at  South  Pueblo, 
in  the  Arkansas  valley.  At  a  depth  of 
1,180  feet  a  flow  of  mineral  water  (82°) 
was  struck  yielding  160,000  gallons  per 
24  hours.  Subsequently  thousands  of 
wells  were  dug  in  Colorado.  It  was 
found  that  Denver  was  underlaid  by  a 
body  of  artesian  water.  The  American 
Desert,  which  includes  one-fifth  of  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States,  has 
deep   artesian   wells   which   were   bored 


for  the  purpose  of  irrigation,  and  which 
have  transformed  the  whole  region. 

The  most  famous  artesian  well,  per- 
haps, is  that  of  Crenelle,  near  Paris, 
which  was  bored  in  1833-1841,  and 
whose  water  is  brought  from  the  Gault 
at  a  depth  of  1,798  feet.  It  yields  516% 
gallons   of  water   per  minute. 

Artesian  wells  have  supplied  a  por- 
tion of  the  data  upon  which  the  internal 
temperature  of  the  earth  has  been  cal- 
culated. Thus  the  Crenelle  well  has  a 
temperature  of  81°  F.,  while  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  air  in  the  cellar  of 
the  Paris  observatory  is  only  53°.  MM. 
Arago  and  Walferdin  observed  the  tem- 
perature as  the  work  proceeded,  and 
found  that  there  was  a  gradual  and 
regular  increase  downward.  Walferdin 
also  made  a  series  of  very  accurate  and 
careful  observations  on  the  temperature 
of  two  borings  at  Creuzot,  within  a  mile 
of  each  other,  commencing  at  a  height 
of  1,030  feet  above  the  sea,  and  going 
down  to  a  depth,  the  one  of  2,678  feet, 
the  other  about  1,900  feet.  The  results, 
after  every  possible  precaution  had  been 
taken  to  insure  correctness,  gave  a  rise 
of  1°  F.  for  every  55  feet  down  to  a 
depth  of  1,800  feet,  beyond  which  the 
rise  was  more  rapid,  being  1°  for  every 
44  feet  of  descent;  but  at  Fort  Randall 
the  temperature  at  80°  increased  at  the 
rate  of  1°  every  17%  feet.  It  was  once 
supposed  that  water  from  artesian  wells 
was  purer  than  from  ordinary  wells; 
but  it  is  found  to  be  a  mistake.  The 
lower  the  water  goes,  the  more  impreg- 
nated it  is  with  saline  and  other  matter. 

ARTEVELD,  or  ARTEVELDE  (ar'te- 
velt,  ar'te-vel-de),  the  name  of  two  men 
distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  Low 
Countries.  (1)  Jacob  van,  a  brewer 
of  Ghent,  born  about  1300;  was  selected 
by  his  fellow  townsmen  to  lead  them  in 
their  struggles  against  Count  Louis  of 
Flanders.  In  1338  he  was  appointed 
captain  of  the  forces  of  Ghent,  and  for 
several  years  exercised  a  sort  of  sover- 
eign power.  A  proposal  to  make  the 
Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III.,  of 
England,  governor  of  Flanders  led  to 
an  insurrection,  in  which  Arteveld  lost 
his  life  (1345).  (2)  Philip,  son  of  the 
former,  at  the  head  of  the  forces  of 
Ghent,  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Count  of  Flanders,  Louis  II.,  and  for 
a  time  assumed  the  state  of  a  sovereign 
prince.  His  reign  proved  short-lived. 
The  Count  of  Flanders  returned  with 
a  large  French  force.  Arteveld  was 
rash  enough  to  meet  them  in  the  open 
field  at  Roosebeke,  between  Courtrai 
and  Ghent,  in  1382,  and  fell  with  25,000 
Flemings. 


ARTHBITIS 


278 


ARTICHOKE 


ARTHRITIS,  any  inflammatory  dis- 
temper that  affects  the  joints,  particu- 
larly chronic  rheumatism  or  gout. 

ARTHROPODA,  a  subdivision  of  the 
annulosa,  or  articulata,  containing  the 
classes  belonging  to  that  sub-kingdom 
which  are  of  the  highest  organization. 
The  body  is  very  distinctly  divided  into 
rings  or  segments,  sometimes,  as  in  the 
myriapoda  ^centipedes  and  millepedes), 
mere  repetitions  of  each  other,  but  more 
frequently  with  some  of  them  differen- 
tiated for  special  ends.  In  general,  the 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  are  distinct. 
Under  the  subdivision  arthropoda  are 
ranked  in  an  ascending  series  the  classes 
miriapoda,  Crustacea,  arachnida,  and 
insecta. 

ARTHUR,  a  prince  of  the  Silures, 
and  King  of  Britain  in  the  time  of  the 
Saxon  invasions  in  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries.  He  was  the  son  of  Uther 
Pendragon  and  Igerne,  wife  of  Gorlois, 
Duke  of  Cornwall,  and  was  elected 
King  of  Britain  at  the  age  of  15.  He 
immediately  declared  war  against  the 
Saxons  in  the  north  of  England,  and 
defeated  them  so  completely,  that  in 
one  battle  alone,  it  is  said,  he  slew  500 
Saxons  with  his  own  sword,  the  famous 
Calibur.  He  subdued  the  Picts  and  the 
Scots,  and  also  Ireland  and  Iceland. 
After  a  long  peace,  during  which  he 
married  the  fair  Guinevere,  Arthur  con- 
quered Gaul  and  Norway,  and  even 
fought  against  the  Muscovite  hordes. 
On  the  Romans  demanding  tribute,  he 
crossed  into  Gaul,  and  defeated  them 
in  a  mighty  battle.  Recalled  to  England 
by  the  revolt  of  his  nephew,  Modred, 
allied  to  the  Scots  and  Picts,  Arthur 
fought  against  him  in  Cornwall,  his  last 
battle,  in  which  Modred  was  slain,  and 
Arthur  himself  mortally  wounded.  He 
was  buried  at  Glastonbury.  It  was 
long  believed  by  his  countrymen  that 
he  was  not  dead,  but  carried  to  fairy- 
land, and  that  he  would  yet  reappear, 
and,  with  his  mighty  sword,  again  lead 
them  to  victory  over  their  enemies.  The 
existence  and  exploits  of  Arthur  and  of 
his  paladins,  the  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table,  have  been  for  ages  the  theme  of 
minstrels  and  poets,  examples  of  which 
are  the  famous  "Morte  d'Arthur"  and 
the  "Idylls  of  the  King." 

ARTHUR,  CHESTER  ALAN,  21st 
President  of  the  United  States,  born  in 
Fairfield,  Vt.,  Oct.  15,  1830;  was  the 
son  of  Scottish  parents,  his  father 
being  pastor  of  Baptist  churches  in  Ver- 
mont and  New  York.  He  chose  law  as 
a  profession,  and  practiced  in  New 
York.      As   a    politician,    he    became    a 


leader  in  the  Republican  party.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  was  energetic  as  quar- 
termaster-general of  New  York  in  get- 


CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR 

ting  troops  raised  and  equipped.  He 
was  afterward  collector  of  customs  for 
the  port  of  New  York.  In  1880  he  was 
elected  Vice-President,  succeeding  as 
President  on  the  death  of  James  A.  Gar- 
field, in  1881,  and  in  this  oflSce  he  gave 
general  satisfaction.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Nov.  18,  1886. 

ARTHUR,  JULIA,  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  in  Hamilton,  Ont.,  in  1869.  She 
made  her  first  professional  appearance 
in  "Richard  III."  and  for  three  seasons 
played  Shakespearean  roles.  Her  first 
New  York  success  was  at  the  Union 
Square  Theater  in  "The  Black  Masque." 
She  later  took  the  leading  part  in  sev- 
eral successful  plays  and  was  received 
with  equal  favor  in  America  and  Eng- 
land. She  played  in  Henry  Irving's 
company  with  Ellen  Terry.  In  1898 
she  married  Benjamin  C.  Cheney,  Jr., 
and  retired  temporarily  from  the  stage, 
to  which,  however,  she  has  returned 
from  time  to  time  with  considerable 
success. 

ARTICHOKE,  a  plant  belonging  to  the 
order  asteraceae,  or  composites,  the  sub- 
order tuhuliferss,  and  the  section  car- 
duinese,  the  same  to  which  the  thistles 
belong.  It  considerably  resembles  a 
huge  thistle.  The  receptacle  on  which 
the  florets  are  situated,  and  the  fleshy 
bases  of  the  scales  are  eaten.  The 
modern  Arabs  consider  the  root  as  ape- 
rient,  and   the   gum,   which  they  term 


ARTICLE 


279 


ARTICULATION 


hunkirzeed,  as  an  emetic.  Artichokes 
were  introduced  into  England  early  in 
the   16th  century. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  not  from 
Jerusalem,  and  is  not  an  artichoke.  It 
is  an  American  sunflower  (helianthus 
tuberosus).  The  word  Jerusalem  arose 
from  a  corruption  of  the  Italian  girasole, 
meaning  "turner  to  the  sun."  The  roots 
of  this  species  are  sometimes  used  as  a 
substitute  for  potatoes. 

ARTICLE,  in  grammar,  a  part  of 
speech  used  before  nouns  to  limit  or  de- 
fine their  application.  In  English  a,  or 
an,  is  usually  called  the  indefinite  arti- 
cle (the  latter  form  being  used  before 
a  vowel  sound),  and  the,  the  definite 
article,  but  they  are  also  described  as 
adjectives.  An  was  originally  the  same 
as  one,  and  the  as  that.  In  Latin  there 
were  no  articles,  and  Greek  has  only 
the  definite  article. 

ARTICLES    OF    CONFEDERATION, 

the  title  of  the  compact  which  was  made 
by  the  13  original  States  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  It  was  adopted  and 
carried  into  force  on  March  1,  1781,  and 
remained  as  the  supreme  law  until  the 
first  Wednesday  of  March,  1789. 

ARTICLES  OF  WAR,  a  code  of  laws 
for  the  regulation  of  the  military 
forces  of  a  country.  Those  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  were  issued  prior  to 
1879,  in  pursuance  of  the  annually  re- 
newed mutiny  act.  In  1879  the  army 
discipline  act  consolidated  the  provi- 
sions of  the  mutiny  act  with  the  articles 
of  war.  This  act  was  amended  in  1881, 
and  now  the  complete  military  code  is 
contained  in  the  army  act  of  1881.  In 
the  United  States,  the  articles  of  war 
form  an  elaborate  code,  thoroughly  re- 
vised in  1880,  but  subject  at  all  times 
to  the  legislation  of  Congress. 

In  1911,  the  articles  were  again  re- 
vised, but  no  important  changes  were 
made.  The  purpose  was  to  bring  the 
military  courts  in  harmony  with  the  civil 
courts.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
transfer  of  military  delinquents  from  the 
civil  to  the  military  courts,  etc. 

ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-NINE,  of 

the  Church  of  England,  a  statement  of 
the  particular  points  of  doctrine,  39  in 
number,  maintained  by  the  English 
Church;  first  promulgated  by  a  convo- 
cation held  in  London  in  1562-1563,  and 
confirmed  by  royal  authority;  founded  on 
and  superseding  an  older  code  issued  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  five  first 
artioJes  contain  a  profession  of  faith  in 
the  Trinity;  the  incarnation  of  Jesus 
Christ,  His  descent  to  Hell,  and  His 
resurrection;  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 


Ghost.  The  three  following  relate  to  the 
canon  of  the  Scripture.  The  8th  ar- 
ticle declares  a  belief  in  the  Apostles', 
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds.  The 
9th  and  following  articles  contain  the 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  of  justification 
by  faith  alone,  of  predestination,  etc. 
The  19th,  20th,  and  21st  declare  the 
Church  to  be  the  assembly  of  the  faith- 
ful; that  it  can  decide  nothing  except 
by  Scriptures.  The  22d  rejects  the  doc- 
trine of  purgatory,  indulgences,  the  ado- 
ration of  images,  and  the  invocation  of 
saints.  The  23d  decides  that  only  those 
lawfully  called  shall  preach  or  administer 
the  sacraments.  The  24th  requires  the 
liturgy  to  be  in  English.  The  25th  and 
26th  declare  the  sacraments  effectual 
signs  of  grace  (though  administered  by 
evil  men),  by  which  God  excites  and  con- 
firms our  faith.  They  are  two:  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism,  accord- 
ing to  the  27th  article,  is  a  sign  of  regen- 
eration, the  seal  of  our  adoption,  by 
which  faith  is  confirmed  and  grace  in- 
creased. In  the  Lord's  Supper,  accord- 
ing to  article  28th,  the  bread  is  the  com- 
munion of  the  Body  of  Christ,  the  wine 
the  communion  of  His  Blood,  but  only 
through  faith  (article  29) ;  and  the  com- 
munion must  be  administered  in  both 
kinds  (article  30).  The  28th  article  con- 
demns the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion,  and  the  elevation  and  adoration  of 
the  Host;  the  31st  rejects  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass  as  blasphemous;  the  32d 
permits  the  marriage  of  the  clergy;  the 
33d  maintains  the  efficacy  of  excommuni- 
cation. The  remaining  articles  relate  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  king,  the  condem- 
nation of  Anabaptists,  etc.  They  were 
ratified  anew  in  1604  and  1628.  All  can- 
didates for  ordination  must  subscribe 
these  articles. 

ARTICULATA,  Cuvier's  name  for  the 
third  great  division  or  sub-kingdom  of 
animals.  The  species  so  designated  have 
their  bodies  divided  into  rings,  with  the 
muscles  attached  to  their  interior.  Their 
nervous  system  consists  of  two  cords  ex- 
tending along  the  under  part  of  their 
body,  and  swelled  out  at  regular  intervals 
into  knots  or  ganglia.  One  of  these  is  the 
brain,  which  is  not  much  larger  than  the 
other  ganglia. 

ARTICULATION,  in  anatomy,  a  joint; 
the  joining  or  junction  of  the  bones.  This 
is  of  three  kinds:  (1)  Diarthrosis,  or  a 
movable  connection,  such  as  the  ball-and- 
socket  joint;  (2)  Synarthrosis,  immov- 
able connection,  as  by  suture,  or  junc- 
tion by  serrated  margins;  (3)  Sym- 
physis, or  union  by  means  of  another 
substance,  by  a  cartilage,  tendon,  or  lig*- 
ament. 


ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS 


280 


ARTILLEBY 


ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS,  products  of 
an  industry  which  has  been  carried  to 
a  wonderful  degree  of  perfection,  the 
imitation  of  natural  flowers  being  so  ex- 
act as  to  mislead  even  artists.  The 
French  excel  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
pretty  frivolities.  This  industry  has  been 
successfully  carried  on  in  the  United 
States,  where  a  large  number  of  girls 
are  constantly  employed  in  making  arti- 
ficial flowers. 

ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS,  substitutes  for 
human  arms  and  legs,  and  parts  thereof, 
the  manufacture  of  which  has  received 
the  attention  of  surgeons  and  mechanics 
from  a  very  early  date.  In  the  great 
work  on  surgery,  by  Ambrose  Pare,  in 
1579,  he  refers  to,  and  gives  detailed  il- 
lustration of,  an  artificial  ai'm  and  leg, 
and  although  the  construction  was  of  a 
rude  character,  they  showed  a  very  good 
attempt  to  conceal  the  mutilation.  In 
1696  an  artificial  leg  was  invented  by 
Verduin,  a  Dutch  surgeon.  James  Potts, 
of  England,  patented  a  new  leg  Nov.  15, 
1800.  This  soon  became  celebrated  as 
the  "Anglesea  leg,"  because  it  was  so 
long  worn  by  the  Marquis  of  Anglesea. 
An  improvement  on  this  leg  was  patented 
by   William   Selpho,   who   was  the   first 


improvements  in  artificial  limbs,  and 
more  particularly  in  legs,  were  made  by 
C.  A.  Frees,  of  New  York.  One  of  these 
improvements,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant, consists  in  the  movements  of 
the  knee  and  ankle  joints,  by  which  the 
whole  limb  is  strengthened  and  made 
more  durable.  An  important  feature  of 
this  piece  of  mechanism  consists  in  the 
introduction  of  a  universal  motion  at 
the  ankle-joint,  imitating  the  astragalus 
movement  with  an  additional  joint,  and 
thus  producing  a  most  perfect  artificial 
substitute.  The  World  War  (1914-1918) 
created  an  unprecedented  demand  for  ar- 
tificial limbs,  and  the  inventors,  especially 
American,  provided  a  variety  of  ingenious 
contrivances  too  numerous  to  describe. 
Artificial  arms  and  hands  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  enable  a  person  to  grasp 
and  hold  objects,  control  movements, 
and  perform  most  of  the  operations  of 
the  real  arm.  Artificial  legs  also  show 
improvement,  being  light  in  weight,  easily 
controlled,  enabling  a  cripple  to  walk 
with  ease  and  even  grace. 

ARTILLERY,  all  sorts  of  great  guns, 
cannon,  or  ordnance  mortars,  howitzers, 
machine-guns,  etc.,  together  with  aJI  the 
apparatus  and  stores  thereto  belonging, 


FRENCH   75-MILLIMETER  FIELD  GUN 


manufacturer  of  note  in  New  York, 
where  he  established  himself  in  1839. 
The  perfection  to  which  limbs  have  been 
brought  is  wonderful  and  very  interest- 
ing. A  person  with  two  artificial  legs 
can  walk  so  perfectly  as  to  avoid  detec- 
tion, and  a  person  with  a  single  amputa- 
tion can  almost  defy  detection.     Notable 


which  are  taken  into  the  field  or  used 
for  besieging  and  defending  fortified 
places.  It  is  often  divided  into  (1) 
horse  artillery;  (2)  field  artillery;  and 
(3)  garrison  artillery. 

Field  artillery  is  artillery  designed  to 
be  taken  with  an  army  to  the  field  of 
battle;  a  park  of  artillery  is  artillery 


ARTILLERY 


281 


ARTILLERY 


with  the  carriages,  horses,  and  stores  of 
all  kinds  necessary  for  its  effective  use; 
siege  artillery  is  artillery  of  heavy  metal 
designed   to   be  employed   in    breaching 


ling  force  is  gas.  This  definition  of  artil- 
lery excludes  the  mechanical  devices  by 
which,  in  the  days  of  Archimedes  and 
the  Romans,  missiles  were  projected  to 
a  considerable  distance  by  mechanical 
means  as  the  ballista.     The  discovery  of 


A  ROMAN  DEVICE  FOR  SHOOTING  FOUR 
ARROWS  AT  ONCE 

fortifications;  a  train  of  artillery  is  a 
certain  number  of  pieces  of  cannon 
mounted  on  carriages,  with  all  their 
furniture  fit  for  marching. 


ROMAN  CATAPULT 

gunpowder  in  the  13th  century  made 
possible  the  engines  of  destruction  that 
to-day  are  the  chief  reliance  of  armies. 
Several  crude  cannon  were  used  at  the 
battle  of  Crecy  in  1346.  They  were  also 
employed  by  the  troops  that  Joan  of  Arc 
led  to  the  siege  of  Orleans.     Once  the 


BRITISH  9.2"    HOWITZER,   MOUNTED   ON   SEMI-PERMANENT  BASE 


The  name  artillery  is  also  given  to  the 
land  troops  by  whom  these  arms  are 
served,  whether  they  accompany  an  army 
in  the  field,  take  part  in  sieges,  or  occupy 
fixed   posts. 

Technically  speaking,  artillery  includes 
all    projectile    weapons    whose    propel- 


idea  was  grasped  and  the  possibilities  of 
the  new  arm  demonstrated,  developments 
were  rapid.  Its  use  spread  through  all 
Europe  in  the  16th  century,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  17th  that  its  value  in  war- 
fare was  measurably  utilized  by  Gus- 
tavus    Adolphus    in    the    Thirty    Years' 


ARTILLERY 


282 


ARTILLERY 


War.    Napoleon  used  it  with  telling  ef-  rivalry   between    France    and    Germany 

feet  in  his  campaigns,  and  laid  especial  resulted    in   many   other   important   im- 

stress  upon  the  concentration  of  artillery  provements.      Austria  -  Hungary,    Italy, 

fire.     The  most  important  modern   im-  Russia,    Japan,    Switzerland,    and    the 


^^£Wii^£y 


ITALIAN    16"    MORTAR 


provements  in  artillery,  besides  the  in-  United  States  each  strove  to  perfect  its 

crease  in  size,  is  the  general  adoption  of  own    artillery    and   to   meet    its    special 

rifled  ordnance,  breech-loaders,  and  ma-  requirements.    In    the    World    War    the 

chine-guns.     Throughout   the   19th   cen-  use    of    artillery    was    on    a    scale    un- 

tury    the    Great    Powers     increasingly  paralleled  up  to  that  time.    The  Germans 


155-MILLIMETER  HOWITZER 

worked  on  the  improvement  of  their  re-  and  Austrians  with  their  great  gun 
spective  artilleries.  Great  Britain,  as  a  works  at  Essen  and  Skoda  had  a  great 
result  of  its  many  colonial  wars,  cotv  preponderance  over  the  Allies  in  heavy 
tinuously  improved  both  its  military  and  guns.  The  forts  at  Namur,  Liege,  Ant- 
naval  artillery.  The  Franco-Prussian  werp,  and  Maubeuge  crumbled  up  like 
war    of     1870-1871     and    the     resulting  paper  before  the  attack  of  the  monster 


HOOPS 


0REECH 
PLUG 


TUBE 

BORE 
(n/Jed) 


ARTILLERY,   PLATE   A,    FIGURE    1. — A   BUILT-UP,   RIFLED   GUN,    SHOWING   DETAILS 
OF    CONSTRUCTION,    POWDER    CHARGE,    AND    PROJECTILE 


ARTILLERY,    FIGURE    2. — THREE    14-INCH    GUNS    IN    A    TRIPLE    MOUNT, 

FIRING   SIMULTANEOUSLY  Kuc.  Vol.  1  -  p.  282 


:" ''ii.irri"  [['ill  I     li."'  ■riririi'Tf^-^*-^^' 


)Coiir,nittcc  on  Public  Inforiuatim 

AN    ITALIAN    CAPRONI    BOMBING    AIRPLANE 


(QiL  i  ,,  II  ,tU-c  un  i' 


I  iijiniiia'h:!! 

A  BRITISH   HANDLEY-FAGE   BOMBING  AIRPLANE 


^^iiWr-^-<»<tWftri?tnijiM!rir     ''*»^'' 


Li^i^..-  >'..''• 


)Committee  on  Pttlilic  Iiifonnalion 
A  FIVE-MAN  GEKMAN  GOTHA  BROUGHT  DOWN   BY  AMERICAN   ANTI-AIRCRAFT  FIRE 


AN    ANTI-AIRCRAFT     75-MILLIMETER    GUN 


QRoyal  Air  Force 

A   SUNKEN    SHIP,    30    YARDS    DOWN,    AS    SEEN    FROM    AN    AIRPLANE 


ARTILLERY 


283 


ARTILLERY 


42-centimeter  guns.  These  were  sup- 
plemented by  other  heavy  guns  of  28-cm. 
and  35-cm.  and  constituted  the  heaviest 
siege  artillery  hitherto  employed  in  war- 


ful  as  that  of  Germany  at  the  beginning 
of  the  war,  but  the  disproportion  stead- 
ily decreased  as  the  conflict  went  on. 
The  French,  however,  had  two  admirable 


155-MILLIMETER  GUN,  WITH  DIVIDED  TRAIL   (FRENCH  MODEL,  1918) 


fare.  The  next  class  in  size  and  power 
was  their  heavy  army  artillery  with  13, 
15,  and  19  centimeter  caliber,  having  a 
range  of  between  10  and  12  miles. 
Lighter  than  these  were  the  corps  ar- 
tillery pieces,  of  which  the  105  and  150 


pieces  in  their  75-mm.  and  their  155-mm. 
guns.  The  former  was  the  most  useful 
piece  employed  by  either  side.  It  threw 
projectiles  weighing  between  12  and  16 
pounds  to  a  distance  of  bV2  miles.  It 
was  mobile,  light,  and  worked  with  re- 


UNITED  STATES  4.7"  FIELD  GUN 


mm.  howitzers  were  the  types.  These 
latter  were  the  more  mobile,  and  were 
able  to  follow  or  accompany  the  infantry 
to  any  desired   position. 

The  Allied  artillery  was  not  as  power- 


markable  speed  and  precision.  A  recoil 
mechanism,  with  which  it  is  provided, 
allows  a  certain  retrogade  movement 
of  the  gun  and  then  returns  it  to  posi- 
tion for  the  next  shot.    Instead  of  being 


ABTILLERY 


284 


ARTILLERY 


pointed  each  time  it  is  fired,  it  needs  only 
to  be  sighted  at  its  target  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  action  and  can  repeat  the 
shot  indefinitely. 

The  French  155-nim.  howitzer  was 
worthy  to  rank  with  the  75-mm.  It  was 
perhaps  the  finest  specimen  of  French 
gunmaking.  It  weighed  less  than  4  tons, 
and  thus  could  be  transported  quickly  to 
any  desired  location.  It  threw  a  95- 
pound  shell  more  than  7  miles  and  could 
fire  several  times  a  minute.  Its  rapidity 
of  action  was  made  possible  by  a  hydro- 
pneumatic  recoil  system  that  supports 
the  barrel  of  the  gun  and  utilizes  the 
energy  of  the  recoil  by  the  compression 
of  air.  In  less  than  thirteen  seconds  the 
mechanism  throws  the  gun  into  position 
again.  The  shell  and  the  powder  charge 
are  loaded  separately.  The  gun  has  an 
extremely  light  carriage  to  favor  its  mo- 
bility. The  muzzle  velocity  is  2,400  feet 
a  second. 

Another  formidable  weapon  was  the 
French  240-mm.  howitzer.  Its  range 
was  10  miles,  and  over  that  distance  it 
hurled  a  356-pound  shell  with  a  bursting 
charge  of  50  pounds  of  high  explosive. 
Although  about  the  size  of  the  British 
9.2-inch  howitzer,  it  was  far  more  power- 
ful than  the  latter,  whose  range  was  6 
miles  and  whose  projectile  weighed  from 
200  to  290  pounds. 

The  American  4.7-inch  field  gun  also 
proved  an  admirable  weapon.  It  carried 
a  60-pound  projectile  4^  miles  and  with 
a  45-pound  projectile  an  additional  mile's 
range  is  secured.  The  American  6-inch 
gun   carried   to   a   distance   of  over    10 


of  12,  14,  and  16  inch  size.  The  mount- 
ing of  these  on  railway  carriages  gave 
them  the  rigidity  necessary  on  account 
of  their  size  and  weight,  and  also  secured 
great  mobility,  as  they  were  able  to  be 
transported  along  railway  tracks  to  any 
part  of  the  battle  zone.  The  guns  were 
so  mounted  that  they  could  be  swung  in 
any  direction,  elevated  or  depressed,  by 
the  working  of  their  mechanisms. 

The  need  for  heavy  guns  for  our  mili- 
tary operations  abroad  caused  the  Navy 
to  lend  some  of  its  huge  naval  guns  to 
the  War  Department.  They  were  trans- 
ported to  France  in  1918,  and  arrived  in 
time  to  do  important  work  in  the  Meuse- 
Argonne  offensive.  They  were  able  to 
throw  a  projectile  of  more  than  half  a 
ton  to  a  distance  of  over  16  miles.  Their 
bombardment  cut  the  line  of  the  M^- 
zieres-Longuyon-Sedan  railway  that  was 
the  main  artery  of  supplies  for  the  Ger- 
man armies  in  France,  and  hastened  the 
signing  of  the  armistice. 

The  anti-aircraft  gun  was  a  new  ar- 
tillery feature  developed  by  the  war.  Its 
characteristics  are  small  caliber  and  long 
bore,  so  that  high  initial  velocity  may  be 
attained.  They  are  capable  of  being 
elevated  to  an  angle  of  70  degrees  and  in 
some  cases  of  75.  There  are  three  lead- 
ing types,  designed  respectively  for  field 
work,  for  mounting  on  automobiles,  and 
for  use  on  ships.  This  latter  has  a  cen- 
tral pivot  base  that  enables  it  to  be 
turned  rapidly  in  all  directions.  A  range- 
finder  is  employed  to  ascertain  the  dis- 
tance of  the  target  and  a  sighting  tele- 
scope is  used  for  taking  aim. 


eUN   IN  FIRINO 
POSITION 


AMMUNITION  CAR 


A  14"  RAILWAY  GUN,  WHICH  CAN  HURL  A  1,200-LB.  PROJECTILE  18  MILES 


miles,  while  the  5-inch  had  a  maximum 
range  of  9  miles.  They  were  very  suc- 
cessful in  destroying  the  77-mm.  guns  of 
the  enemy. 

The  great  railway-mounted  mortars 
were  one  of  the  most  striking  develop- 
ments of  the  war.    The  giant  guns  were 


Various  kinds  of  charges  are  used. 
Shrapnel  had  its  advantage  because  of 
its  wide  range  of  action,  but  in  actual 
practice  it  has  been  found  in  firing 
at  a  balloon  that  the  slight  wounds  in- 
flicted by  the  fragments  are  not  serious 
enough    to     bring    down    the    quarry. 


ABTILLBRY 


285 


ABTILLERY 


Shrapnel  therefore  has  been  largely  sup- 
planted by  a  grenade  which  pierces  the 
envelope  and  explodes  inside,  thus  set- 


BRITISH  6"  ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUN 

ting  the  balloon  in  flames.  The  trail  of 
the  grenade  is  made  by  a  special  smoke 
that  accompanies  the  projectile  by  day 
and  leaves  a  faint  w^hite  wake  at  night. 
In  this  way  the  gunner  is  able  to  see  how 
nearly  he  has  to  come  to  the  mark.  In 
the  case  of  field  guns,  the  caliber  is  2.6 


11"  SUTTON  TRENCH  MORTAR  AND 
PROJECTILE 

and  the  projectile  weighs  9  pounds.  For 
the  gun  mounted  on  a  motor  car  the  cal- 
iber is  3-inch  and  the  projectile  weighs 
12  pounds,  leaving  the  muzzle  with  a  ve- 
locity of  2,060  feet  per  second.  The 
range  is  about  6  miles  and  the  height 
attained  is  nearly  4  miles. 

The  trench  mortars  were  valuable 
chiefly  for  the  work  at  short  distances 
when   the   opposing   armies   faced   each 


other  over  No  Man's  Land.  Because  of 
their  mobility,  they  were  useful  in 
accompanying  the  drives  that  both  sides 
at  times  inaugurated,  because  they  could 
be  set  up  rapidly  in  newly  acquired 
positions.  Great  quantities  of  them 
were  used  in  connection  with  the  German 
drive  of  March,  1918. 

Machine  guns  (q.  v.)  have  claims  to 
be  classed  as  artillery,  although  mostly 
they  were  used  as  the  personal  weapons 
of  the  individuals  that  handled  them. 
They  had  never  before  been  used  in  such 
almost  incalculable  numbers. 

In  its  broadest  sense,  "Artillery" 
includes  all  those  forms  of  weapons 
and  their  appurtenances  that  are  de- 
signed for  projecting  missiles  at  an 
enemy.  Technically  speaking,  however, 
as  has  been  already  stated,  it  ap- 
plies only  to  guns  from  which  pro- 
jectiles are  throvsTi  by  the  explosive 
force  of  gunpowder.  In  this  narrow 
sense,  its  history  naturally  begins  with 
the  invention  of  gunpowder. 

Ckins. — Essentially  a  gun  is  a  tube, 
closed  at  one  end,  into  which  are  loaded 
a  charge  of  gunpowder  and  a  projectile, 
with  some  arrangement  for  igniting 
the  powder.  As  the  powder  burns, 
it  is  converted  into  gas  and  exerts 
a  pressure  which  drives  the  projectile 
down  the  bore  and  projects  it  at  high 
velocity  from  the  muzzle. 

Guns  are  commonly  designated  by  their 
caliber;  as  "3-inch,"  "12-inch,"  etc.,  the 
"caliber"  being  the  diameter  of  the  bore 
and  of  the  projectile.  Excluding  shoul- 
der pieces  and  machine  guns,  which  are 
not  within  the  scope  of  this  article, 
guns  of  the  present  day  range  from  3 
to  16  inches  in  caliber;  the  16-inch,  the 
most  powerful  gun  in  existence  in  1921, 
having  been  designed  especially  for  the 
armament  of  the  United  States  battle- 
ships of  the  1920  class. 

The  guns  in  use  up  to  the  middle  of 
the   last   century   were    of   cast   iron   or 


THE   RODMAN    10"   GUN,    USED   IN   THE 
AMERICAN    CIVIL  WAR 

bronze,  cast  in  a  single  homogeneous 
mass  around  a  core.  They  were  "smooth- 
bored"   and    "muzzle-loading"   and   fired 


ARTILLERY 


286 


ARTILLERY 


a  spherical  shot  or  shell  weighing  per- 
haps 10  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 
elongated  projectile  of  a  modern  gun  of 
the  same  caliber.  About  1850,  General 
T.  J.  Rodman,  of  the  United  States 
Army,  conceived  the  idea  of  increasing 
the  strength  of  guns  by  casting  them 
with  a  hollow  core  through  which  a 
stream  of  cold  water  was  kept  flowing. 
The  effect  of  this  was  to  jjroduce  a 
varying  tension  in  the  successive  layers 
of  metal  from  the  inside  out,  so  that 
the  walls  of  the  gun  acted  as  a  whole  in 
resisting  the  pressure  of  the  powder  when 
the  gun  was  fired.  This  principle,  of 
"varying  initial  tensions,"  is  applied  in 
modern  guns  by  building  up  the  walls  in 
successive  layers  of  steel  hoops,  shrunk, 
one  upon  another,  over  a  central  tube. 
Figure  1,  Plate  A.  The  tube  is  pierced 
throughout  its  length  to  form  the  bore, 
which  is  rifled  by  grooves  running  spir- 
ally from  breech  to  muzzle.  The  projec- 
tile, which  is  cylindrical  with  a  pointed 
head,  carries  at  its  base  a  ring  of  soft 
copper,  which,  when  the  gun  is  fired,  is 
forced  into  the  grooves  of  the  rifling  and 
sets  the  projectile  spinning  with  great 
velocity  as  it  is  driven  along  the  bore. 
It  is  this  spinning  that  keeps  the  pro- 
jectile true  in  flight  and  makes  possible 
the  long  ranges  and  great  accuracy  at- 
tained by  modern  artillery.  The  gun  is 
fired  by  a  primer  through  a  vent  in  the 
breech  plug. 

The  practical  development  of  the 
rifled  gun  of  large  caliber  as  an  actual 
and  important  factor  in  warfare  dates 
from  about  1855,  although  the  principle 
involved  had  long  been  familiar  to  ar- 
tillerists and  had  been  applied  experi- 
mentally as  early  as  1745.  Built-up 
guns  came  into  use  at  about  the  same 
time  (1850-1860),  and  the  combination 
of  these  two  factors  resulted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  high-powered,  built- 
up,  rifled  gun,  which,  in  the  last  half 
of  the  19th  century,  practically  revolu- 
tionized artillery,  especially  naval  artil- 
lery, and,  in  association  with  smokeless 
powder — perfected  about  the  end  of  the 
century — may  be  held  to  have  practi- 
cally revolutionized  warfare. 

The  first  built-up  guns  were  of 
wrought  iron,  but  this  was  soon  re- 
placed by  steel,  the  manufacture  of 
which  was  greatly  improved  through  the 
demands  of  artillerists  for  a  combina- 
tion of  elastic  and  tensile  strength  never 
before  considered  possible.  The  leader 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  new  guns  on 
a  commercial  scale  was  the  English  met- 
allurgist Sir  William  Armstrong. 

In  Germany,  Krupp  used  steel  at  an 
early  date,  but  was  behind  Armstrong 
in  adopting  the  built-up  system.  The 
first  modern  gun  in  the  United  States 


was  built  about  1880,  but  the  manu- 
facture on  a  large  scale  was  not  under- 
taken until  several  years  later,  when 
the  great  steel  plant  at  Bethlehem  was 
established  through  the  influence,  and  to 
meet  the  demands,  of  the  navy.  By 
1917,  when  the  United  States  entered 
the  World  War,  the  manufacture  of  ord- 
nance by  Bethlehem  and  other  establish- 
ments and  especially  by  the  Naval  Gun 
Factory  at  Washington,  had  so  far  pro- 
gressed that  more  than  three  thousand 
guns  of  all  calibers,  with  their  mounts 
and  ammunition,  were  turned  out  in 
little  more  than  a  year. 

As  used  on  shipboard,  guns  of  the 
larger  calibers — from  10  to  16  inches — 
are  mounted  in  turrets  with  elaborate 
mechanism  for  handling  ammunition, 
loading,  pointing,  firing,  and  controlling 
the  recoil.  On  shore,  these  calibers  are 
mounted  in  fortifications,  often  on  "dis- 
appearing" carriages  by  which  the  gun 
is  held  behind  the  shelter  of  a  parapet 
until  ready  for  firing,  when  it  is  lifted, 
fired,  and  automatically  returned  to 
shelter  by  the  force  of  the  recoil.  The 
smaller  calibers,  as  used  by  the  army, 
are  mounted  on  mobile  carriages,  drawn 
by  men  or  horses  or  by  automobile  trac- 
tors, constituting  what  is  technically 
known  as  "field"  and  "siege"  artillery. 

Projectiles. — In  the  long  struggle  be- 
tween the  penetrative  power  of  projec- 
tiles and  the  resisting  power  of  armor, 
the  projectile  appears  to  have  estab- 
lished a  permanent  advantage,  at  least 
under  proving-ground  conditions,  which 
are  admittedly  unfavorable  to  armor. 
The  16-inch  guns  with  which  the  1920 
class  of  United  States  battleships  are 
armed  have  power  enough  at  fighting 
ranges  to  drive  their  2,100-pound  pro- 
jectiles through  the  thickest  armor 
carried  by  any  ship  that  has  up  to  the 
present  time  been  proposed. 

The  Powder  Charge. — Modern  gun- 
powder, composed  of  gun-cotton  and 
nitroglycerine,  is  as  different  from  the 
powder  of  fifty  years  ago  as  modern 
guns  are  from  the  guns  of  the  same 
period.  Although  commonly  called 
"smokeless,"  it  is  far  from  being  so,  but 
it  produces  decidedly  less  smoke  than 
the  old  "black"  powder,  and  its  force  is 
many  times  as  great.  Its  essential  fea- 
ture, apart  from  its  force,  lies  in  its 
"progressiveness,"  by  which  is  meant 
that,  instead  of  burning  all  at  once,  with 
a  violent  explosion,  it  burns  slowly  and 
gives  off  its  gases  gradually,  thus  giv- 
ing the  projectile  a  push  rather  than  a 
blow — but  a  push  that  becomes  more  and 
more  pronounced  as  the  projectile  moves 
toward  the  muzzle.  In  this  way  it  gives 
a  higher  velocity  to  the  projectile  with 
much  less  strain  on  the  gun. 


ARTILLEBY  SCHOOLS 


287 


AEUNDEL 


Gitn  Mounts. — The  problem  of  mount- 
jng  a  high-powered  gun  of  large  caliber 
in  such  a  way  as  to  admit  of  manipulat- 
ing it  freely  and  controlling  the  tremen- 
doi>s  shock  of  the  recoil  is  a  difficult  and 
complicated  one.  Figure  2,  Plate  A,  shows 
three  14-inch  guns  of  the  U.  S.  S.  Idaho 
on  a  single  mount  as  installed  in  each 
of  the  turrets  of  the  ship.  The  photo- 
graph shows  the  three  guns  firing  simul- 
taneously. The  power  developed  by  a 
'  salvo  of  this  kind  would  suffice  to  lift  a 
city  skyscraper   some  four  feet  off  its 


Monroe,  Va.,  first  established  in  1823, 
discontinue,  re-established  in  1867,  dis- 
continued again  in  1898,  and  again  re- 
opened in  1900,  gives  instruction,  both 
theoretical  and  practical.  The  artillery 
regiments  of  the  regular  army  have  each 
one  foot-battery  at  the  school;  term  of 
instruction,  one  year.  A  school  of  five 
for  field  artillery  was  opened  at  Fort 
Sill  in  1911.  All  of  the  other  important 
artillery  powers  have  artillery  schools, 
France  at  Fontainebleau,  England  at 
Woolwich,  Italy  at  Natturno,  etc. 


THE  GERMAN  LONG-DISTANCE  GUN  THAT  SHELLED  PARIS  FROM  A  POINT  75  MILES  AWAY 


foundation.  Plate  B  shows  one  of  these 
guns  photographed  in  a  way  to  illustrate 
its  length,  which  is  a  little  more  than 
70  feet.  The  length  of  the  16-inch  gun 
previously  referred  to  is  about  10  feet 
greater. 

Plate  C  shows  a  14-inch  gun  on  a 
specially  designed  railway  mount  as 
used  at  the  French  front,  together  with 
its  powder  charge  and  projectile.  Five 
of  these  guns  were  used  in  the  last 
months  oi  the  World  War  and  with 
great  effect.  They  were  the  most  pow- 
erful guns  used  on  either  side  during 
the  war,  either  ashore  or  afloat;  and 
they  were  designed  and  built,  with  their 
mounts,  at  the  Naval  Gun  Factory  at 
Washington,  and  were  transported  to 
the  front  and  operated  there  by  officers 
and  men  of  the  United  States  Navy. 
The  freak  gun  used  by  the  Germans  in 
their  long-range  bombardment  of  Paris 
had  a  greater  range  than  these  guns, 
but  its  projectile  weighed  only  200 
pounds  as  against  1,400  for  the  Ameri- 
can gun,  and  the  damage  to  be  antici- 
pated from  an  explosion  of  its  projectile 
was  not  more  than  5  per  cent,  as  great. 

ARTILLERY  SCHOOLS,  institutions 
established  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
special  training  to  the  officers,  and,  in 
some  cases,  the  men,  belonging  to  the  ar- 
tillery service.  In  Great  Britain  the  ar- 
tillery schools  are  at  Woolwich  and  Shoe- 
buryness.     An  artillery  school  at   Fort 


ARTOCARPACEiE,  a  natural  order 
of  plants,  the  bread-fruit  order,  by  some 
botanists  ranked  as  a  sub-order  of  the 
urticacese,  or  nettles.  They  are  trees  or 
shrubs,  with  a  milky  juice,  which  in 
some  species  hardens  into  caoutchouc, 
and  in  the  cow  tree  (brosimiim  galactO' 
dendron)  is  a  milk  as  good  as  that  ob- 
tained from  a  cow.  Many  of  the  plants 
produce  an  edible  fruit,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  the  bread-fruit  (arto- 
carpus). 

ARTOIS,  a  former  province  of  France, 
anciently  one  of  the  17  provinces  of  the 
Netherlands,  now  almost  completely  in- 
cluded in  the  department  of  Pas  de 
Calais. 

ARUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  order  aracese,  or  arads.  It  contains 
the  well  known  A.  maculatum,  the 
cuckoo-print  (meaning  point),  lords  and 
ladies,  or  wake  robin.  The  solitary 
spikes  of  bright  scarlet  berries  may  often 
be  seen  under  hedges  in  winter,  after 
the  leaves  and  spadix  have  disappeared. 
They  are  poisonous.  The  rhizomes  are 
used  in  Switzerland  for  soap.  There  is 
in  them  an  amylaceous  substance,  which 
after  the  acrid  matter  has  been  pressed 
out,  may  be  employed  in  lieu  of  bread 
flour. 

ARUNDEL,  THOMAS,  third  son  of 
Richard  Fitz-Alan,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
born   in   1352,   died   in    1413.     He   was 


ABUNDELIAN  MARBLES 


288 


ARYAN  RACE 


Chancellor  of  England  and  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  concerted  with  Bo- 
lingbroke  to  deliver  the  nation  from  the 
oppression  of  Richard  II.,  and  was  a 
bitter  persecutor  of  the  Lollards  and 
followers  of  Wyclif. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES,  a  series  of 
ancient  sculptured  marbles  discovered 
by  William  Petty,  who  explored  the 
ruins  of  Greece  at  the  expense  of  and 
for  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.  After  the  Restoration  they 
were  presented  by  the  grandson  of  the 
collector  to  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Among  them  is  the  "Parian  Chronicle," 
a  chronological  account  of  the  principal 
events  in  Grecian,  and  particularly  in 
Athenian,  history,  during  a  period  of 
1318  years,  from  the  reign  of  Cecrops 
(1450  B.  c.)  to  the  archonship  of  Diog- 
netus    (264  B.  C). 

ARUNDEL  SOCIETY,  a  society  in- 
stituted in  London  in  1848  for  promot- 
ing the  knowledge  of  art  by  the  publi- 
cation of  fac-similes  and  photographs. 
It  was  discontinued  in  1897,  but  revived 
in  1904  under  the  name  of  Arundel  Club. 

ARUNDO,  a  Linnsean  genus  of 
grasses.  One  species  (A.  donax)  sup- 
plies material  for  fishing-rods,  and  is 
imported  for  the  purpose  from  the  S. 
of  Europe,  where  it  is  indigenous.  The 
striped-leaved  variety,  formerly  more 
common  than  it  now  is  in  gardens,  is 
called   gardener's   garters. 

ARUSPICES  (a-rus'pe-sez) ,  or  HA- 
RTJSPICES,  a  class  of  priests  in  ancient 
Rome,  of  Etrurian  origin,  whose  busi- 
ness was  to  inspect  the  entrails  of  vic- 
tims killed  in  sacrifice,  and  by  them  to 
foretell  future  events. 

ARTJWIMI  (ar-o'e-me),  a  large  river 
of  equatorial  Africa,  a  tributary  of  the 
Kongo,  which  it  enters  from  the  N. 

ARVAL  BROTHERS  (fratres 
arvales),  a  college  or  company  of  12 
members  elected  for  life  from  the  high- 
est ranks  in  ancient  Rome,  so  called 
from  offering  annually  public  sacrifices 
for  the  fertility  of  the  fields. 

ARYAN,  in  general  language,  pertain- 
ing to  the  old  race  speaking  the  prime- 
val Aryan  tongue,  or  any  of  the  numer- 
ous forms  of  speech  which  have  sprung 
from  it.  The  ancestors  of  most  modern 
Europeans  lived  together  as  one  people, 
speaking  the  primeval  Aryan  tongue, 
in  central  Asia,  and  apparently  near 
the   Pamir   steppe. 

In  a_  special  sense,  the  Aryan  race 
which  invaded  India  at  a  period  of  re- 


mote antiquity,  possibly  1700  B.  C.,.  and 
still  remains  the  dominant  Hindu  raco 
there. 

ARYAN  LANGUAGES,  a  great  family 
of  languages,  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
and  not  quite  accurately,  called  Japhet- 
ic; more  frequently  designated  as  the 
Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic  family 
of  tongues.  They  have  reached  a  high* 
er  development  than  those  of  the  second 
great  family,  the  Semitic,  the  better 
described  as  the  Syro-Arabian  family, 
and  are  far  in  advance  of  the  next  one — 
that  comprising  the  Turanian  tongues. 
Like  the  Syro-Arabian  forms  of  speech, 
they  are  inflectional;  while  those  of 
Turanian  origin  are  only  agglutinate. 
Max  Miiller  separates  the  Aryan  family 
of  languages  primarily  into  a  southern 
and  a  northern  division.  The  former  is 
subdivided  into  two  classes:  (1)  The 
Indie  and  (2)  the  Iranic;  and  the  latter 
into  six:  (1)  the  Celtic;  (2)  the  Italic; 
(3)  the  Illyric;  (4)  the  Hellenic;  (5)  the 
Windic;  and  (6)  the  Teutonic.  It  is 
often  said  that  Sanskrit,  spoken  by  the 
old  Brahmins,  is  the  root  of  all  these 
classes  of  tongues.  As  an  illustration 
of  the  afiinity  among  the  Aryan  tongues, 
take  the  common  word  daughter.  It  is 
in  Swedish,  dotter;  Danish,  datter; 
Dutch,  dochter;  German,  tochter;  Old 
Hebrew  German,  tohtar;  Gothic,  dauh- 
tar;  Lithuanian,  duktere;  Greek,  thyg- 
ater;  Armenian,  dustr;  Sanskrit,  duhi- 
tri;  the  last-named  word  signifying, 
primarily,  "milkmaid,"  that  being  the 
function,  in  the  early  Brahman  or 
Aryan  household,  which  the  daughter 
discharged. 

ARYAN  RACE,  a  designation,  since 
about  1845,  of  the  ethnological  division 
of  mankind  otherwise  called  Indo-Euro- 
pean or  Indo-Germanic.  That  division 
consists  of  two  branches  geographically 
separated,  an  eastern  and  western.  The 
western  branch  comprehends  the  inhab- 
itants of  Europe,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Turks,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary, 
the  Basques  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
Finns  of  Lapland;  the  eastern  compre- 
hends the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  of 
Persia,  of  Afghanistan,  and  of  northern 
Hindustan.  The  evidence  on  which  a 
family  relation  has  been  established 
among  these  nations  is  that  of  language, 
and  from  a  multitude  of  details  it  has 
been  proven  that  the  original  mother 
tongue  of  all  these  peoples  was  the  same. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  Aryan  nations 
were  at  first  located  somewhere  in  cen- 
tral Asia,  probably  E.  of  the  Caspian, 
and  N.  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Paro- 
pamisan  Mountains.  From  this  center 
successive    migrations    took    place    to- 


AS 


289 


ASBURY 


ward  the  N.  W.  The  first  swarm  formed 
the  Celts,  who  at  one  time  occupied 
a  great  part  of  Europe;  at  a  consider- 
ably later  epoch  came  the  ancestors  of 
the  Italians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Teu- 
tonic people.  The  stream  that  formed 
the  Slavonic  nations  is  thought  to  have 
taken  the  route  by  the  N.  of  the  Cas- 
pian. At  a  later  period  the  remnant  of 
the  primitive  stock  would  seem  to  have 
broken  up.  Part  passed  southward  and 
became  the  dominant  race  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges,  while  the  rest  settled  in 
Persia  and  became  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians of  history.  It  is  from  these  east- 
ern members  that  the  whole  family 
takes  its  name.  In  the  most  ancient 
Sanskrit  writings  (the  Veda),  the  Hin- 
dus style  themselves  Aryas,  the  word 
signifying  "  excellent,"  "  honorable," 
priginally  "lord  of  the  soil." 

AS,  among  the  Romans;,  a  weight, 
coin,  or  measure.  (1)  As  a  weight  of 
12  ounces,  the  same  as  a  libra  or  pound, 
and  divided  into  12  parts  called  uncix 
or  ounces.  (2)  As  a  coin,  which,  in  the 
time  of  TuUus  Hostilius,  is  said  to  have 
weighed  12  ounces.  After  the  first 
Punic  War  had  exhausted  the  treas- 
ury, it  was  reduced  to  two  ounces.  The 
second  Punic  War  brought  it  to  one 
ounce;  and,  finally,  the  Papirian  law 
fixed  it  at  half  an  ounce  only.  At  first 
it  was  stamped  with  a  sheep,  an  ox,  a 
ram,  or  a  sow,  but  under  the  empire  it 
had  on  one  side  a  two-faced  Janus,  and 
on  the  other  the  rostrum  or  prow  of  a 
ehip. 

ASA,  son  of  Abijah,  and  third  King 
of  Judah,  conspicuous  for  his  earnest- 
ness in  supporting  the  worship  of  God 
and  rooting  out  idolatry,  and  for  the 
vigor  and  wisdom  of  his  government. 
He  reigned  from  955  to  914  B.  C. 

ASABA  (as-a-ba'),  a  town  of  southern 
Nigeria  in  west  Africa,  on  the  Niger 
river,  150  miles  from  the  coast  and  75 
miles  above  the  delta.  It  is  a  place  of 
considerable  commercial  importance  and 
the  seat  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

ASAFETIDA,  ASAFCETIDA,  or  AS- 
SAFCETIDA,  the  English  name  of  two 
if  not  more,  plants  growing  in  Persia 
and  the  East  Indies,  the  ferula  asafce- 
tida  and  the  F.  persica.  They  belong 
to  the  order  apiacex,  or  umbellifers.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  the  drug  made 
from  them.  Old  plants  being  cut  across, 
juice  exudes  from  the  wound.  This 
being  scraped  off,  is  exposed  to  the  sun 
to  harden  it,  and  is  sent  in  large  irreg- 
ular masses  to  this  country  for  sale. 
It  is  a  useful  medicine  in  hysteria, 
asthma,    tympanites,    dyspnoea,    pertus- 


sus,  and  worms;  it  is  sometimes  given 
also  as  a  clyster. 

ASAMA,  an  active  volcano  of  Japan, 
about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Tokio,  8,260 
feet  high. 

ASAPH,  a  Levite  and  psalmist  ap- 
pointed by  David  as  leading  chorister  in 
the  divine  services.  His  office  became 
hereditary  in  his  family,  or  he  founded 
a  school  of  poets  and  musicians,  which 
were  called  after  him,  "the  sons  of 
Asaph." 

ASARABACCA,  a  small,  hardy  Euro- 
pean plant,  natural  order  aristolochia- 
cese  (asanim  europaeum).  Its  leaves  are 
acrid,  bitter,  and  nauseous,  and  its  root 
is  extremely  acrid.  Both  the  leaves  and 
root  were  formerly  used  as  an  emetic. 
The  species  A.  canadense,  the  Canada 
snake-root,  is  found  in  the  Western 
States. 

ASBESTOS,  a  variety  of  hornblende, 
Asbestos  is  exceedingly  infusible,  at 
least  in  a  mass.  It  contains  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  magnesia  in  its  com- 
position. It  occurs  mostly  in  serpentine 
districts.  The  varieties  are:  (a)  Ami- 
anthus, in  which  the  fibers  are  so  exceed- 
ingly long,  flexible,  and  elastic,  that  they 
may  be  woven  into  cloth,  (b)  Common 
asbestos,  with  the  fibers  much  less  flex- 
ible. It  is  heavier  than  the  first  variety. 
It  is  dull  green,  sometimes  pearly  in 
luster,  and  unctuous  to  the  touch,  (c) 
Mountain  cork,  light  enough  to  float  on 
water.  (d)  Mountain  leather,  also 
very  light,  but  thinner  and  more  flex- 
ible than  the  last,  (e)  Mountain  paper, 
a  designation  formerly  given  to  fine, 
thin  specimens  of  mountain  leather, 
(f)  Mountain  wood,  which,  in  the  ex- 
ternal aspect,  resembles  dry  wood.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  found  prin- 
cipally in  California  and  Georgia.  Manu- 
facturers draw  their  chief  supply  from 
Canada. 

ASBURY,  FRANCIS,  the  first  Metho- 
dist bishop  consecrated  in  America,  born 
at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  Aug.  20, 
1745.  When  16  years  old  he  became  an 
itinerant  Wesleyan  preacher,  and  in 
1771  he  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
America,  where  he  was  consecrated  in 
1784.  During  a  long  life  of  almost  in- 
cessant labor  it  is  estimated  by  his  biog- 
rapher that  he  traveled  about  270,000 
miles  (mostly  on  horseback),  preached 
about  16,500  sermons,  and  ordained 
more  than  4,000  preachers.  Of  great 
natural  ability  and  indomitable  energy, 
he  ranks  with  Wesley,  Whitefield,  and 
Coke  in  the  Methodist  movement  of  his 
time.  He  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  March 
31,  1816. 


ASBXJRY  PARK 


290 


ASCETICS 


ASBURY  PARK,  a  city  and  popular 
summer  resort  in  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.; 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  6  miles  S.  of 
Long  Branch,  and  on  several  railroads. 
It  adjoins  Ocean  Grove  on  the  N.,  being 
separated  from  it  by  Wesley  Lake.  It 
was  founded  in  1869,  and  given  a  city 
charter  in  1897.  The  city  contains  a 
large  number  of  hotels  and  boarding- 
houses,  many  attractive  summer  dwell- 
ings, electric  lights  and  street  railways, 
National  banks,  and  several  periodicals. 
It  has  trolley  connections  with  a  cluster 
©f  summer  resorts  extending  down  to 
Atlantic  Highlands,  and  is  rapidly 
becoming  nearly  as  popular  a  winter  as 
a  summer  resort.  Asbury  Park  and 
Ocean  Grove  were  originally  laid  out 
by  members  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  for  camp  meetings  and  other 
purposes.  Pop.  (1910)  10,150;  (1920), 
12,400. 

ASCALON  (as'kal-on),  ASHKELON, 
or  ASKELON,  one  of  the  five  cities  of 
the  Philistines,  on  the  Mediterranean,  W. 
S.  W.  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  main  road 
from  Egypt  through  Gaza  to  central 
Palestine.  Very  often  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  it  rose  to  considerable  impor- 
tance in  past  Biblical  times.  Near  the 
town  were  the  temple  and  sacred  lake 
of  Derceto,  the  Syrian  Venus.  A  great 
victory  was  won  here  by  the  crusaders 
in  1099.  The  position  of  Ascalon  is 
naturally  very  strong.  Near  the  ruins 
of  the  city  stands  now  a  village  of  the 
same  name.  The  eschalot  or  shallot, 
a  kind  of  onion  {allium  escalonicuTn) , 
was  first  grown  there. 

ASCANITJS  (as-ka'ne-us) ,  a  son  of 
uEneas  and  Creusa,  who  accompanied 
his  father  in  his  flight  from  the  burning 
of  Troy,  and  landed  in  Italy.  He  ably 
supported  ^neas  in  his  war  with  the 
Latins,  and  succeeded  him  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Latium.  He  afterward  built 
Alba  Longa,  to  which  he  transferred  his 
seat  of  government  from  Lavinium,  and 
reigned  there  38  years.  His  descendants 
ruled  over  Alba  for  420  years. 

ASCARIS,  a  genus  of  intestinal  worms, 
the  typical  one  of  the  family  ascaridse. 
A.  liimbricoides,  or  round  worm,  is  the 
commonest  intestinal  parasite  of  the 
human  species,  generally  occupying  the 
small  intestines;  it  is  found  also  in  the 
hog  and  ox.  In  the  human  species  it 
is  much  more  common  in  children  than 
in  adults,  and  is  extremely  rare  in  aged 
persons.  A  second  species,  the  ascans 
or  oxyurus  vermicularis,  is  one  of  the 
most  troublesome  parasites  of  children, 
and  occasionally  of  adults.  It  infests  the 
larger  intestines. 


ASCENSION  (discovered  on  Ascension 
Day),  an  island  of  volcanic  oi'igin  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain,  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  lying 
about  lat.  T  55'  S.,  long.  15°  25'  W.; 
800  miles  N.  W.  of  St.  Helena;  area, 
about  36  square  miles;  pop.  165.  It  is 
retained  by  Great  Britain  mainly  as  a 
station  at  which  ships  may  touch  for 
stores.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  turtles, 
which  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  Wild 
goats  are  plentiful,  and  oxen,  sheep, 
pheasants,  guinea-fowl,  and  rabbits  have 
been  introduced,  and  thrive  well.  George- 
town is  the  principal  settlement.  The 
island  is  governed  by  a  naval  officer. 

ASCENSION,  in  astronomy,  right  as- 
cension is  the  distance  of  a  heavenly 
body  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  (the 
ram),  measured  upon  the  equator.  The 
arc  of  the  equinoctial  included  between 
a  certain  point  in  that  circle,  called  the 
vernal  equinox,  and  the  point  in  the 
same  circle  to  which  it  is  referred  by 
the  circle  of  declination  passing  through 
it.  Or  the  angle  included  between  two 
hour-circles,  one  of  which,  called  the 
equinoctial  colure,  passes  through  the 
vernal  equinox,  and  the  other  through 
the  body.  It  is  opposed  to  oblique  as- 
cension. The  terms,  right  ascension 
and  declination,  are  now  generally  used 
to  point  out  the  position  in  the  heavens 
of  any  celestial  object,  in  preference  to 
the  old  method  of  indicating  certain 
prominent  stars  by  proper  names  or  by 
Greek  letters.  By  means  of  the  transit 
instrument,  or  by  an  equatorially  mount- 
ed telescope,  a  star  or  planet  may  be 
readily  found,  when  once  its  right  as- 
cension and  declination  are  known. 
Oblique  ascension  is  the  arc  of  the  equa- 
tor intercepted  between  the  first  point 
of  Aries  and  the  point  of  the  equator 
which  rises  with  a  star  or  other  heav- 
enly body,  reckoned  according  to  the 
order  of  the  signs, 

ASCENSION  DAY,  the  day  on  which 
our  Saviour's  ascension,  is  commemo- 
rated— the  Thursday  but  one  before 
Whitsuntide,  sometimes  called  Holy 
Thursday. 

ASCETICS,  a  name  given  in  ancient 
times  to  those  Christians  who  devoted 
themselves  to  severe  exercises  of  piety 
and  strove  to  distinguish  themselves 
from  the  world  by  abstinence  from  sen- 
sual enjo3mients  and  by  voluntary  pen- 
ances. They,  therefore,  abstained  from 
wine,  flesh,  matrimony,  and  worldly 
business;  and,  moreover,  emaciated 
their  bodies  by  long  vigils,  fasting,  toil, 
and  hunger.  Both  men  and  women  em- 
braced this  austere  mode  of  life. 


ASCHAM 


291 


ASCOLI  PICENO 


ASCHAM,  ROGER,  an  English  scholar 
and  author,  born  at  Kirby  Wiske,  near 
Northallerton,  in  1515;  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  and  struggled  with  poverty 
until  patrons  came  to  his  relief.  He  was 
famous  for  his  general  knowledge  and 
acquirements  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
is  classed  with  Spenser,  Sir  Thomas 
More,  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Though 
he  wrote  Latin  with  ease  and  elegance 
at  a  time  when  custom  favored  the  use 
of  that  language  for  important  works, 
he  urged  and  practiced  the  writing  of 
English.  In  1548-1550  he  was  tutor  of 
the  Princess  (afterward  Queen)  Eliza- 
beth. His  most  noted  works  are:  "Tox- 
ophilus,"  a  treatise  on  archery  (1545), 
and  "The  Scholemaster,"  a  treatise  on 
education  (1570).  He  died  in  London, 
Dec.  30,  1568. 

ASCIAN,  plural  ASCIANS,  in  the 
plural,  those  who  at  midday  of  one  or 
two  days  of  the  year  are  destitute  of  a 
shadow.  Those  living  in  the  Tropics  of 
Cancer  and  Capricorn  are  so  at  midday 
once  a  year,  and  those  living  between 
those  circles  are  so  twice  a  year. 

ASCIDIA,  or  ASCIDI^,  the  first 
order  of  the  tunicated  class  of  mollusca. 
It  contains  four  families,  the  ascidiadx, 
or  simple  ascidians;  the  clavellinidas,  or 
social  ascidians;  the  boti-yllidse,  or  com- 
pound ascidians;  and  the  pyrosomatidse, 
an  aberrant  family  tending  to  the  order 
biphora. 

ASCIDIAD.ffi,  simple  ascidians;  the 
typical  family  of  the  ascidian  order  of 
tunicated  mollusca.  The  animals  are 
simple  and  fixed;  they  are  solitary  and 
gregarious,  with  their  branchial  sac  sim- 
ple or  disposed  in  8 — 18  deep  and  regular 
folds.  Their  external  integument  is 
provided  with  two  apertures,  making 
them  look  like  double-necked  jars.  When 
touched  they  squirt  a  stream  of  water  to 
some  distance.  They  look  like  shapeless 
cartilaginous  masses.  Some  are  highly 
colored.  In  Brazil,  China,  and  the  Med- 
iterranean they  are  eaten  as  food. 

ASCITES,  an  effusion  of  fluid  of  any 
kind  into  the  abdomen;  especially  effu- 
sion of  fluid  within  the  cavity  of  the 
peritoneum,  as  distinguished  from  ova- 
rian dropsy  and  dropsy  of  the  uterus. 
There  is  an  idiopathic  ascites,  which  may 
be  of  a  chronic  or  acute  form,  or  of  an 
asthenic  type;  and  a  sympathetic  or  con- 
sequential ascites.  Another  division  is 
into  active  ascites,  that  in  which  there  is 
a  large  effusion  of  serum  into  the  cavity 
of  the  peritoneum,  after  undue  exposure 
to  cold  and  wet;  and  passive  ascites,  that 
produced  by  disease  of  the  heart  or  liver. 

20 — Vol.  1 — Cyc 


ASCLEPIADACEiE  (as-klep-e-a-das'- 
e-i),  an  order  of  plants  closely  allied  to 
the  apocynacese,  or  dogbanes.  Shrubs, 
or  more  rarely  herbs,  almost  always 
milky,  and  frequently  twining.  Leaves 
entire,  opposite;  flowers  umbellate, 
fascicled,  or  racemose.  Their  favorite 
habitat  is  Africa.  They  occur  also  in 
India  and  the  tropics  generally.  Fully 
1,000  are  known.  The  milk,  which  in 
some  species  furnishes  caoutchouc,  is 
usually  acrid  and  bitter,  though  appar- 
ently not  so  deleterious  as  that  of  apocy- 
7iacese.  That  of  calotropis  gigantea,  the 
akund,  yercum,  or  mudar  plant  of  India, 
has  been  used  with  effect  in  leprosy, 
elephantiasis,  and  some  other  diseases. 
The  roots  of  cynanclmm  tomentosum,  and 
periploca  emetica  are  emetic.  Gyninema 
lactiferum  is  the  cow-plant  of  Ceylon. 
Pergularia  edulis  and  periploca  esculenta 
are  eatable.  Diplopepis  vomitoria  is  ex- 
pectorant and  diaphoretic,  and  is  used 
like  ipecacuanha  in  dysentery.  Hemi' 
desmus  indica  is  the  Indian  sarsaparilla. 
The  leaves  of  cymanchum  argel  are  used 
in  Egypt  for  adulterating  senna.  Mar- 
denia  tenacissima  is  employed  for  bow- 
strings by  the  mountaineers  of  Rajmahal, 
while  M.  tinctoria  and  gymnema  tingens 
yield  an  indigo  of  excellent  quality. 

ASCLEPIAS,  a  genus  of  plants,  the 
typical  one  of  the  order  asclepiadacese. 
The  species  are  found  chiefly  along  the 
eastern  portion  of  North  America,  in 
Bermuda,  etc.  Though  all  more  or  less 
poisonous,  they  are  used  medicinally.  A. 
decumbens,  excites  general  perspiration 
without  in  any  perceptible  degree  in- 
creasing the  heat  of  the  body.  It  is  used 
in  Virginia  as  a  remedy  against  pleurisy. 
Another  variety,  A.  tuberosa,  is  a  mild 
cathartic  and  diaphoretic.  The  root  and 
tender  stalks  of  A.  volubilis  create  sick- 
ness and  expectoration.  A.  tuberosa 
(butterfly  weed)  and  A.  curassavica, 
sometimes  but  incorrectly  called  ipecac- 
uanha, are  also  medicinal  plants,  while 
A.  Utctifera  yields  a  sweet,  copious  milk 
used  by  the  Indians,  etc.;  hence  the  ordi- 
nary name  milkweed.  A.  aphylki  and 
stipitacea  are  eatable. 

ASCOLI  PICENO,  (as'ko-le  pe-cha'n5) , 
frontier  town  of  central  Italy,  in  the 
Marches,  73  miles  S.  of  Ancona.  It  is  a 
handsome  place,  well  built  and  strongly 
fortified.  Ascoli  is  the  ancient  Asculum 
Picenum,  described  by  Strabo  as  a  place 
of  almost  inaccessible  strength.  It  sus- 
tained a  memorable  siege  against  the 
Romans  under  Pompey.  Ascoli  manu- 
factures majolica  ware,  glass,  wax, 
silks,  leather,  hats,  and  cloth,  and  is 
commercially  very  active.  Pop.  about 
30,000. 


ASCOLIO  SATRIANO 


292 


ASHANTI 


ASCOLIO  SATRIANO  (sat-re-a'no)  a 
very  ancient  town  of  south  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Foggia,  13  miles  S.  E.  of 
Bovino.  It  was  here  that  Pyrrhus  en- 
countered for  a  second  time  the  Roman 
legion,  but  with  no  decisive  result  to 
either  side.  It  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1400.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

ASCOMYCETES.    See  FUNGUS. 

ASCOT  HEATH,  a  race-course  in 
Berkshire,  England,  29  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  London,  and  6  miles  S.  W.  of  Windsor. 
It  is  circular,  only  66  yards  short  of  2 
miles  in  length;  the  races  take  place 
early  in  June  and  include  the  famous 
Ascot  Gold  Cup,  instituted  in  1771.  The 
course  was  laid  out  in  1711  by  order  of 
Queen  Anne. 

ASDOOD,  or  ASDOUD,  a  small  sea- 
port of  Palestine,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
35  miles  W.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the 
Ashdod  of  Scripture,  one  of  the  five  con- 
federate cities  of  the  Philistines,  and  one 
of  the  seats  of  the  worship  of  Dagon.  It 
occupied  a  commanding  position  on  the 
high  road  from  Palestine  to  Egypt,  and 
was  never  subdued  by  the  Israelites. 
It  sustained  against  Psammetichus  a 
siege  of  29  years  B.  c.  630 ;  was  destroyed 
by  the  Maccabees,  and  restored  by  the 
Eornans,  B.  c.  55.  It  is  now  an  insig- 
nificant village  called  Esdud,  from  which 
the  sea  is  constantly  receding. 

ASGARD,  the  Heaven  of  Scandinavian 
mythology. 

ASH,  a  genus  of  deciduous  trees  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  oleacese, 
having  imperfect  flowers  and  a  seed 
vessel  prolonged  into  a  thin  wing  at  the 
apex  (called  a  samara).  There  are  a 
good  many  species,  chiefly  indigenous  to 
Europe  and  North  America.  The  com- 
mon ash  (F.  excelsiar),  indigenous  to 
Great  Britain,  has  a  smooth  bark,  and 
grows  tall  and  rather  slender.  The 
flowers  are  produced  in  loose  spikes 
from  the  sides  of  the  branches,  and  are 
succeeded  by  flat  seeds  which  ripen  in 
autumn.  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
of  British  trees  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  hard,  tough  wood  and  the 
rapidity  of  its  growth.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  it,  as  the  weeping  ash,  the 
curled-leaved  ash,  the  entire-leaved  ash, 
etc.  The  flowering  or  manna  ash  (F. 
omus),  by  some  placed  in  a  distinct 
genus  (ormis),  is  a  native  of  the  S.  of 
Europe  and  Palestine.  It  yields  the  sub- 
stance called  manna,  which  is  obtained 
by  making  incisions  in  the  bark,  when 
the  juice  exudes  and  hardens.  Among 
American  species  are  the  white  ash  (F. 


amencana),  with  lighter  bark  and 
leaves;  the  red  or  black  ash  (F.  pubcS' 
cens),  with  a  brown  bark;  the  black  ash, 
(F.  sambucifolia),  the  blue  ash,  the 
green  ash,  etc.  They  are  all  valuable 
trees.  The  mountain  ash,  or  rowan,  be- 
longs to  a  different  order. 

ASH,  or  ASHES,  the  incombustible  res- 
idue of  organic  bodies  (animal  or  veg- 
etable) remaining  after  combustion. 
As  a  commercial  term,  the  word  gener- 
ally means  the  ashes  of  vegetable 
substances,  from  which  are  extracted 
the  alkaline  matters  called  potash,  pearl- 
ash,  kelp,  barilla,  etc. 

ASHANTI,  or  ASHANTEE,  formerly 
a  kingdom,  now  a  British  protectorate, 
in  west  Africa,  on  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
to  the  N.  of  the  river  Prah;  area  about 
20,000  square  miles.  It  is  in  great  part 
hilly,  well  watered,  and  covered  with 
dense  tropical  vegetation.  The  country 
round  the  towns,  however,  is  carefully 
cultivated.  The  crops  are  chiefly  rice, 
maize,  millet,  sugar-cane,  and  yams,  the 
last  forming  the  staple  vegetable  food 
of  the  natives.  The  domestic  animals 
are  cows,  horses  of  small  size,  goats, 
and  a  species  of  hairy  sheep.  The  larger 
wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros, 
giraffe,  buffalo,  lion,  hippopotamus,  etc. 
Birds  of  all  kinds  are  numerous,  and 
crocodiles  and  other  reptiles  abound. 
Gold  is  abundant,  being  found  either 
in  the  form  of  dust  or  in  nug- 
gets. The  Ashantis  used  to  be  warlike 
and  ferocious,  with  a  love  of  shed- 
ding human  blood  amounting  to  a  pas- 
sion, human  sacrifices  being  common. 
Polygamy  is  practiced  by  them.  They 
make  excellent  cotton  cloths,  articles  in 
gold,  and  good  earthenware,  tan  leather 
and  make  sword  blades  of  superior 
workmanship.  The  chief  town  is  Ku- 
masi,  which  is  connected  with  Sekondi 
on  the  coast  by  a  railway  168  miles 
long.  (Pop.  about  25,000).  The  Brit- 
ish first  came  in  contact  with  the 
Ashantis  in  1807,  and  hostilities  con- 
tinued off  and  on  till  1826,  when  they  were 
driven  from  the  seacoast.  Immediately 
after  the  transfer  of  the  Dutch  settle- 
ments on  the  Gold  Coast  to  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1872 — when  the  entire  coast  re- 
mained in  British  hands — the  Ashantis 
reclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  the  tribes 
round  the  settlement  of  Elmina.  This 
brought  on  a  sanguinary  war,  leading 
to  a  British  expedition  in  1874,  in  which 
Kumasi  was  captured,  and  British  su- 
premacy established  along  the  Gold 
Coast.  In  1895-1896  another  British 
expedition,  from  the  Gold  Coast,  took 
possession  of  Kumasi,  forced  the  sub- 
mission of  the  King,  who,  with  his  prin- 


ASHBT7BT0N  TREATY 


293 


ASHLEY 


cipal  chiefs,  was  sent  to  Sierra  Leone, 
and  established  a  protectorate  over  the 
country.  In  1900  a  sudden  uprising  of 
native  tribes  was  put  down  only  after 
considerable  fighting.  Great  Britain 
definitely  annexed  Ashanti,  Sept.  26, 
1901,  and  it  now  forms  nart  of  the  Gold 
Coast  Colony.    Pop.  about  300,000. 

ASHBTJRTOlir  TREATY,  a  treaty  con- 
cluded at  Washington  in  1842,  by  Alex- 
ander Baring,  Lord  Ashburton,  and  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  it  de- 
fined the  boundaries  between  the  State 
of  Maine  and  Canada. 

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH  (-zosh),  a 
town  of  Leicestershire,  England,  near 
the  source  of  the  Mease,  a  tributary  of 
the  Trent,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Leicester. 
It  owes  its  suffix  to  the  Norman  family 
of  La  Zouch.  Their  ruined  castle,  cele- 
brated in  Scott's  "Ivanhoe,"  crowns  a 
height  to  the  S.  of  the  town.  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  was  imprisoned  here. 
Leather  is  the  staple  industry.  Pop. 
about  5,000. 

ASHEB.A  (ash-e'ra),  an  ancient 
Semitic  goddess,  whose  symbol  was  the 
phallus.  In  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
Old  Testament  this  word  is  used  to 
translate  what  in  the  ordinary  version 
is  translated  "grove,"  as  connected  with 
the  idolatrous  practice  into  which  the 
Jews  were  prone  to  fall. 

ASHEVILLE,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Buncombe  co.,  N.  C.,  on  the  Southern 
railroad,  near  the  French  Broad  river; 
275  miles  W.  of  Raleigh.  It  is  in  a 
tobacco-growing  region;  has  manufac- 
tories of  cotton  goods,  shoes,  ice,  tobac- 
co, and  flour;  and  is  widely  noted  as  a 
winter  and  summer  resort,  especially 
for  invalids  from  the  Northern  States. 
The  city  is  more  than  2,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  is  surrounded  by 
impressive  mountain  scenery;  and  has 
the  Bingham  Military  Academy,  Normal 
College  and  Collegiate  Institute  for 
Young  Women,  Home  Industrial  School 
for  Girls,  Asheville  Farm  School  for 
Boys,  Industrial  School  for  Colored 
Youth,  banks,  electric  lights,  and  many 
hotels  and  boarding-houses.  Adjoin- 
ing it  is  the  estate  of  Biltmore,  estab- 
lished by  George  Vanderbilt,  of  New 
York  City;  one  of  the  finest  botanical 
gardens  in  the  world;  Pisgah  forest,  a 
hunting  preserve  of  84,000  acres;  Bat- 
tery and  Riverside  Parks;  and  Mount 
Beaumont,  2,800  feet  high.  Pop.  (1910) 
18,762;   (1920)   28,504. 

ASHLAND,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  in 
Boyd  CO.,  about  146  miles  S.  E.  of 
Cincinnati.      It    is    on    the    Chesapeake 


and  Ohio,  and  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
railroads,  and  on  the  Ohio  and  Big 
Sandy  rivers.  An  important  industrial 
city,  it  has  manufactures  of  pig  iron, 
wire  nails,  steel  products,  leather,  ce- 
ment, furniture,  etc.  The  city  is  nota- 
ble for  a  handsome  park  in  its  center. 
Pop.  (1910)  8,688;  (1920)  14,729. 

ASHLAND,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Ashland  co.,  0.;  on  the  Erie  and  other 
railroads;  about  50  miles  S.  W.  of  Cleve- 
land. It  has  important  manufactures, 
large  trade,  a  National  bank,  and  several 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  6,795;  (1920) 
9,249. 

ASHLAND,  a  borough  in  Schuylkill 
CO.,  Pa.;  in  the  valley  of  the  Mahanoy, 
and  on  several  railroads;  12  miles  N.  W. 
of  Pottsville.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the 
great  anthracite  coal  fields;  has  exten- 
sive mining  industries,  large  machine 
shops,  foundries,  and  factories;  and  con- 
tains the  State  Miners'  Hospital,  a  Na- 
tional bank,  public  hall,  and  several 
churches.  Pop.  (1910)  6,855;  (1920) 
6,666. 

ASHLAND,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Ashland  co..  Wis. ;  on  Chequamegon  Bay, 
Lake  Superior  and  several  railroads;  80 
miles  E.  of  Duluth,  Minn.  It  has  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  on  the  lake,  and  be- 
sides its  general  lake  traffic,  it  is  a  ship- 
ping port  for  the  hematite  ore  of  the 
great  Gogebic  Iron  Range.  To  accom- 
modate its  iron  interests,  it  has  a  number 
of  enormous  ore  docks.  Other  special  in- 
terests are  lumber  and  brown  stone.  It 
has  very  large  charcoal  blast  furnaces, 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron. 
Near  by  is  the  group  of  Apostles'  Is- 
lands. The  institutions  include  North- 
land College,  the  North  Wisconsin  Acad- 
emy, hospitals,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  11,594; 
(1920)   11,334. 

ASHLEY,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania 
in  Luzerne  co.,  on  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey  and  the  Wilkes-Barre  and  Hazle- 
ton  railroads.  It  practically  forms  a 
part  of  Wilkes-Barre,  being  only  one  mile 
distant  from  that  city.  It  has  coal 
mines  and  railroad  shops.  Pop.  (1910) 
5,601;    (1920)   6,520. 

ASHLEY,  WILLIAM  JAMES,  an 
Anglo-American  educator,  bom  in  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1860;  was  educated  at 
Oxford;  became  lecturer  in  history  in 
Corpus  Christi  College.  In  1888  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Political  Econ- 
omy and  Constitutional  History  in  the 
University  of  Toronto,  and,  in  1892,  was 
called  to  the  newly  created  chair  of  Eco- 
nomic History  in  Harvard  University. 
In  1901  he  returned  to  England,  becom- 
ing professor  of  commerce  and  finance. 


ASHOKAN  BESEBVOIR 


294 


ASIA 


and  later  dean  of  the  faculty  of  com- 
merce in  the  University  of  Birmingham. 
He  has  published  numerous  books  on 
economic  subjects. 

ASHOKAN  RESERVOIR.  See  AQUiJ- 
DUCT. 

ASKRAF,  a  town  in  the  Persian  prov- 
ince of  Mazanderan,  near  the  S.  coast 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  56  miles  W. 
of  Astrabad.  It  was  a  favorite  residence 
of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  and  was 
adorned  by  him  with  splendid  buildings, 
of  which  only  a  few  miserable  ruins  now 
remain.  It  still  contains  over  800  houses, 
and  has  some  trade  in  the  cotton  and  silk 
produced  in  its  vicinity. 

ASHTABULA,  a  city  in  Ashtabula  co., 
0.,  on  Lake  Erie,  and  several  important 
railroads;  55  miles  N.  E.  of  Cleveland. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  dairy  region, 
and  has  an  excellent  harbor  where  the 
river  of  the  same  name  enters  the  lake. 
The  city  is  noteworthy  for  the  facts  that 
it  receives  the  largest  amount  of  iron 
ore  of  any  port  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  amount  of  its  shipment  of  the  same 
is  surpassed  by  few  on  the  Great  Lakes. 
Its  extensive  railroad  and  lake  communi- 
cations give  it  a  special  importance  in 
the  industrial  world,  as  it  stands  be- 
tween the  great  coal  and  iron  mining 
regions  and  the  extensive  manufacturing 
districts  of  Pennsylvania.  There  are 
numerous  industrial  establishments  and 
a  large  dry  dock  and  ship-building  plant. 
Pop.  (1910)  18,266;  (1920)  22,082. 

ASHTORETH  (ash'to-ret),  ASTA- 
ROTH  or  ASTARTE,  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped by  the  Jews  in  times  when  idol- 
atry prevailed;  the  principal  female  di- 
vinity of  the  Phoenicians,  as  Baal  was 
the  principal  male  divinity.  Ashtoreth  is 
the  Astarte  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
and  is  identified  by  ancient  writers  with 
the  goddess  Venus  (Aphrodite).  She  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  Isis  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  closely  connected  with 
the  Asherah  of  Scripture;  Ashtoreth  be- 
ing, according  to  Berthau,  the  name  of 
the  goddess,  and  Asherah  the  name  of 
her  image  or  symbol.  In  Scripture,  she  is 
almost  always  joined  with  Baal,  and  is 
called  god,  Scripture  having  no  par- 
ticular word  for  expressing  goddess.  She 
was  the  goddess  of  the  moon ;  her  temples 
generally  accompanied  those  of  the  sun; 
while  bloody  sacrifices  or  human  victims 
were  offered  to  Baal,  bread,  liquors,  and 
perfumes  were  presented  to  Astarte. 

ASHURST,      HENRY      FOUNTAIN, 

United  States  Senator  from  Arizona. 
He  was  born  in  Winnemucca,  Nev.,  in 
1875,  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 


and  took  special  courses  in  law  and  polit- 
ical economy  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. He  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
Arizona  in  1897.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Arizona  Legisla- 
ture and  was  successfully  re-elected, 
serving  as  speaker  in  1898.  He  was 
district  attorney  of  Coconino  co.,  Ari- 
zona in  1905-1906  and  again  in  1907- 
1908,  and  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  in  1913  and  re-elected  in  1917. 

ASH  WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of 
Lent,  so  called  from  a  custom  in  the 
Western  Church  of  sprinkling  ashes  that 
day  on  the  heads  of  penitents,  then  ad- 
mitted to  penance.  The  period  at  which 
the  fast  of  Ash  Wednesday  was  insti- 
tuted is  uncertain. 

ASIA,  the  largest  of  the  land  divisions 
of  the  world,  occupies  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  in  the  form 
of  a  massive  continent,  which  extends 
beyond  the  Arctic  circle,  and  by  its 
southern  peninsulas  nearly  reaches  the 
equator.  The  origin  of  its  name  remains 
unknown.  Europe  and  Asia  constitute  but 
one  continent,  extending  from  W.  to  E., 
and  having  the  shape  of  an  immense 
triangle,  the  angles  of  which  are  Spain 
in  the  W.,  the  peninsula  of  the  Tchuktchis 
in  the  N.  E.,  and  that  of  Malacca  in  the 
S.  E.  The  Arctic  Ocean  in  the  N.,  the 
Pacific  in  the  E.,  and  the  Indian  Ocean, 
continued  by  its  narrow  gulf,  the  Red 
Sea,  which  nearly  reaches  the  Mediter- 
ranean, inclose  the  continent  of  Asia. 
The  area  covered  by  Asia  and  its  islands 
is  17,255,890  square  miles;  that  is,  al- 
most exactly  one-third  of  the  land  surface 
of  the  globe  (32  per  cent).  Geographi- 
cally speaking,  Europe  is  a  mere  ap- 
pendix to  Asia,  and  no  exact  geographi- 
cal delimitation  of  the  two  continents  is 
possible. 

Peninsulas. — -Asia  has  one  mile  of  coast- 
line for  every  337  square  miles  of  its 
area;  that  is,  three  times  less  than  Eu- 
rope; besides  one-fifth  of  its  shores  is 
washed  by  the  ice-bound  Arctic  Ocean 
(9,900  miles  out  of  51,000),  or  by  the 
foggy  and  icy  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Its  pen- 
insulas comprise  nearly  one-fifth  of  its 
surface.  Three  immense  offsets  continue 
the  continent  of  Asia  into  more  tropical 
latitudes,  Arabia,  India,  and  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  and  some  likeness 
exists  between  them  and  the  three 
southern  peninsulas  of  Europei,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  Balkan  peninsula,  sur- 
rounded by  its  archipelago  of  hundreds 
of  islands.  Asia  Minor  protrudes  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean as  a  huge  mass  of  table-land, 
broken  by  narrow  gulfs  in  its  western 
parts.     In   the   Pacific   are   three  large 


ASIA 


295 


ASIA 


peninsulas,  Korea,  Kamchatka,  and  that 
of  the  Tchuktchis.  The  flat,  ever  frozen, 
uninhabitable  peninsulas  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,,  Taimyr  and  Yalmal,  could  play 
no  part  in  the  growth  of  civilization. 

Seas^  and  Gulfs. — The  early  inhabitants 
of  Asia  had  no  Mediterranean  Sea  to 
serve  as  a  highway  of  communication 
between  the  southern  peninsulas.  The 
gulfs  which  separate  them,  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  are  wide  open 
divisions  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Red 
Sea  penetrates  between  Africa  and 
Arabia;  and  only  now,  since  it  has  been 
brought  into  communication  with  the 
Mediterranean  by  the  Suez  Canal,  has 
it  become  an  important  channel  of  traffic. 
Asia's  true  Mediterranean  is  on  the  E., 
where  several  archipelagoes,  like  so  many 
chains  of  islands,  mark  off  from  the 
ocean  the  southern  and  eastern  China 
Seas,  whose  Gulfs  of  Siam  and  Tonkin, 
and,  especially,  the  Yellow  Sea,  with 
the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  penetrate  into  the 
continent.  The  Sea  of  Japan  has  on  its 
W.  the  inhospitable  coasts  of  northern 
Manchuria.  ^  The  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and 
that  of  Bering,  although  possessing  fine 
gulfs  (Ghizhiga,  Anadyr),  have  no  im- 
portance for  the  maritime  traffic  of  na- 
tions. 

Islands. — The  islands  of  Asia  cover  an 
aggregate  of  no  less  than  1,023,000 
square  miles  (nearly  6  per  cent,  of  Asia's 
surface).  The  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  are 
dotted  with  islands,  of  which  the  Spor- 
ades  connect  it  with  Greece.  Cyprus 
was  from  remote  antiquity  a  center  of 
civilization;  so  also  Ceylon.  The  Lac- 
cadives  and  Maldives  are  mere  coral 
atolls,  rising  amid  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
sheltering  some  200,000  inhabitants.  The 
islands  of  east  Asia  are  much  more  im- 
portant, A  narrow  strip  of  islands,  some 
large,  like  Sumatra  (177,000  square 
miles)  and  Java,  others  mere  reefs,  ex- 
tend in  a  wide  semi-circle,  under  the  name 
of  Andaman  and  Sunda  Islands,  from 
Burma  to  Australia,  separating  the  In- 
dian Ocean  from  the  shallow  Java  Sea 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  This  last 
immense  volcanic  region,  inhabited  by 
the  Malay  race,  comprises  the  huge 
Borneo,  the  ramified  Celebes,  and  the 
numberless  small  islands  of  the  Moluccas, 
the  Philippines,  etc.,  connected  on  the  N. 
W.  with  the  Chinese  coast  by  the  island 
of  Formosa.  This  latter,  as  well  as 
Hainan,  may  be  properly  considered  as 
part  of  the  Chinese  mainland.  The  Loo- 
choo  (Liu-Kiu)  Islands  and  the  Jap- 
anese Archipelago,  the  latter  joining 
Kamchatka  by  the  Kuriles,  continue 
farther  N.  E.  this  chain  of  islands  which 
border  the  coast  of  Asia.    In  the  Arctic 


Ocean,  the  small  Bear  Islands,  the  archi- 
pelago of  the  Liakhof,  Anjou,  and  De 
Long  Islands,  as  also  those  of  the  Kara 
Sea,  are  lost  amid  icefields,  and  are  but 
occasionally  visited  by  whalers,  K(  llett's- 
or  Wrangel's  Land,  off  the  peninsula  of 
the  Tchuktchis,  was  thoroughly  explored 
by  Lieut.  R.  M.  Berry,  United  States 
navy. 

Orogmphy.—li  the  whole  mass  of  the 
mountains  and  plateaus  of  Asia  were 
uniformly  spread  over  its  surface,  the 
continent  would  rise  no  less  than  2,885 
feet  above  the  sea,  while  Africa  and 
North  America  would  respectively  reach 
only  2,165  and  1,950  feet.  High  plateaus 
occupy  nearly  two-fifths  of  its  area.  One 
of  them,  that  of  western  Asia,  including 
Anatolia,  Armenia,  and  Iran,  extends  in 
a  southeasterly  direction  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  valley  of  the  Indus ;  while  the 
other,  the  high  plateaus  of  eastern  Asia, 
still  loftier  and  much  more  extensive, 
stretches  N.  E.  from  the  Himalayas  to 
the  northeastern  extremity  of  Asia,  re- 
sembling in  shape  a  South  America  point- 
ing N.  E.,  and  meeting  Bering  Strait, 
the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  high 
plateau  of  North  America. 

Rivers. — Only  four  rivers,  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Amazon,  Kongo,  and  Nile,  sur- 
pass the  largest  rivers  of  Asia^  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Yangtse-kiang,  both 
as  to  length  and  drainage  areas;  but 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  rain  over  large 
parts  of  Asia,  the  amount  of  water 
carried  down  by  the  largest  rivers  is, 
as  a  rule,  disproportionately  small  as 
compared  with  American  or  European 
rivers.  The  predominant  feature  of 
Asia's  hydrography  is  the  existence  of 
very  wide  areas  having  no  outlet  to  the 
sea.  On  the  great  plateau  of  eastern 
Asia,  the  region  which  has  no  outlet 
from  the  plateau,  and  whose  water  does 
not  reach  even  Lake  Aral  or  the  Caspian, 
covers  a  surface  larger  than  that  of 
Spain,  France,,  and  Germany  together. 
It  is  watered  only  by  the  Tarim,  which 
supplies  some  irrigation  works  in  its 
upper  parts,  and  enters  the  rapidly  dry- 
ing marshes  of  Lob-nor.  This  area  is 
steadily  increasing,  and  since  1862  we 
have  had  to  add  to  it  the  drainage  area 
(as  large  as  England  and  Wales)  of  the 
Keruleri,  which  empties  into  Dalai-nor, 
but  no  longer  reaches  the  Arguii,  a 
tributary  of  the  Amur.  The  Ulyasutai 
River  and  the  Tchagantogoi  now  no 
longer  reach  Lake  Balkash ;  and  the  Ur- 
ungu,  which  obviously  joined  the  Upper 
Irtysh  at  no  very  remote  date,  empties 
into  a  lake  separated  from  the  Black 
Irtysh  by  a  low  isthmus  not  5  miles  wide. 
If  we  add  to  this  the  drainage  basins  of 


i 


ASIA 


296 


ASIA 


Lake  Balkash  with  its  tributaries,  the 
Hi  and  other  smaller  rivers;  the  great 
Lake  Aral,  with  the  Syr-daria  ( Jaxartes) 
and  Amudaria  (Oxus),  as  also  the  nu- 
mero  is  rivers  which  flow  toward  it  or 
its  tributaries,  but  are  desiccated  by 
evaporation  before  reaching  them,  and 
finally  the  Caspian  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Volga,  Ural,  Kura,  and  Terek,  we 
find  an  immense  surface  of  more  than 
4,000,000  square  miles;  that  is  much 
larger  than  Europe,  which  has  no  outlet 
to  the  ocean.  The  plateaus  of  Iran  and 
Armenia,  two  separate  areas  in  Arabia, 
and  one  in  Asia  Minor,  represent  a  sur- 
face of  5,567,000  square  miles. 

The  drainage  area  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
includes  all  the  lowlands  of  Siberia,  its 
plains  and  large  portions  of  the  great 
plateau.  The  chief  rivers  flowing  N.  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  are  the  Obi,  with  the 
Irtysh ;  the  Yenisei,  with  its  great  tribu- 
tary, the  Angara,  which  brings  to  it  the 
waters  of  Lake  Baikal,  itself  fed  by  the 
Selenga,  the  Upper  Angara,  and  hun- 
dreds of  small  streams;  and  finally  the 
Lena,  with  its  great  tributaries,  the 
VibJm,  Olekma,  Vilui,  and  Aldan.  Three 
great  navigable  rivers  enter  the  Pacific: 
the  Amur,  composed  Qf  the  Arguii  and 
Shilka,  and  receiving  the  Sungari,  a 
great  artery  of  navigation  in  Manchuria,, 
the  Usuri  and  the  Zeya;  the  Hoang-ho; 
and  the  Yangtse-kiang,  the  last  two  ris- 
ing on  the  plateau  of  Tibet.  Freighted 
boats  penetrate  from  the  seacoast  to  the 
very  heart  of  China.  The  Cambodia, 
or  Me-kong,  the  Salwen,  and  the 
Irawadi,  rising  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  high  plateau,  water  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula.  Rising  on  the  same  height, 
the  Indus  and  the  Brahmaputra  flow 
through  a  high  valley  in  opposite  di- 
rections along  the  northern  base  of  the 
Himalayas,  until  both  pierce  the  gigantic 
ridge  at  its  opposite  ends,  and  find  their 
way,  the  former  to  the  lowlands  of  the 
Punjab,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Sutlej, 
and  the  latter  to  Assam  and  Bengal, 
where  it  joins  the  great  river  of  India, 
the  Ganges,  before  entering  the  Gulf  of 
Bengal  by  a  great  number  of  branches 
forming  an  immense  delta.  The  plateau 
of  the  Deccan  is  watered  by  the  Goda- 
vari  and  Krishna,  flowing  E.,  the  Nar- 
bada,  flowing  W.,  and  a  great  number 
of  smaller  streams.  The  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  both  rising  in  the  high  pla- 
teau of  Armenia,  flow  parallel  to  each 
other,  bringing  life  to  the  valley  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  join  before  entering 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Arabia  proper  has 
no  rivers  worthy  of  notice.  The  Irmah, 
which  enters  the  Black  Sea.  is  the  only 
river  worthy  of  notice  in  Asia  Minor. 
In  Caucasus,  the  Rion  and  Kuban  enter 


the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Eura  and  Terek, 

ths  Caspian. 

Irdand  Seas  and  Lakes. — A  succession 
of  great  lakes  or  inland  seas  are  situated 
all  along  the  northern  slope  of  the  hi.c;h 
plateaus  of  western  and  eastern  Asia.j 
their  levels  becoming  higher  as  we  ad- 
vance farther  E.  The  Caspian,  800  miles 
long  and  270  wide,  is  an  immense  scaJ 
even  larger  than  the  Black  Sea,  but  its^ 
level  is  now  85  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  ocean:  Lake  Aral,  nearly  as  wide 
as  the  ^gean  Sea,  has  its  level  157  feet 
above  the  ocean;  farther  E.  we  have 
Lake  Balkash  (780  feet),  Zaison  (1,200 
feet),  and  Lake  Baikal  (1,550  feet). 
Many  large  lakes  appear  on  the  plateau 
of  Tibet  (Tengri-nor,  Bakha),  and  on 
the  high  plateau  of  the  Selenga  and 
Vitim  (Ubsa-nor,  Ikhe-aral,  Kosogol, 
Oron)  ;  and  smaller  lakes  and  ponds  are 
numerous  also  in  the  plateau  of  the  Dec- 
can,  Armenia,  and  Asia  Minor.  Three 
large  lakes,  Urmia,  Van,  and  Goktcha, 
and  many  smaller  ones,  lie  on  the  high- 
est part  of  the  Armenian  plateau.  On 
the  Pacific  slope  of  the  great  plateau, 
the  great  rivers  of  China  and  the  Amur, 
with  its  tributaries,  have  along  their 
lower  courses  some  large  and  very  many 
small  lakes. 

Geology. — The  great  plateaus,  built 
up  of  crystalline  unstratified  rocks,  gran- 
ites, granitites,  syenites,  and  dionites, 
as  well  as  of  gneisses,  talc,  and  mica- 
schists,  clap-slates  and  limestones,  all 
belong  to  the  Archaean  formation  (Hu- 
ronian,  Laurentian,  Silurian,  and  partly 
Devonian),  and  have  been  submerged  by 
the  sea  since  the  Devonian  epoch.  The 
higher  terrace  of  the  plateau  of  Pamir 
and  the  plateaus  of  the  Selenga  and 
Vitim  are  built  up  only  of  Huronian  and 
Laurentian  azoic  schists;  and  even  Silu- 
rian deposits,  widely  spread  on  the  plains, 
are  doubtful  on  the  plateaus.  During 
the  Jurassic  period,  immense  fresh  water 
basins  covered  the  surface  of  those  pla- 
teaus, and  have  left  their  traces  in  Ju- 
rassic coal  beds,  which  are  found  in  the 
depressions  of  the  plateaus  and  lowlands^ 
Carboniferous  deposits  are  met  with  in 
Turkestan,  India,  and  western  Asia; 
while  in  eastern  Asia  the  numei'ous  coal- 
beds  of  Manchuria,  China,  and  the  archi- 
pelagoes are  all  Jurassic. 

More  than  120  active  volcanoes  are 
known  in  Asia,  chiefly  in  the  islands  of 
the  S.  E.,  the  Philippines,  Japan,  the 
Kurile,  and  Kamchatka,  and  also  in  a 
few  islands  of  the  Seas  of  Bengal  and 
Arabia,  and  in  western  Asia.  Numerous 
traces  of  volcanic  eruptions  are  found 
in  eastern  Tian-shan  in  the  northwestern 
border  ridges  of  the  high  Siberian  pla- 
teau, and   in  the   S.   W.   of   Aigun,   m 


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ASIA 


297 


ASIA 


Manchuria.  Earthquakes  are  frequent, 
especially  in  Armenia,  Turkestan,  and 
around  Lake  Baikal. 

Minerals. — There  are  gold  mines  of 
great  wealth  in  the  Urals,  the  Altai,  and 
eastern  Siberia;  and  auriferous  sands 
are  found  in  Korea,  Sumatra,  Japan, 
and  in  the  Caucasus  Mountains.  Silver 
is  extracted  in  Siberia;  platina,  in  the 
Urals;  copper,  in  Japan,  India,  and 
Siberia;  tin,  in  Banca;  mercury,  in 
Japan.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  nearly  all 
the  mountainous  regions,  especially  in 
Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Turkestan,  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  Siberia;  but  iron 
mining  is  still  at  a  rudimentary  stage. 
Immense  coal-beds  are  spread  over  China 
and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  (Hainan, 
Japanese  Archipelago,  Sakhalin),  east- 
ern Siberia,  Turkestan,  India,  Persia,  and 
Asia  Minor.  They  cover  no  less  than 
500,000  square  miles  in  China  alone;  but 
the  extraction  of  coal  is  as  yet  very 
limited.  Graphite  of  very  high  quality 
is  found  in  the  Sayans  and  northern 
Siberia.  The  diamonds  of  India,  the 
sapphires  of  Ceylon,  the  rubies  of  Burma 
and  Turkestan,  the  topazes,  beryls,  etc., 
of  the  Urals  and  Nertchinsk,  have  a 
wide  repute.  Layers  of  rock-salt  are 
widely  spread,  and  still  more  so  the  salt 
lakes  and  springs.  The  petroleum  wells 
of  the  Caspian  shores  already  rival  those 
of  the  United  States.  A  variety  of 
mineral  springs,  some  of  them  equal  to 
the  best  waters  of  western  Europe,  are 
widely  spread  over  Asia. 

Flora. — There  is  little  difference  be- 
tween the  vegetation  of  the  E.  of  Europe 
and  that  of  northwestern  Asia.  Forests 
cover  extensive  tracts,  and  consist  of 
pine,  fir,  larch,  cedar,  silver  fir,  birch, 
aspen,  and  poplars. 

In  the  region  to  the  E.  of  the  high  pla- 
teau, including  China,  Manchuria,  and 
Japan,  oak  reappears.  So  also  the  wal- 
nut, the  hazel,  the  lime  tree,  and  the 
maple;  while  several  new  species  of  pop- 
lars, willows,  acacias,  and  many  others, 
make  their  appearance. 

The  beech  is  characteristic  of  the 
forests  of  western  Asia.  Here  also  are 
found  all  the  trees  of  southern  Europe. 
The  vine  and  several  of  the  European 
fruit  trees  (pJum,  cherry,  apricot,  pear) 
are  regarded  by  botanists  as  belonging 
originally  to  this  region.  The  flora  of 
Asia  Minor  combines  those  of  southern 
Europe  and  northern  Africa,  owing  to 
its  evergreen  oaks,  laurels,  olive  trees, 
myrtles,  oleanders,  and  pistachio  trees, 
as  also  to  its  variety  of  bulbous  plants. 

Southern  and  southeastern  Asia,  with 
their  numerous  islands,  display  the 
richest  flora.    In  the  neighborhood  of  the 


sea-coasts,  the  tropical  vegetation  reaches 
the  variety  and  size  of  the  American. 
Here  the  sugar  cane,  the  cotton  shrub, 
and  the  indigo  had  their  origin.  The 
cocoanut  palm  and  the  banyan  tree  are 
the  most  striking  feature  of  the  coast 
vegetation.  Ferns  reach  the  size  of  large 
trees.  The  gigantic  banyan,  the  screw 
pine,  the  India  rubber,  and  the  red 
cotton  trees  occur  in  immense  forests; 
and  bamboos  grow  thick  and  high. 

In  Borneo,  Java,  and  the  islands  of 
the  archipelago,  the  tropical  vegetation 
is  like  that  of  India.  The  sago  palm, 
the  bread  tree,  imported  from  the  South 
Sea  Islands,  and  the  tamarind,  also  im- 
ported, are  largely  cultivated,  as  also 
the  cocoanut  palm  and  the  sugar  palm. 
Orchids  appear  in  their  full  variety  and 
beauty.  The  swamps  are  covered  with 
mangroves  or  with  the  nipa  or  susa  palm ; 
and  vanilla,  pepper,  clove,  and  nearly  all 
the  species  are  native  to  this  region. 

Asia  has  given  to  Europe  a  variety  of 
useful  plants;  among  them,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  millet,  onions,  radishes, 
peas,  beans,  spinach,  and  other  vege- 
tables. Nearly  all  our  fruit  trees  have 
the  same  origin;  the  apple,  pear,  plum, 
cherry,  almond,  pistachio,  and  mulberry, 
the  raspberry,  and  even  lucerne,  were  im- 
ported from  Asia  to  Europe. 

Fawia. — The  fauna  of  nearly  the  whole 
of  continental  Asia  belongs  to  one  single 
domain.  Animals  could  easily  spread 
over  the  plains  of  Europe  and  Siberia  on 
the  one  side,  and  on  the  other  along  the 
high  plateau  which  stretches  from  Tibet 
to  the  land  of  the  Tchuktchis.  This  wide 
region  can  be  easily  subdivided  into  the 
Arctic  region,  the  Boreal,  embracing  the 
lowlands  of  western  Siberia ;  the  Daurian, 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  great 
plateau;  and  the  central  Asian.  The 
fauna  of  Sibei'ia  is  much  like  that  of 
eastern  Europe.  It  is  the  true  habitat 
of  all  fur-bearing  animals,  as  the  bear, 
wolf,  fox,  sable,  ermine,  otter,  beaver, 
common  weasel  and  squirrel;  also  the 
hare,  wild  boar,  the  stag,  the  reindeer, 
and  the  elk,  all  belonging  to  the  European 
faunus,  with  the  addition  of  several 
species  common  to  the  Arctic  fauna. 

The  central  Asian  plateau  has  a  fauna 
of  its  own.  We  find  there  the  wild  an- 
cestors of  several  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals, viz.,  the  wild  horse,  discovered  by 
Przewalski  (Prejevalsky)  in  the  Ala- 
shan  Mountains,  the  wild  camel  and 
donkey,  and  the  capra  segargus,  from 
which  our  common  goat  is  descended.  The 
yak,  several  species  of  antelopes,  and 
the  roebuck  are  characteristic  of  the 
central  Asian  fauna;  so  also  are  the 
huge    sheep,    now    disappearing,    which 


ASIA 


298 


ASIA 


found  refuge  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the 
plateaus.  In  the  Steppe  region  we  find 
the  same  fauna  as  in  Siberia,  with  the 
addition  of  the  tiger,  which  occasionally 
reaches  Lake  Zaisan,  and  even  Lake 
Baikal;  the  leopard  and  hyena  coming 
from  warmer  regions;  and  a  variety  of 
endemic  birds.  The  bison,  which  has 
now  completely  disappeared  from  Europe 
(with  the  exception  of  the  Byelovyezh 
forests  in  western  Russia),  is  still  found 
in  the  forests  of  Caucasus ;  also  the  same 
abundance  of  pheasants  as  on  the  Pacific 
littoral. 

Southern  and  southeastern  Asia  belong 
to  a  separate  zoological  domain.  The 
heights  of  the  Himalayas  have  the  fauna 
of  the  Tibet  portion  of  the  high  plateau; 
but  on  their  S.  slopes  the  fauna  is  purely 
Indian  and  Transgangetic,  while  a  few 
African  species  are  found  on  the  plains 
of  India  and  in  the  Deccan.  As  a  whole 
the  tropical  fauna  of  Asia  is  richer  than 
the  African.  It  is  characterized  by  the 
great  number  of  carnivora,  which  find 
refuge  in  the  jungles,  and  by  the  ele- 
phant, rhinoceros,  wild  buffalo,  red  deer, 
many  long-armed  apes  and  half-apes, 
huge  bats,  genets,  and  a  variety  of  ser- 
pents and  crocodiles;  the  bird  fauna  in- 
cludes vultures,  a  variety  of  parrots, 
pelicans  and  flamingoes.  The  fauna  is 
still  richer  in  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula, 
while  in  the  archipelagos  of  southeastern 
Asia  several  Australian  species  add  to 
its  extent. 

Ethnography. — The  aggregate  popu- 
lation of  Asia  is  estimated  at  928,000,000, 
being  thus  more  than  one-half  of  the  en- 
tire population  of  the  globe.  This  popu- 
lation, however,  is  small,  giving  only  an 
average  of  53  inhabitants  per  square 
mile.  It  is  greatest  in  those  parts  of 
Asia  which  are  most  favored  by  rains. 
The  inhabitants  of  Asia  belong  to  five 
different  groups;  the  so-called  Caucasian 
(fair  type)  in  western  Asia  and  India; 
the  Mongolian  in  central  and  eastern 
Asia,  as  also  in  the  Indo-Chinese  Penin- 
sula; the  Malay  in  Malacca  and  the  In- 
dian Archipelago;  the  Dravidas  in  south- 
eastern India  and  Ceylon;  and  the 
Negritos  and  Papuas  in  the  virgin  for- 
ests of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Cel- 
ebes; also  a  sixth  great  division  com- 
prising the  stems  which  inhabit  north- 
eastern Asia,  the  Hyperboreans,  whose 
affinities  are  not  yet  well  known.  The 
Mongolian  race  alone  embraces  nearly 
seven-tenths  of  the  population  of  Asia; 
the  Malay,  about  two-tenths,  and  the 
Caucasian  about  one-tenth. 

Religions. — Asia  has  been  the  birth- 
place of  religions;  the  Jewish,  Buddhist, 
Christian,  and  Mohammedan  having  their 


origin  in  Asia,  where  they  grow  up  un-  m 
der  the  influence  of  still  older  religions, 
the  Babylonian  and  that  of  Zoroaster, 
both  also  of  Asiatic  origin.  At  present 
the  inhabitants  of  Asia  belong  chiefly  to 
the  Buddhist  religion,  which  has  530,000,- 
000  to  560,000,000  of  followers,  i.  c, 
nearly  one-third  of  mankind.  The  old 
faith  of  Hinduism  has  187,000,000  of  fol- 
lowers in  India.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
of  western  Asia,  as  also  of  part  of  cen- 
tral Asia,  follov/  the  religion  of  Islam; 
they  may  number  about  90,000,000.  The 
Christians  number  about  20,000,000  in 
Armenia,  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  Tur- 
kestan. Jews  are  scattered  mostly  in 
western  central  Asia. 

Political  Conditions. — While  the  coun- 
tries beyond  the  great  plateau  entered  but 
quite  recently  within  the  domain  of  West- 
ern history,  those  on  its  Mediterranean 
slope  have  never  ceased  to  exercise  a 
powerful  influence  on  Europe.  At  the 
very  dawn  of  written  history,  that  is, 
50  centuries  before  our  era,  the  great 
Akkadian  Empire  already  influenced  the  ,;  , 
inhabitants  of  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter-  'i 
ranean.  Later  on  the  Phoenicians  extended 
their  authority  over  northern  Africa,  and 
the  -iEgean  Sea;  the  Persians  modified 
the  development  of  Egypt;  and  at  a  very 
remote  epoch  an  oasis  of  high  civilization, 
grown  up  at  the  base  of  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, spread  itself  to  the  W.  over  north- 
ern Europe.  Alexander  of  Macedon 
pushed  his  conquests  as  far  as  Turkes- 
tan :  and,  later  on,  Rome  conquered  west- 
ern Asia,  But  the  Greek  and  Arabian 
civilization  in  central  Asia  decayed  under 
the  raids  of  Mongolian  tribes ;  the  Roman 
empire  was  absorbed  by  the  East,  and  fell 
into  decay  at  the  very  confines  of  Asia, 
on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus;  the  Ar- 
sacides  and  Sassanides  of  Persia  re- 
pulsed the  Roman  aggression  and  con- 
quered Roman  provinces,  while  the  great 
migrations  of  the  first  centuries  of  our 
era  were  due  to  mass  movements  from 
Asia  into  Europe.  Ural-Altaians  mi- 
grated to  the  Urals  and  thence  to  Hun- 
gary. Other  Turanians,  the  Mervs,  the 
Alans,  the  Avars,  penetrated  into  Eu- 
rope from  the  S.  E.  Mongols  abandoned 
plateaus,  and  invaded  the  Russian  plains; 
the  Arabs,  following  the  S.  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  invaded  Spain;  and  the 
empire  of  the  Osmanlis  arose  on  the 
ruins  of  the  eastern  Roman  empire.  By 
these  invasions,  Asia  arrested  the  free 
development  of  Europe,  and  compelled 
the  Germanic,  Gallic,  and  Slavonic  fed- 
erations to  gather  into  powerful  states 
of  the  Roman  monarchical  type. 

Portuguese  ships,  rounding  the  Cspe, 
founded  the  first  European  colonies  in 


ASIA 


299 


ASIA  MINOB 


India.  They  were  soon  followed  by  the 
Spaniards,  the  Dutch,  the  French,  the 
Danes,  and  the  British,  all  endeavoring 
to  seize  the  richest  colonies  in  Asia.  Rus- 
sia, in  the  course  of  a  few  centuries,  con- 
quered and  colonized  the  northwestern 
slopes  of  the  high  plateau  and  reached 
the  Pacific.  Great  Britain  established 
herself  in  India,  and  took  possession  of 
the  whole  of  the  peninsula,  and  extended 
her  power  over  the  westei-n  parts  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  The  Portuguese 
retain  in  India  only  Diu,  Daman,  and 
Goa;  and  the  French  keep  Chanderna- 
gore,  Yanaon,  Pondicherry,  Charical  and 
Mahe.  The  next  colonial  power  in  Asia 
is  the  Dutch,  who  have  under  their  do- 
minion most  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Celebes,  the  Moluccas  and  the  small 
Sunda  Islands.  British  and  French  in- 
terests are  rivals  in  the  Indo-Chinese 
Peninsula,  and,  while  Burma  has  be- 
come English,  the  annexation  by  France 
of  Tonkin  and  of  Siamese  territory  E.  of 
the  Mekhong  has  consolidated  French 
power  in  Indo-China.  The  joint  inter- 
vention by  Russia  and  France  in  Chi- 
nese affairs  after  the  Japanese  War  of 
1894-1895  further  extended  both  French 
and  Russian  influence  in  Asia. 

The  Russo-Japanese  War,  which  was 
in  reality  a  war  between  the  two  great 
powers  for  the  control  of  Manchuria,  re- 
sulted in  the  defeat  of  Russia  and  made 
Japan  the  preponderant  nation  in  west- 
em  Asia.  She  further  increased  her  in- 
fluence by  the  absorption  of  Korea  which 
had  become  complete  by  1920.  China,  in 
spite  of  protests  for  protection  from  the 
domination  of  Japan,  had  been  obliged  to 
yield  in  important  particulars.  Japan 
was  given  a  stronger  hold  by  the  posses- 
sion of  Kiao-Chau  peninsula,  which  be- 
came her  virtual  property  on  the  defeat 
of  the  Germans  and  the  capture  of  Tsing- 
tau  early  in  the  World  War.  For  de- 
tails in  regard  to  the  countries  of  Asia, 
see  under  the  titles  of  those  countries,  as 
Korea,  China,  Japan,  India,  etc. 

Trade.  —  Notwithstanding  the  difficul- 
ties of  communication  a  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  between  the  different  parts  of 
Asia,  but  there  is  no  possibility  of  arriv- 
ing at  even  an  approximate  estimate  of 
its  aggregate  value.  Asia  deals  chiefly 
in  raw  materials,  gold,  silver,  petroleum, 
teak,  and  a  variety  of  timberwood,  furs, 
raw  cotton,  silk,  wool,  tallow,  and  so  on; 
the  products  of  her  tea,  coffee  and  spice 
plantations;  and  a  yearly  increasing 
amount  of  wheat  and  other  grain.  In- 
dian cottons  of  European  patterns  and 
jute-stuffs  already  compete  with  those  of 
Lancashire  and  Dundee.  Several  of  the 
petty  trades  carried  on  in  India,  China, 
Japan,  Asia  Minor  and  some  parts  of 


Persia,  have  been  brought  to  so  high  a 
perfection  that  the  silks,  printed  cottons, 
carpets,  jewelry  and  cutlery  of  partic- 
ular districts  far  surpass  in  their  artis- 
tic taste  many  like  productions  of  Eu- 
rope. 

ASIA  MINOR  (Asia  the  Less,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  Asia  in  the  widest  ex- 
tent) is  the  name  usually  given  to  the 
western  peninsular  projection  of  Asia, 
forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  The 
late  Greek  name  for  Asia  Minor  is  Ana- 
tolia—Anatole ,  "the  East,"  whence  is 
formed  the  Turkish  Anaddi.  Asia 
Minor  includes  the  peninsula;  the  east- 
ern boundary,  somewhat  artificial,  being 
a  line  from  the  Gulf  of  Skanderoon  to 
the  upper  Euphrates  and  thence  to  a 
point  E.  of  Trebizond.  The  area  of  the 
peninsula  exceeds  220,000  square  miles. 
It  constitutes  the  western  prolongation 
of  the  high  table-land  of  Armenia  with 
its  border  mountain-ranges.  The  in- 
terior consists  of  a  great  plateau,  or 
rather  series  of  plateaus,  rising  in  grad- 
uation from  3,500  to  4,000  feet,  with 
bare  steppes,  salt  plains,  marshes  and 
lakes;  the  structure  is  volcanic,  and 
there  are  several  conical  mountains,  one 
of  which, theErgish-dagh  (Argaeus),with 
two  craters,  attains  a  height  of  11,830 
feet,  towering  above  the  plain  of  Kai- 
sarieh,  which  has  itself  an  elevation  of 
between  2,000  and  3,000  feet.  The  plateau 
is  bordered  on  the  N.  by  a  long  train  of 
parallel  mountains,  4,000  to  6,000  feet 
high,  and  cut  up  into  groups  by  cross 
valleys.  These  mountains  sink  abruptly 
down  on  the  N.  side  to  a  narrow  strip  of 
coast;  their  slopes  toward  the  interior 
are  gentler  and  bare  of  wood.  Similar  is 
the  character  of  the  border  ranges  on  the 
S.,  the  ancient  Taurus,  only  that  they  are 
more  continuous  and  higher,  being,  to 
the  N.  of  the  Bay  of  Skanderoon,  10,000 
to  12,000  feet,  and,  farther  to  the  W., 
8,000  to  9,000  feet.  The  W.  border  is 
intersected  by  numerous  valleys  opening 
upon  the  archipelago,  to  the  northern 
part  of  which  Mounts  Ida  and  Olympus 
belong.  Between  the  highlands  and  the 
sea  lie  the  fertile  coast-lands  of  the 
Levant.  Of  the  rivers  the  largest  is  the 
Kizil  Irmak  (Halys),  which,  like  the 
Yeshil  Irmak  (Iris),  and  the  Sakaria 
(Sangarius),  flows  into  the  Black  Sea; 
the  Sarabat  (Hermus)  and  Meinder 
(Maeander)  flow  into  the  .^gean. 

In  point  of  natural  history,  Asia  Minor 
forms  the  transition  from  the  continental 
character  of  the  East  to  the  maritime 
character  of  the  West.  The  forest  trees 
and  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are  seen 
mingled  with  the  forms  characteristic  of 
Persia  and  Syria.  The  central  plateau, 
which  is  barren,  has  the  character  of  an 


ASIPHONATA 


300 


ASPARAGUS 


Asiatic  steppe,  more  adapted  for  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  nomadic  tribes  than 
for  agriculture;  while  the  coasts,  rich  in 
all  European  products,  fine  fruits,  olives, 
wine,  and  silk,  have  quite  the  character 
of  the  S.  of  Europe,  which  on  the  warmer 
and  drier  S.  coast  shades  into  that  of 

.A  XT*  103. 

The '  inhabitants,  some  10,000,000  in 
number,  consist  of  the  most  various 
races.  The  dominant  race  are  the  Os- 
manli  Turks,  who  number  7,000,000, 
and  are  spread  over  the  whole  country; 
allied  to  these  are  the  Turkomans  and 
Yuruks,  speaking  a  dialect  of  the  same 
language.  There  are  also  hordes  of 
nomadic  Kurds.  Among  the  mountains 
E.  of  Trebizond  are  the  robber  tribes 
of  the  Lazes. 

Under  Turkish  rule  the  administration 
of  the  country  fell  into  eight  vilayets  or 
governments,  with  their  capitals  in 
Brusa,  Smyrna,  Konieh  (Iconium),  Ada- 
na,  Sivas,  Angora,  Trebizond,  and  Kas- 
tamuni  respectively. 

Here  was  the  early  seat  of  Grecian 
civilization,  and  here  were  the  countries 
of  Phrygia,  Lycia,  Caria,  Paphlagonia, 
Bithynia,  Lydia,  Pamphylia,  Isauria, 
Cilicia,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  etc.,  with 
Troy,  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  and  many  other 
great  and  famous  cities.  Here,  from  the 
obscure  era  of  Semiramis  (about  2,000 
years  B.  c),  to  the  time  of  Osman  (about 
1,300  A.  D.),  the  greatest  conquerors  of 
the  world  contended  for  supremacy;  and 
here  took  place  the  wars  of  the  Medes 
and  Persians  with  the  Scythians;  of  the 
Greeks  with  the  Persians ;  of  the  Romans 
with  the  Mithridates  and  the  Parthians; 
of  the  Arabs,  Seljuks,  Mongols  and  Os- 
manli  Turks  with  the  weak  Byzantine 
Empire.  Here  Alexander  the  Great  and 
the  Romans  successfully  contended  for 
the  mastery  of  the  civilized  world.  But, 
notwithstanding  all  these  wars,  the 
country  still  continued  to  enjoy  some 
measure  of  prosperity  till  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  under  whose  military 
despotism  its  ancient  civilization  was 
sadly  brought  to  ruin.  For  conditions  in 
Asia  Minor  which  resulted  from  the 
World  War,  see  Armenia;  Greece;  Tur- 
key; AzERBAiDJAN,  REPUBLIC  OF;  and 
World  War. 

ASIPHONATA,  or  ASIPHONIDA,  an 
order  of  lamellihranchiate ,  bivalve  mol- 
lusks,  destitute  of  the  siphon  or  tube 
through  which,  in  the  siphonata,  the 
water  that  enters  the  gills  is  passed  out- 
ward. It  includes  the  oysters,  the  scal- 
lop shells,  the  pearl  oyster,  the  mussels, 
and  in  general  the  most  useful  and  valu- 
able mollusks. 

ASKABAD,  the  administrative  center 
of  the  Russian  province  of  Transcaspia, 


Turkestan,  on  the  Trans-Caspian  rail- 
way, situated  in  the  Akhal  Tekke  oasis, 
and  occupied  by  Skobeleff  in  January, 
1881,  after  the  sack  of  Geok  Tepe.  Its 
distance  from  Merv  is  232  miles,  from 
Herat  388  miles.  It  is  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  Pop.  about 
50,000. 

ASKJA  (ask'ya),  a  volcano  near  the 
center  of  Iceland,  first  bl-ought  into 
notice  by  an  eruption  in  1875.  Its  crater 
is  17  miles  in  circumference,  surrounded 
by  a  mountain-ring  from  500  to  1,000 
feet  high,  the  height  of  the  mountain 
itself  being  between  4,000  and  5,000 
feet. 

ASMON^ANS  (az-mon-e'ans),  a  fami- 
ly of  high  priests  and  princes  who  ruled 
over  the  Jews  for  about  130  years,  from 
153  B.  c,  when  Jonathan,  son  of  Mat- 
tathias,  the  great-grandson  of  Chasmon 
or  Asmonaeus,  was  nominated  to  the  high 
priesthood.  They  were  also  known  as 
the  Maccabees. 

ASOKA,  an  Indian  sovereign,  who 
reigned  255-223  B.  C.  over  the  whole  of 
northern  Hindustan,  grandson  of  Chan- 
dragupta  or  Sandracottus.  He  embraced 
Buddhism,  and  forced  his  subjects  also 
to  become  converts. 

ASP,  or  ASPIC,  the  kind  of  serpent 
peculiar  to  Egypt  and  Libya,  which  has 
obtained  great  celebrity  from  having 
been  chosen  by  Cleopatra  to  give  her  an 
easy  death.  Its  poison  is  so  quick  and 
deadly  in  its  operation  that  it  kills  with- 
out a  possibility  of  applying  any  remedy. 
It  is  believed  to  have  been  the  naia  haje. 
It  is  the  same  genus  as  the  cobra  capelio, 
but  differs  in  having  the  neck  less  wide, 
and  having  the  color  greenish,  bordered 
with  brown.  It  is  probably  the  asp 
(aspis)  of  the  New  Testament  (Rom  iii: 
13).  The  common  asp  or  cherssea 
(viperoi  aspis)  is  olive  above,  with  four 
rows  of  black  spots.  Its  poison  is  severe. 
It  is  common  in  southern  Europe,  the 
Alpine  region,  and  is  found  as  far  north 
as  Sweden. 

ASPARAGTTS,  a  plant  of  the  ordet 
liliaccx,  the  young  shoots  of  which,  cut 
as  they  are  emerging  from  the  ground, 
are  a  favorite  culinary  vegetable.  In 
Greece,  and  especially  in  the  southern 
steppes  of  Russia  and  Poland,  it  is  found 
in  profusion;  and  its  edible  qualities 
were  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  It  is 
usually  raised  from  seed;  and  the  plants 
should  remain  three  years  in  the  ground 
before  they  are  cut;  after  which,  for 
10  or  12  years,  they  will  continue  to 
afford  a  regular  annual  supply.  The 
beds  are  protected  by  straw  or  litter  in 
winter.     Its  diuretic  properties  are  aa- 


ASF  ASIA 


301 


ASPHODEL 


cribed  to  the  presence  of  a  crystalline 
substance  found  also  in  the  potato,  let- 
tuce, etc. 

ASP  ASIA  (as-pa'ze-a),  a  celebrated 
Grecian,  belonging  to  a  family  of  some 
note  in  Miletus,  and  was  early  distin- 
guished for  her  graces  of  mind  and  per- 
son. She  went  to  Athens  after  the  Per- 
sian War,  and  by  her  beauty  and  ac- 
complishments soon  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  leading  men  of  that  city.  She 
engaged  the  affections  of  Pericles,  who 
is  said  to  have  divorced  his  former  wife 
in  order  to  marry  her.  Their  union  was 
harmonious  throughout.  Their  house 
was  the  resort  of  the  wisdom  and 
■wit  of  Athens.  Plato  says  that  she 
formed  the  best  speakers  of  her  time, 
and,  chief  among  them,  Pericles  himself. 
The  sage  Socrates  was  a  frequent  visitor 
at  her  salons,  drawn  thither,  it  is  in- 
sinuated, by  the  double  attraction  of 
eloquence  and  beauty.  Anaxagoras,  Phi- 
dias, and  Alcibiades  were  also  numbered 
among  her  admirers.  The  envy  which 
assailed  the  administration  of  Pericles 
was  unsparing  in  its  attacks  on  his  mis- 
tress. Her  fearless  speculation  aroused 
their  superstitious  zeal.  She  shared  the 
impeachment,  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
fate,  of  her  friend  Anaxagoras.  She 
was  accused  by  Hermippus  of  disloyalty 
to  the  gods,  and  of  introducing  freed 
women  into  her  house  to  gratify  the  im- 
pure tastes  of  Pericles.  He  himself 
pleaded  her  cause  triumphantly,  and 
Aspasia  was  acquitted.  She  survived 
Pericles  some  years. 

ASPEN,  a  tree,  the  populus  tremula 
or  trembling  poplar.  The  tremulous 
movement  of  the  leaves  which  exists  in 
all  the  poplars,  but  culminates  in  the 
aspen,  mainly  arises  from  the  length  and 
slender  character  of  the  petiole  or  leaf- 
stalk, and  from  its  being  much  and  later- 
ally compressed. 

ASPERN,  a  small  village  of  Austria, 
on  the  Danube,  about  2  miles  from 
Vienna.  Here,  and  in  the  neighboring 
village  of  Esslingen,  were  fought  the 
tremendous  battles  of  the  21st  and  22d 
of  May,  1809,  between  the  French  grand 
army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  and  the 
Austrians  under  the  Archduke  Charles, 
resulting  in  great  losses  to  both  sides. 
The  French  were  obliged  to  retreat  to 
the  island  of  Lobau,  from  where  they 
withdrew  to  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube. 

ASPHALT,  or  ASPHALTTJM,  the  most 
common  variety  of  bitumen;  also  called 
mineral  pitch.  Asphalt  is  a  compact, 
glossy,  brittle,  black  or  brown  mineral, 
which  breaks  with  a   polished   fracture, 


melts  easily  with  a  strong  pitchy  odor 
when  heated,  and  when  pure  burns  with- 
out leaving  any  ashes.  It  is  found  in  the 
earth  in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Europe, 
and  the  United  States,  and  in  a  soft  or 
liquid  state  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  which,  fi'om  its  circumference,  was 
called  Asphaltites.  It  is  of  organic  ori- 
gin, the  asphalt  of  the  great  Pitch  Lake 
of  Trinidad  being  derived  from  bitumi- 
nous shales,  containing  vegetable  remains 
in  the  process  of  transformation.  As- 
phalt is  produced  artificially  in  making 
coal  gas. 

What  is  known  of  asphalt  rock  is  a 
limestone  impregnated  with  bitumen, 
found  in  large  quantities  in  Switzerland, 
France,  Hanover,  Holstein,  Sicily,  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States,  the  purest  forms  taking  the 
names  of  elaterite,  gilsonite,  albertite, 
maltha,  brea,  etc.  In  the  trade  there  is 
wide  distinction  between  these  and  the 
sandstones,  and  limestones  impregnated 
with  bitumen,  which  are  known  as  bitu- 
minous or  asphaltic  limestone,  sand- 
stone, etc.  The  latter  are  usually  shipped 
without  being  previously  treated  or  re- 
fined, and  are  used  principally  in  street 
paving. 

The  production  of  asphalt  in  the 
United  States,  produced  from  domestic 
petroleum,  was  in  1918,  527,575  tons, 
valued  at  $7,435,204.  There  were  pro- 
duced from  Mexican  petroleum  in  the 
same  year  650,244  tons,  valued  at  $10,- 
324,200,  The  production  of  bitumines 
and  allied  substances  in  1918  amounted  to 
60,034  tons,  valued  at  $780,808.  The  crude 
asphalt  imported  into  the  United  States 
in  1918  amounted  to  114,686  short  tons, 
valued  at  $624,967.  There  were  exported 
in  the  same  year  22,108  tons,  valued  at 
$577,654. 

ASPHODEL,  the  English  name  of  the 
plants  belonging  to  the  genus  asphodelus. 
The  yellow  and  white  species  were  in- 
troduced into  this  country  during  the 
16th  century — the  former  about  the  year 
1596,  and  the  latter  in  1551.  The  aspho- 
dels, being  sacred  to  Proserpine,  were 
used  in  classic  times  in  funeral  cere- 
monies, and  the  souls  of  the  departed 
were  supposed  by  the  poets  to  wander  in 
meadows  adorned  with  these  beautiful 
flowers. 

In  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  liliaceai  and  the  section 
atithericex.  About  eight  species  are 
familiar,  the  best  known  being  A.  hit  ens, 
the  yellow;  A.  albus,  the  white;  and  A. 
ramostis,  the  branched  lily,  or  asphodel, 
called  also  king's  rod.  To  this  family 
belong  the  garlic,  the  hyacinth,  the  squill, 
and  the  Star  of  Bethlehem. 


ASPHYXIA 


302 


ASPHYXIATING  GAS 


ASPHYXIA,  suspended  animation;  an  Germans  had  been  able  to  use  a  greater 
interruption  of  the  arterialization  of  the  amount  than  their  supplies  permitted 
blood,  causing  the  suspension  of  sen-  or  if  they  had  sensed  to  the  full  the 
sation  and  voluntary  motion.  It  may  effect  it  was  producing  in  their  enemies' 
be  produced  by  breathing  some  gas  in- 
capable of  furnishing  oxygen  by  sub- 
mersion under  water,  by  suffocation,  from 
an  impediment  to  breathing  applied  to 
the  mouth  and  nostrils,  by  strangulation, 
or  by  great  pressure,  external  or  internal, 
upon  the  lungs.  If  asphyxia  continue 
unrelieved  for  a  short  period,  it  is  neces- 
sarily followed  by  death. 

ASPHYXIATING  GAS.  This  new  and 
tfrrible  weapon  was  introduced  into  the 
World  War  by  the  German  military 
authorities.  At  the  battle  of  Ypres, 
April  22,  1915,  it  was  used  for  the  first 
time  in  warfare.  The  idea  itself  was  not 
new.  Dundonald,  an  eminent  British 
chemist,  who  was  born  in  1775  and  died 
in  1860,  had  informed  his  Government 
that  it  was  possible  to  produce  asphyxiat- 
ing gas  of  such  a  character  and  in  such 


LASTIC 


ISINOLAM 


LEATHEir 


DIAGRAM  OF  GAS  MASK 

quantities  as  to  make  it  a  formidable 
weapon  of  offense.  That  Government, 
however,  had  rejected  the  idea  as  being 
too  inhuman.  The  Hague  Convention  of 
1899  had  expressly  condemned  its  use. 
The  conception  therefore  was  by  no 
means  novel  to  military  chiefs.  It  re- 
mained for  Germany  to  initiate  its  use 
in  battle. 

The  first  gas  attack  produced  almost 
a  panic.  The  soldiers  who  gazed  vvonder- 
ingly  at  the  clouds  of  chlorine  gas  creep- 
ing toward  them  suddenly  found  them- 
selves gasping  for  breath  or  convulsed 
with  terrible  agony.  There  is  but  little 
doubt    but    that    at    that    time,    if    the 


DIAGRAM  OF  GAS  MASK 

ranks,  they  could  have  broken  through 
and  reached  the  Channel.  As  it  was, 
the  quantity  was  limited,  and  all  the 
resources  of  the  Allied  scientific  world 
were  employed  at  once  to  neutralize  the 
effects  of  this  new  and  deadly  weapon. 
It  was  speedily  discovered  that  the  only 
defense  was  the  use  of  gas  masks,  in 
which  charcoal  and  other  chemicals  were 
able  to  absorb  the  gas  or  render  it  in- 
nocuous. 

Later  on,  wincing  under  the  charges 
of  inhumanity  and  anxious  to  forestall 
the  reprobation  of  the  neutral  world,  the 
Germans  charged  that  the  gas  had  been 
previously  used  by  the  British  and  the 
French  on  March  1,  1915.  This  was 
demonstrated  to  be  a  pure  invention.  It 
is  certain  that  long  before  the  end  of 
the  war,  the  German  authorities  regretted 
having  brought  asphyxiating  gas  into 
general  use,  for  it  was  turned  on  them 
with  deadly  effect  by  the  Allies,  who, 
being  forced  to  "fight  fire  with  fire," 
adopted  it  as  a  necessary  retaliation. 
Allied  energy  and  ingenuity  developed  the 
gas  in  far  greater  quantities  than  was 
possible  for  the  Germans,  and  used  it 
with  much  effect.  Moreover  the  meteoro- 
logical conditions  in  the  zone  of  warfare 
favored  the  Entente,  because  the  winds 
for  75  per  cent,  of  the  time  set  toward 
the  German  lines.  At  the  time  the  armi- 
stice was  signed,  America  was  produc* 


ASPHYXIATING  GAS 


303 


ASPHYXIATING  GAS 


ing  the  gas  in  such  enormous  quantities 
that  it  could  have  brought  about  the 
annihilation  of  whole  armies.  Giant  con- 
tainers were  being  prepared  that  would 


By  far  the  most  atrocious  was  mustard 
gas,  that  ate  through  clothes  and  into 
flesh  like  vitriol.  Chlorine  gas  produced 
suffocation  and  the  lungs  of  the  sufferer 


■  P:/  '  (F^i 


TYPICAL   GAS    MASKS.      FROM    LEFT   TO   RIGHT,    AMERICAN,    BRITISH,    FRENCH,    GERMAN 


hold  a  ton  of  gas,  which  could  be  carried 
over  fortresses  by  airplanes  and  released 
with  a  time  fuse  that  would  operate  at  a 
given  distance  above  the  forts.  Being 
heavier  than  air,  the  mustard  gas  would 
have  settled  over  the  doomed  fortress, 


sometimes  burst  in  the  effort  to  breathe. 
Sneezing  powder  was  also  used,  which 
percolated  through  the  gas  respirators 
and  brought  on  sneezing  spells,  which 
led  the  men  to  take  off  their  masks  and 
thus  be  easily  killed   by  phosgene   and 


HOLE  TOR  FUSE 


VALVE 

OPENS 

ON  HITTING 


PROPELLING 

charse; 
diagram  of  gas  gun  and  gas  shell 

making  it  impossible  for  any  living  thing  diphosgene  gases,  which  were  timed  to 
within  its  radius  to  survive.  reach  the  spot  while  the  masks  were  re- 
Various  gases  differing  in  character-  moved.  The  Germans  did  not  depend 
istics  were  employed.  The  less  virulent  wholly  on  a  favorable  wind  for  the  dis- 
put  the  soldier  hors  de  combat  without  semination  of  gas.  Hand  grenades  and 
causing  death.  Such  was  the  lachry-  long  range  artillery  shells  filled  with 
matory  gas,  that  caused  tears  to  flow  so  gas  carried  it  into  the  trenches  of  their 
freely  that  the  soldier  could  not  use  his  enemies.  Not  content  with  single  guns, 
weanon  nor  the   gunner  see  his  sights,  they  often  used  twelve  or  more  mortars. 


ASPIDIUM 


304 


ASQUITH 


shooting  large  caliber  shells  at  the  same 
instant,  the  firing  being  produced  by  an 
electrical  current  that  set  the  guns  off 
simultaneously,  thus  producing  a  power- 
ful concentration  on  their  target. 

The  adoption  of  gas  made  necessary 
the  addition  of  new  units  to  the  army 
organization.  A  Chemical  Warfare 
Service  was  made  an  important  branch 
of  the  American  and  other  armies.  Its 
functions  consisted  in  the  "operation  and 
maintaining  or  supervising  the  operation 
and  maintaining  of  all  plants  engaged 
in  the  investigation,  manufacture  or  pro- 
duction of  toxic  gases  and  proving 
grounds  used  in  connection  therewith, 
gas  defense  appliances,  the  filling  of  gas 
shells,  and  the  necesary  research  con- 
nected with  gas  warfare."  The  organi- 
zation provided  for  various  units,  each 
with  its  special  work.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  were  the  Gas  Defense 
Production,  which  supervised  the  making 
of  gas  masks;  the  Gas  Offense  Produc- 
tion, which  concerned  itself  with  the 
making  of  gas  for  the  purpose  of  attack; 
and  the  Training  Section,  which  taught  to 
officers  and  men  the  approved  methods 
of  gas  warfare. 

On  the  battle  fronts  the  utmost  care 
was  taken  by  means  of  signs  and  sounds 
to  protect  the  troops.  Sirens,  horns,  and 
bells  were  sounded  to  warn  of  an  im- 
pending attack.  Signs  were  posted  bear- 
ing the  legend  "Gas  Alert  On"  and  "Gas 
Alert  Off,"  the  former  meaning  that  the 
ground  was  dangerous  and  that  masks 
must  be  carried  in  front  for  instant  use, 
while  the  latter  permitted  less  caution. 
Special  training  was  given  in  rapidity  of 
adjustment,  and  the  regulations  required 
that  the  mask  be  put  on  in  six  seconds 
or  less.  The  mask  itself  became  more 
effective,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
American  mask  by  the  use  of  "soda  lime" 
produced  by  a  secret  process.  Constant 
drill  and  warning  proved  so  effectual  that 
the  casualties  were  greatly  diminished, 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  war  it  be- 
came almost  a  maxim  that  a  soldier  who 
was  "gassed"  owed  his  misfortune  to  his 
own  carelessness.  See  World  War. 

ASPIDIUM,  a  genus  of  ferns  belong- 
'  ing  to  the  order  polypodiacese.  There  are 
10  British  species.  Some  have^  orbicular 
•eniform  involucres  fixed  by  their  sinuses, 
while  others  have  orbicular  and  peltate 
involucres.  To  the  former,  sometimes 
called  lastrea,  belong  the  A.  filix  ifnas,  or 
blunt;  the  A.  spiculoswm,  or  prickly 
toothed;  the  A.  oreopteris,  or  heath;  and 
the  A.  thelypteris,  or  marsh  shield  fern, 
with  other  species  more  rare;  and  to 
the  latter,  the  A.  lonchitis,  or  rough  al- 
pine;   the    A.    lobatum,    or   close-leaved 


prickly;  the  A.  aculeatum,  or  soft  prickly; 
the  A.  angulare,  or  angular-leaved  shield 
fern. 

ASPINWALL.    See  Colon. 

ASPIRATOR,  an  instrument  used  In 
chemistry  to  draw  gases  through  bottles 
or  other  receptacles.  It  is  a  tight  vessel 
containing  water;  a  tube  with  a  stop 
cock  extends  from  the  upper  end  and 
another  tube  also  with  a  stop  cock  from 
the  lower  end.  The  first  tube  is  fastened 
to  the  receptacle  from  which  gas  is  to  be 
drawn;  both  stop  cocks  are  opened,  and 
the  water  flowing  from  the  lower  tube 
acts  as  a  suction  and  draws  the  gas. 

ASPLENIUM,  a  genus  of  ferns,  of 
the  natural  order  polypodiacese.  Several 
are  natives  of  the  United  States.  The 
dwarf  spleenwort  is  a  very  beautiful 
little  fern. 

ASPROMONTE,  a  mountain  of  Italy, 
in  the  S.  W.  of  Calabria,  where  Garibaldi 
was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  with 
the  greater  part  of  his  army,  in  August, 
1862. 

ASQUITH,  HERBERT  HENRY,  an 
English  statesman  and  lawyer,  bom  in 
Morley,  Yorkshire,  on  Sept.  12,  1852, 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  shortly 


I 


HERBERT  HENRY  ASQUITH 

after  his  graduation  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  1887  he  appeared  in  the  defense 
of  John  Burns,  labor  leader,  during  the 
latter's  trial  for  his  participation  in  the 
so-called  riot  in  Trafalgar  Square,  in 
London.  Two  years  later  he  was  one  of 
the  counsel  of  the  Irish  Nationalists  be- 
fore  the   Parnell   Commission.     He   was 


ASQUITH 


305 


ASSAB  BAY 


elected  to  Parliament  in  1886  and  in  1892 
he  was  made  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Home  Department.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Home  Rule  debates,  becoming 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the 
House.  In  1894  he  drew  up  the  bill  pro- 
viding for  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Church  of  Wales  and  supported  that 
measure  until  its  rejection  by  the  House. 
He  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Cabinet  in 
1895,  following  the  defeat  of  the  Liberal 
party,  but  continued  in  Parliament  as  a 
member  of  the  Opposition.  During  this 
period  the  Conservative  party  gained 
ascendancy  and  Asquith's  reputation 
steadily  increased.  He  supported  the 
Government  throughout  the  Boer  War 
but  defended  free  trade  following  the 
movement  for  protection  led  by  Joseph 
Chamberlain.  He  was  appointed  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  in  the  Ministry 
of  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman,  when 
the  Liberals  regained  power  in  1905.  In 
1908  he  was  appointed  Prime  Minister 
and  took  an  aggressive  part  in  the  for- 
mulation of  the  Liberal  reform  program. 
Many  important  measures  were  passed 
during  this  period,  the  most  important  of 
which  was  the  law  depriving  the  House 
of  Lords  of  its  veto  power  following  the 
rejection  by  the  House  of  Lords  of  the 
budget  of  1909.  He  won  the  hostility  of 
the  advocates  of  woman  suffrage  on  ac- 
count of  his  opposition  to  that  movement. 
He  finally  consented  to  permit  an  equal 
suffrage  amendment  to  the  electoral  bill 
of  1912,  but  owing  to  a  technical  ruling 
it  was  necessary  to  withdraw  the  entire 
bill.  He  was  accused  of  betraying  the 
suffrage  cause  and  the  attitude  of  the 
woman  suffrage  leaders  became  even 
more  hostile  than  before.  From  1908  to 
1916  he  held  the  position,  not  only  of 
Prime  Minister,  but  of  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Euro- 
pean War  he  also  took  over  the  office  of 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War.  His  at- 
titude as  Prime  Minister  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War  was  patriotic  and  he 
supported  all  measures  undertaken  to 
bring  Great  Britain  into  active  partici- 
pation following  the  declaration  of  war 
with  Germany.  As  the  war  progressed, 
however,  he  was  considered  to  be  over- 
cautious and  lacking  in  energy  and  deci- 
sion. He  was  succeeded^  as  Prime 
Minister  by  Lloyd  George  in  1916.  In 
the  elections  of  1919  he  was  defeated  for 
Parliament,  but  was  re-elected  on  Feb. 
25,  1920,  as  a  member  from  Paisley, 
Scotland.  He  at  once  took  the  place  of 
the  leader  of  the  Opposition,  and  opposed 
strongly  most  of  the  measures  relating 
to  Ireland  and  the  industrial  situation  in 
England  brought  forward  by  Lloyd 
George  in  the  House  of  Commons. 


ASBAEL,  the  Mohammedan  angel  of 
death,  who  takes  the  soul  from  the  body. 

ASS  (asinus),  a  genus  of  perissodac- 
tyla  closely  relatel  to  the  horse.  The 
domestication  took  place  at  an  early  date, 
probably  before  that  of  the  horse,  from 
a  type  like  the  present  Abyssinian  ass 
{A.  tseniojnis),  and  apparently  in  Asia; 
but  the  donkey  has  been  common  in  Eng- 
land only  since  Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 
The  dwarfing  and  degeneration  so  gener- 
ally exhibited  are  the  results  rather  of 
ill-treatment  and  careless  breeding  than 
of  uncongenial  climate,  as  the  condition  of 
the  domesticated  forms  in  some  favorable 
parts  of  the  East  plainly  indicates.  In 
Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  Spain,  Kentucky, 
and  elsewhere,  the  asses  are  well  cared 
for,  and  the  breed  has  been  considerably 
varied  and  improved;  a  Spanish  he-ass 
of  a  good  breed  may  be  worth  $1,000.  The 
mule  is  a  hybrid  bred  between  mare  and 
male  ass,  while  the  hinny  is  the  rarer 
result  of  hybridism  between  horse  and 
female  ass.  The  mule  is  much  nearer  in 
temper  and  appearance  to  the  ass  than 
to  the  horse;  the  hinny  in  some  points 
resembles  the  horse  more,  as  it  neighs, 
while  the  mule  brays  like  the  ass. 

The  various  species  of  wild  asses  are 
handsomer  in  form  than  the  familiar 
degenerate  donkey.  They  have  shorter 
ears,  and  longer,  finer  limbs.  The  shy, 
swift  A.  onager  occurs  in  herds  in  the 
Asiatic  deserts,  migrating  southward  in 
winter.  The  large,  handsome  A.  hem' 
tonus,  with  dark  stripes  on  its  back,  in- 
habits high  plateaus  from  Tibet  to  Mon- 
golia. The  Abyssinian  form  has  been 
already  noted  as  the  probable  ancestor 
of  the  donkey.  The  even  wilder  zebras 
and  quaggas  will  be  discussed  separately. 
The  wild  ass  is  hunted  in  the  East,  e.  g., 
in  Persia;  and  the  flesh  of  the  hardly- 
won  booty  is  much  esteemed.  The  milk 
of  the  ass  is  more  sugary  and  less  cheesy 
than  that  of  the  cow,  and  is  on  that 
account  recommended  to  some  invalids — 
e.  g.,  consumptives.  The  leather  called 
shagreen  is  made  by  a  peculiar  process 
from  the  skin,  which  is  also  utilized  for 
shoes  and  drums. 

ASSAB  BAY,  an  Italian  trading  sta- 
tion on  the  W.  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  40 
miles  N.  W.  of  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb.  The  district  around  it,  with  an 
area  of  243  square  miles,  and  1,300  in- 
habitants, was  sold  in  1870  by  some 
Danakil  chieftains  to  an  Italian  steam- 
ship company  for  a  coaling  station  on  the 
road  to  India.  In  1880  it  was  taken  over 
by  the  Italian  Government,  who,  since 
1884,  have  improved  the  harbor  and 
erected  a  lighthouse. 


ASSAIi 


306 


ASSAYING 


ASSAL,  a  large  salt  lake  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Ada!,  in  eastern  Africa,  nearly 
9  miles  from  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Tajurrah.  It  is  nearly  600  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Abyssinian  caravans 
resort  to  Assal  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing oflF  the  salt,  which  is  thickly  incrusted 
on  its  shores. 

ASSAM,  a  province  at  the  N.  E.  ex- 
tremity of  British  India,  stretching  in  N. 
lat.  between  23"*  and  28"",  and  in  E,  long, 
between  89°  and  97°  with  an  area  of 
61,471  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
about  7,500,000.  In  1874  it  was  formed 
into  a  separate  administration  (including 
Cachar)  under  a  chief  commissioner.  It 
consists  of  a  fertile  series  of  valleys, 
watered  by  the  Brahmaputra  and  more 
than  60  lesser  rivers.  It  is  thus  very 
fertile,  and  abounds  in  wood.  The  tea- 
plant  is  indigenous  and  Assam's  tea 
culture  has  become  of  first  importance. 
The  other  products  are  rice,  mustard, 
gold,  ivory,  amber,  musk,  iron,  lead,  pe- 
troleum, and  coal.  From  Bengal,  the  prin- 
cipal imports  are  woolens,  India  fabrics, 
salt,  opium,  glass,  earthenware,  tobacco, 
betel,  etc.  The  development  of  the  rich 
coal  fields  is  of  increasing  importance. 

In  1826,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
Burmese  war,  Assam  was  ceded  to  the 
British.  But  it  was  only  in  1838  that  the 
entire  country  was  placed  under  British 
administration.  Since  then,  the  province 
has  exhibited  a  noticeable  improvement. 
The  population  being  rural  and  agricul- 
tural, the  only  towns  of  any  size  are 
Gauthati  and  Sebsagar.  The  peasantry 
are  indolent,  good-natured,  and  fairly 
prosperous,  short  and  robust  in  person, 
with  a  flat  face  and  high  cheek-bones, 
and  coarse,  black  hair.  A  majority  of 
the  people  are  Hindus.  One  of  the  most 
striking  features  of  Assam  is  the  abun- 
dance of  wild  animals,  such  as  tigers, 
rhinoceroses,  leopards,  bears,  buffaloes, 
and  elephants.  Many  people  are  killed 
by  wild  animals,  but  snakes  are  most  de- 
structive to  human  life.  The  forests  teem 
v/ith  game,  and  the  rivers  with  fish. 

ASSASSINATION",  the  act  of  taking 
the  life  of  anyone  by  surprise  or  treach- 
erous violence  either  by  a  hired  emissary, 
by  one  devoted  to  the  deed,  or  by  one  who 
has  taken  the  task  upon  himself.  Gen- 
erally, the  term  is  applied  to  the  murder 
of  a  public  personage  by  one  who  aims 
solely  at  the  death  of  his  victim.  In 
ancient  times,  assassination  was  not  un- 
known, and  was  often  even  applauded, 
as  in  the  Scriptural  instances  of  Ehud 
and  Jael,  and  in  the  murder  of  Hip- 
parchus  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton ; 
but  assassination  by  enthusiasts  and  men 


devoted  to  an  idea  first  became  really 
prominent  in  the  religious  struggles  of 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  To  this 
class  belong  the  plots  against  the  life 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England;  while 
the  horrible  succession  of  assassinations 
of  Roman  emperors  is  simply  a  series 
of  murders  prompted  by  self -interest  or 
revenge.  In  modern  times  assassination 
is  usually  based  on  political  motives.  See 
Anarchism. 

ASSASSINS,  or  ISMAILI,  a  sect  of  re- 
ligious fanatics  who  existed  in  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries.  They  derived  their 
name  of  assassins  originally  from  their 
immoderate  use  of  hasheesh,  which  pro- 
duces an  intense  cerebral  excitement, 
often  amounting  to  fury.  Their  founder 
and  law  giver  was  Hassan-ben-Sabah, 
to  whom  the  Orientals  gave  the  name  of 
Sheikh-el-Jobelz,  but  v%ho  was  better 
known  in  Europe  as  the  "Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain";  he  was  a  wily  impostor, 
who  made  fanatical  and  implicit  slaves 
of  his  devotees,  by  imbuing  them  with  a 
religion  compounded  of  that  of  the 
Christians,  the  Jews,  the  Magi,  and  the 
Mohammedans.  The  principal  article 
of  their  belief  was  that  the  Holy  Ghost 
was  embodied  in  their  chief,  and  that 
his  orders  proceeded  from  the  Deity,  and 
were  declarations  of  the  divine  will. 
They  believed  assassination  to  be  meri- 
torious when  sanctioned  by  his  command, 
and  courted  danger  and  death  in  the 
execution  of  his  orders.  In  the  time  of 
the  crusades,  they  mustered  to  the  num- 
ber of  50,000.  So  great  was  the  power  of 
the  Sheikh,  that  the  sovereigns  of  every 
quarter  of  the  globe  secretly  pensioned 
him.  For  a  long  time  this  fearful  sect 
reigned  in  Persia,  and  on  Mt,  Lebanon. 
Holagoo,  or  Hulaka,  a  Mogul  Tartar,  in 
1254,  dispossessed  them  of  several  of 
their  strongholds;  but  it  was  not  till 
some  years  after  that  they  were  extir- 
pated partially  by  the  Egyptian  forces 
sent  against  them  by  the  great  Sultan 
Bibars.  A  feeble  residue  of  the  Ismaili 
has  survived  in  Persia  and  Syria.  The 
Sjrrian  Ismaili  dwell  around  Mesiode,  W. 
of  Homar,  and  on  Lebanon;  they  are 
under  Turkish  dominion,  with  a  sheikh 
of  their  ovra,  and  formerly  enjoyed  a 
productive  and  flourishing  agriculture 
and  commerce. 

ASSAYING,  the  estimation  of  the 
amount  of  pure  metal,  and  especially  of 
the  precious  metals,  in  an  ore  or  alloy. 
In  the  case  of  silver,  the  assay  is  either 
by  the  dry  or  by  the  wet  process.  The 
dry  process  is  called  cupellation,  from 
the  use  of  a  small  and  very  porous  cup, 
called  a  cupel,  formed  of  well  burned  and 
finely   ground   bone   ash   made    into   a 


ASSAY  OFFICES 


307 


ASSIGNATS 


paste  with  water.  The  cupel,  being 
thoroughly  dried,  is  placed  in  a  fire  clay 
oven.  This  oven,  called  a  muffle,  is  set 
in  a  furnace,  and  when  it  is  at  a  red 
heat  the  assay,  consisting  of  a  small 
weighted  portion  of  the  alloy  wrapped  in 
sheet  lead,  is  laid  upon  the  cupel.  The 
heat  causes  the  lead  to  volatilize  or  com- 
bine with  the  other  metals,  and  to  sink 
with  them  into  the  cupel,  leaving  a  bright 
globule  of  pure  metallic  silver,  which 
gives  the  amount  of  silver  in  the  alloy 
operated  upon.  In  the  wet  process  the 
alloy  is  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  to 
the  solution  are  added  m-easured  quan- 
tities of  a  solution  of  common  salt  of 
known  strength  which  precipitates  chlo- 
ride of  silver.  The  operation  is  concluded 
when  no  further  precipitation  is  obtained 
on  the  addition  of  the  salt  solution,  and 
the  quantity  of  silver  is  calculated  from 
the  amount  of  salt  solution  used.  An 
alloy  of  gold  is  first  cupelled  with  lead  as 
above,  with  the  addition  of  three  parts 
of  silver  for  every  one  of  gold.  After 
the  cupellation  is  finished,  the  alloy  of 
gold  and  silver  is  beaten  and  rolled  out 
into  a  thin  plate,  which  is  curled  up  by 
the  fingers  into  a  little  spiral,  or  cornet. 
This  is  put  into  a  flask  with  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolves  away  the  silver  and 
leaves  the  cornet  dark  and  brittle.  After 
washing  with  water,  the  cornet  is  boiled 
with  stronger  nitric  acid  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  silver,  well  washed,  and 
then  allowed  to  drop  into  a  small  cru- 
cible, in  which  it  is  heated,  and  then  it  is 
weighed. 

ASSAY     OFFICES,     in    the     United 

States,  government  establishments  in 
which  citizens  may  deposit  gold  and  sil- 
ver bullion,  receiving  in  return  its  value, 
less  charges.  The  ofiices  are  in  New 
York  City;  Boise  City,  Ida.;  Helena, 
Mont.;  Denver,  Col.;  Deadwood,  S.  D.; 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah;  Carson,  Nev.; 
New  Orleans,  La.;  Seattle,  Wash,;  San 
Fi-ancisco,  Cal. ;  Charlotte,  N.  C;  and 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

ASSEGAI,  a  spear  used  as  a  weapon 

among  the  Kafiirs  of  South  Africa,  made 
of  hard  wood  tipped  with  iron,  and  used 
for  throwing  or  thrusting, 

ASSEMBLY,  CONSTITUENT,  See 
Assembly,  National. 

ASSEMBLY,  GENERAL,  an  official 
name  of  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  court 
of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland, 
of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  of  the 
Presbjrterian  Church  in  Ireland,  and  of 
the  two  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the 
United  States.  The  term  is  also  used  in 
the  United  States  to  designate  the  dual 
legislative   body  of  the   several   States, 

21— Vol.  I— Cyc 


the  branches  being  commonly  spoken  of 
as  the  Senate  and  the  House  (of  Repre- 
sentatives), 

ASSEMBLY,  NATIONAL,  a  body  set 
up  m  France  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Upon  the  convocation  of  the 
States-General  by  Louis  XVI.,  the  privi- 
leged nobles  and  clergy  refused  to  de- 
liberate in  the  same  chamber  with  the 
commons,  or  tiers-etat  (third  estate). 
The  latter,  therefore,  on  the  proposition 
of  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  constituted  them- 
selves an  Assemblee  Nationale,  with 
legislative  powers  (June  17,  1789). 
They  bound  themselves  by  oath  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  furnished  France 
with  a  constitution,  and  the  court  was 
compelled  to  give  its  assent.  In  the  3,250 
decrees  passed  by  the  Assembly  were 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  epoch,  and 
having  accomplished  this  task,  it  dis- 
solved itself,  Sept.  30,  1791.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  a  joint  meeting  of  the 
Senate  and  Corps  Legislatif,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  electing  a  chief  magistrate  or 
the  transaction  of  other  extraordinary 
business, 

ASSETS'  (French,  assez,  enough), 
property  or  goods  available  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  bankrupt  or  deceased  person's 
obligations.  Assets  are  personal  or  real, 
the  former  comprising  all  goods,  chattels, 
etc.,  devolving  upon  the  executor  as  sal- 
able to  discharge  debts  and  legacies.  In 
commerce  and  bankruptcy  the  term  is 
often  used  as  the  antithesis  of  liabili- 
ties, to  designate  the  stock  in  trade  and 
entire  property  of  an  individual  or  an 
association. 

ASSIDEANS,  CHASIDEANS,  or  CHA- 
SIDIM,  one  of  the  two  great  sects  into 
which,  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the 
Jews  were  divided  with  regard  to  the 
observance  of  the  law — the  Chasidim 
accepting  it  in  its  later  developments, 
the  Zadikim  professing  adherence  only 
to  the  law  as  given  by  Moses.  From 
the  Chasidim  sprang  the  Pharisees,  Tal- 
mudists,  Rabbinists,  Cabbalists,  etc. 

ASSIGNATS  (as-e-nya') ,  the  name  of 
the  national  paper  currency  in  the  time 
of  the  French  Revolution.  Assignats 
to  the  value  of  400,000,000  francs  were 
first  struck  off  by  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, with  the  approbation  of  the 
King,  April  19,  1790,  to  be  redeemed 
with  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  con- 
fiscated goods  of  the  Church.  On  Aug. 
27,  of  the  same  year,  Mirabeau  urged 
the  issuing  of  2,000,000,000  francs  of 
new  assignats,  which  caused  a  dispute 
in  the  Assembly.  Mirabeau's  exertions, 
however,  were  seconded  by  Pethion  and 
800,000,000    francs    more    were    issued. 


ASSIGNEE 


308 


ASSYRIA 


They  were  increased  by  degrees  to  45,- 
578,000,000,  and  their  value  rapidly  de- 
clined. They  were  withdrawn  by  the 
Directory  from  the  currency,  and  at 
length  redeemed  by  mandate  at  one-thir- 
tieth of  their  nominal  value. 

ASSIGNEE,  a  person  appointed  by 
another  to  transact  some  business,  or 
exercise  some  particular  privilege  or 
power.  Formerly  the  persons  appointed 
under  a  commission  of  bankruptcy,  to 
manage  the  estate  of  the  bankrupt  on  be- 
half of  the  creditors,  were  so  called,  but 
now  trustees,  or  receivers. 

ASSINIBOIA,  the  smallest  of  the  four 
districts  into  which  a  portion  of  the 
Northwest  Territories  of  Canada  was 
divided  in  1882.  It  lay  immediately  to 
the  W,  of  Manitoba,  with  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta  as  its  N.  and  W.  boundaries. 
It  was  intersected  by  the  Saskatchewan 
(South  Branch)  and  the  Qu'Appelle 
rivers.  It  was  abolished  in  1905,  and  is 
now  included  in  the  provinces  of  Sas- 
katchewan and  Alberta.  Area,  89,535 
square  miles.  Regina,  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway,  was  the  capital. 

ASSINIBOIN,  a  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  living  principally  in  the 
N.  W.  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

ASSINIBOINE,  a  river  of  Canada, 
which  flows  through  Manitoba  and  joins 
the  Red  river  at  Winnipeg,  about  40 
miles  above  the  entrance  of  the  latter  into 
Lake  Winnipeg,  after  a  somewhat  circui- 
tous course  of  about  500  miles  from  the 
W.  and  N.  W.  Steamers  ply  on  it  for 
over  300  miles.  The  river  derives  its 
name  from  Assiniboine,  a  branch  of  the 
Sioux  Indians. 

ASSISI  (as-se'se),  a  town  in  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Umbria,  20  miles  N. 
of  Spoleto,  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  fa- 
mous as  the  birthplace  of  St.  Francis 
d'Assisi.  The  splendid  church  built  over 
the  chapel  where  the  saint  received  his 
first  impulse  to  devotion  is  one  of  the 
finest  remains  of  medieval  Gothic  archi- 
tecture.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

ASSIZES,  a  term  chiefly  used  in  Eng- 
land to  signify  the  sessions  of  the  courts 
held  at  Westminister  prior  to  Magna 
Charta,  but  thereafter  held  annually  in 
every  county.  Twelve  judges,  who  are 
members  of  the  highest  courts  in  Eng- 
land, twice  in  every  year  perform  a  cir- 
cuit into  all  the  counties  into  which  the 
kingdom  is  divided,  to  hold  these  assizes, 
at  which  both  civil  and  criminal  cases 
are  decided. 

ASSOCIATED  PRESS.  Organizatjon 
for  gathering  and  distributing  news. 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS.  See  Psy- 
chology. 

ASSONANCE,  in  poetry,  a  term  used 
when  the  terminating  words  of  lines  have 
the  same  vowel  sound,  but  make  no 
proper  rhyme. 

ASSOUAN  (as-6-an'),  (also  EswAN; 
the  ancient  Syene),  is  the  southernmost 
city  of  Egypt  proper,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile.  There  are  some  remains  of 
the  ancient  city.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  the  famous  granite  quarries  from 
which  so  many  of  the  huge  obelisks  and 
colossal  statues  were  cut  to  adorn  the 
temples  and  palaces  of  ancient  Egypt. 
It  is  from  Syene  that  this  kind  of  granite 
came  to  be  known  as  syenite.  Pop.  about 
17,500. 

ASSOUAN  DAM.  Its  construction  was 
begun  in  Februai-y,  1899.  It  was  for- 
mally opened  Dec.  8,  1902.  This  dam 
accomplished  more  for  the  promotion  of 
agriculture  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile  in 
Egypt  than  anything  attempted  in  cen- 
turies. The  dam  formed  a  reservoir  con- 
taining one  million  tons  of  water.  It 
had  180  sluice  openings.  The  water 
thrown  back  up-country  brought  300,000 
additional  acres  under  cultivation.  In 
1907-1912,  the  dam  was  raised  161/2  feet, 
more  than  doubling  the  water  supply. 

ASSYRIA,  an  ancient  Semitic  king- 
dom of  Asia,  the  native  name  of  which 
was  Ashur  or  Asshur,  and  thus  also 
called  by  the  Hebrews.  It  was  inter- 
sected by  the  middle  course  of  the  Tigris 
with  its  two  affluents,  the  Upper  Zab 
and  the  Lower  Zab,  and  had  the  Arme- 
nian Mountains  on  the  N.  and  Babylonia 
on  the  S.  The  Assyrian  conquests  during 
the  8th  and  7th  centuries  B.  C.  enlarged 
its  boundaries,  and  at  one  time  it  in- 
cluded Babylonia,  parts  of  Elam,  Pales- 
tine, Egypt,  parts  of  Arabia  and  Asia 
Minor.  The  chief  cities  of  Assyria  in 
the  days  of  its  prosperity  were  Ashur, 
the  most  ancient,  then  Nineveh,  the  site 
of  which  is  marked  by  mounds  opposite 
Mosul  (Nebi  Yunus  and  Koyunjik), 
Calah  or  Kalakh  (the  modern  Nimrud), 
Dur-Sargina  (Khorsabad),  and  Arbela 
(Arbil).  Lower  down  the  Tigris  ex- 
hibits a  line  of  ruins  from  Telkrit  to 
Bagdad.  The  country,  probably  some 
time  before  the  16th  century  B.  C,  be- 
came independent.  At  the  end  of  the  14th 
century  its  king,  Shalmaneser,  is  said  to 
have  founded  the  city  of  Calah;  his  son 
Tiglath-ninip  conquered  the  whole  of  the 
valley  of  the  Euphrates.  The  following 
■^ve  reigns  were  chiefly  occupied  by  wars 
with  the  Babylonians.  About  1120,  a 
date  fixed  by  Sennacherib,  705-681  B.  C», 


ASSYRIA 


309 


ASSYRIA 


Tiglath-pileser  I,,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  the  sovereigns  of  the  first  Assyrian 
monarchy,  ascended  the  throne,  and 
carried  his  conquests  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  one  side  and  to  the  Caspian 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  other.  At 
his  death  ensued  a  period  of  decline, 
tvhich  lasted  over  150  years.  Under  Assur- 
nasir-pal,  who  reigned  from  884  to  859 
B.  C,  Assyria  once  more  advanced  to  the 


Omri,  and  Jehu  of  Israel,  from  whom 
he  exacted  tribute,  as  also  from  the  kings 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  The  old  dynasty 
came  to  an  end  in  the  person  of  As- 
surnirari  II.,  who  was  driven  from  the 
throne  by  a  usurper,  Tiglath-pileser  III., 
in  745,  after  a  struggle  of  some  years. 
He  was  the  first  Assyrian  king  mentione(? 
by  the  Hebrews,  identical  with  Pul.  No 
sooner  was  this  able  ruler  firmly  seated 


THE   ASSOUAN   DAM 


position  of  the  leading  power  in  the 
world,  his  kingdom  being  greater  in  ex- 
tent than  that  of  Tiglath-pileser. 

History. — In  859  Assur-nasir-pal  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Shalmaneser  II.  (859- 
824),  who  was  the  first  Assyrian  king  to 
have  relations  with  Israel,  and  whose 
annals  are  found  inscribed  on  the  famous 
Black  Obelisk  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  on  the  bulls  and  slabs  from  his  palace 
at  Calah.  His  career  of  conquest  was 
equally  successful.  He  reduced  Babylon 
to  a  state  of  vassalage,  and  came  into 
hostile  contact  with  Benhadad  and  Hazael 
of    Damascus,   and   with   Ahab,   son    of 


on  the  throne  than  he  made  an  expedition 
into  Babylonia,  followed  by  another  to 
the  east  in  744.  A  year  later  he  defeated 
the  confederate  princes  of  Armenia, 
Syria,  etc.,  and,  advancing  against  Syria, 
overthrew  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Da- 
mascus and  Hamath,  and  in  733  he  placed 
his  vassal  Hosea  on  the  throne  of 
Samaria.  Having  reduced  the  west  to 
submission  the  Assyrian  King  now  at- 
tacked Chaldea,  and,  after  a  severe  war, 
commencing  in  731  B.  c,  he  defeated  and 
slew  Ukin-ziru,  the  Kinziros  of  the  Canon 
of  Ptolemy,  and  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Sumir  and  Akkad,  in  729  B.  c.    Tiglath- 


ASSYBIA 


310 


ASSYRIA 


pileser  carried  the  Assyrian  arms  from 
Lake  Van  on  the  N.  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
on  the  S.,  and  from  the  confines  of 
Susiana  on  the  E.  to  the  Nile  on  the  W. 
He  was,  however,  driven  from  his  throne 
by  Shalmaneser  IV.  (727),  who  blockaded 
Tyre  for  five  years,  invaded  Israel,  and 
besieged  Samaria,  but  died  before  the 
city  was  reduced. 

Conquests  under  Sargon. — His  suc- 
cessor, Sargon  (722-705),  a  usurper, 
claimed  descent  from  the  ancient 
Assyrian  kings.  After  taking  Samaria 
and  leading  over  27,000  people  captive, 
he    overthrew    the   combined    forces    of 


soldiers  in  the  new  palace,  in  705  B.  c. 
Sennacher-ib  at  once  had  to  take  up 
arms  against  Merodach-baladan,  who  had 
again  obtained  possession  of  Babylon. 
In  701  fresh  outbreaks  in  Syria  led  him 
in  that  direction.  He  captured  Sidon  and 
Askelon,  defeated  Hezekiah  and  his 
Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  allies,  and  forced 
him  to  pay  tribute,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  Assyria  to  overawe  the  Baby- 
lonians, Elamites,  and  the  northern  hill 
tribes.  On  Dec.  20,  681,  he  was  murdered 
by  his  two  sons,  Adrammelech  and 
Sharezer,  but  they  were  defeated  by  their 
brother  Esar-haddon,  who  then  mounted 


ASHUB-BANIPAL,   CONQUEROR   OP  EGYPT.      FROM    AN   ASSYRIAN    RELIEF   TABLET 


Elam  (Susiana)  and  Babylon.  He  de- 
feated the  King  of  Hamath,  who,  with 
other  princes,  had  revolted,  took  him 
prisoner,  and  flayed  him  alive;  advanced 
through  Philistia,  and  captured  Ashdod; 
then,  pushing  southward,  totally  defeated 
the  forces  of  Egypt  p.vi  '^aza,  at  Raphia 
(719).  The  revolted  Armenians  had  al- 
so more  than  once  to  be  put  down.  In 
710  Merodach-baladan  was  driven  out 
of  Babylonia  by  Sargon,  after  holding 
it  for  12  years  as  an  independent  king, 
and  being  supported  by  the  Kings  of 
Egypt  and  Palestine;  his  allies  were  also 
crushed,  Judah  was  overrun,  and  Ashdod 
leveled  to  the  ground.  Sargon  afterward 
crossed  over  and  took  Cyprus,  where  he 
left  an  inscription  telling  of  his  expedi- 
tion. He  spent  the  latter  years  of  his 
reign  in  building,  in  the  midst  of  which 
he  was  murdered  during  a  revolt  of  the 


the  throne.  Esar-haddon  took  the  title 
King  of  Sumer  and  Akhad.  The  most 
important  event  of  this  reign  was  the 
conquest  of  Egypt,  about  670.  It  was 
reduced  to  a  state  of  vassalage,  the 
Ethiopian  ruler,  Tirhakah,  was  driven 
out  and  the  land  was  divided  into  20 
separate  kingdoms,  the  rulers  of  which 
were  the  vassals  of  Esar-haddon.  He 
associated  the  eldest  of  his  four  sons, 
Asshur-banipal,  with  him  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  kingdom  (669),  and,  one 
year  later,  this  prince  (the  Sardanapalus 
of  the  Greeks)   became  king. 

Beginning  of  the  Decli^ie. — In  652  a 
general  insurrection  broke  out.  Egypt 
declared  her  independence,  Syria  was  in 
revolt,  Elam  and  the  N.  E.  provinces  re- 
fused tribute,  and  Kandalanu,  the  new 
Viceroy  of  Babylon,  proclaimed  himself 
King,  while  his  successor,  Nabopolassar, 


ASSYRIA 


311 


ASSYRIA 


father  of  Nebuchadnezzer,  openly  threw 
off  all  semblance  of  his  allegiance  and 
declared  himself  king.  The  last  Assyrian 
King  was  Esar-haddon  II.  (the  Sarakos 
of  Ctesias),  in  whose  reign  Babylon 
definitely  threw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke. 
There  are  some  tablets  relating  to  this 
prince  which  show  that  during  his  rule 
the  N.  E.  provinces  were  invaded  by  a 
powerful  confederation  of  Aryan  and  Tu- 
ranian tribes,  Medes,  Cimmerians,  and 
Armenians,  under  the  command  of 
Cyaxares.  The  meager  character  of  the 
inscriptions  about  this  date,  and  the  ap- 
parent number  of  claimants  to  the  throne, 
indicate  that  after  the  death  of  Asshur- 


the  Ottoman  Turks  from  1638,  at  which 
period  it  was  wrested  from  the  Persians. 

People  and  Language. — The  Assyrians 
belonged  to  the  northern  branch  of  the 
Semitic  family,  a  race  of  people  who 
spread  over  the  country  and  mingled 
with  or  supplanted  the  original  inhab- 
itants, while  their  language  took  the 
place  of  the  Akkadian,  the  latter  becom- 
ing a  dead  language.  Their  language 
differed  little  from  the  Babylonian,  and 
both  retained  traces  of  the  Akkadian. 

Religion. — The  religion  of  Assyria, 
though  essentially  of  Babylonian  origin, 
was  much  simpler,  and  although  poly- 
theistic in  character,  was  free  from  the 


ASSYRIAN    SCULPTURE.      THE   SACRED   TREE,   WITH    EAGLE-HEADED   DEITIES 


banipal  a  period  of  disruption  and  an- 
archy set  in,  followed,  about  606  B.  c, 
by  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Nineveh 
by  the  combined  forces  of  Cyaxares  and 
Nabopolassar.  Assyria  became  a  Median 
province  in  606  B.  C,  and  afterward,  in 
conjunction  with  Babylonia,  formed  one 
of  the  satrapies  of  the  Persian  Empire. 
In  312  B.  c.  Assyria  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae,  whose  capital 
was  Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris.  It  was  after- 
ward subject  to  the  Parthian  kings,  whose 
capital  was  Ctesiphon,  and  was  more 
than  once  temporarily  in  possession  of 
the  Romans.  When  the  Persian  mon- 
archy of  the  Sassanidae,  which  succeeded 
that  of  the  Parthians,  was  destroyed^  by 
the  Mohammedans,  Assyria  was  subject 
to  the  caliphs,  whose  seat  was  at  Bagdad 
from  702  A.  o.  till  1258.    It  has  been  under 


multitudinous  pantheon  of  the  more  an- 
cient empire.  At  the  head  of  the  pan- 
theon was  the  god  Assur,  the  national 
deity.  He  was  symbolically  represented 
by  a  winged  circle  inclosing  the  figure 
of  an  archer.  The  Assyrian  pantheon 
contained  two  principal  triads,  with 
numerous  minor  deities.  A  number  of 
spirits,  good  and  evil,  presided  over  the 
minor  operations  of  nature.  There  were 
set  forms  of  regulating  the  worship 
of  all  the  gods  and  spirits,  and  prayers 
to  each  were  inscribed  on  clay  tablets 
with  blanks  for  the  names  of  the  persons 
using  them.  The  morning  and  evening 
saci'ifice,  the  offering  of  cakes,  wines, 
milk,  and  honey,  are  found  in  the  litur- 
g:ies  of  the  temple. 

Art    atid    Industry. — The     Assyrians 
were  far  advanced  in  art  and  industry. 


ASSYRIA 


312 


ASTERACE^ 


and  in  civilization.  They  constructed 
large  buildings,  especially  palaces,  of  an 
imposing  character.  The  palaces  were 
raised  on  high  terraces;  there  were  no 
windows,  light  being  obtained  by  carry- 
ing the  walls  up  to  a  certain  height  and 
then  raising  on  them  pillars  to  support 
the  roof  and  admit  light  and  air.  The 
Assyrian  sculptures,  as  a  rule,  were  in 
relief,  figures  in  the  full  round  being 
the  exception.  In  many  cases,  however, 
as  in  those  of  winged  bulls  and  other 
monsters,  a  compromise  was  attempted 
between  the  full  round  and  relief,  the 
heads  being  worked  free  and  the  body 
in  relief,  with  an  additional  leg  to  meet 
the  exigencies  of  different  points  of  view. 
The  Assyrians  understood  and  applied 
the  arch;  constructed  tunnels,  aqueducts, 
and  drains;  used  the  pulley,  the  lever, 
and  the  roller ;  engraved  gems  in  a  highly 
artistic  way;  understood  the  arts  of  in- 
laying, enameling,  and  overlaying  with 
metals;  manufactured  procelain,  trans- 
parent and  colored  glass,  and  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  lens;  and  possessed 
vases,  jars,  and  other  dishes,  bronze 
and  ivory  ornaments,  bells,  gold  ear- 
rings and  bracelets  of  excellent  design 
and  workmanship.  They  had  also  sil- 
ver ornamental  work.  Their  household 
furniture  also  gives  a  high  idea  of 
their  skill  and  taste. 

Assyrian  Astron(ymy. — The  cities  of 
Nineveh,  Assur,  and  Arbela  had  each 
their  royal  observatories,  superintended 
by  astronomers-royal,  who  had  to  send 
in  their  reports  to  the  king  twice  a 
month.  At  an  early  date  the  stars  were 
numbered  and  named;  a  calendar  was 
formed,  in  which  the  year  was  divided 
into  12  months  (of  30  days  each)  called 
after  the  zodiacal  signs,  but  as  this 
division  was  found  to  be  incorrect,  an 
intercalary  month  was  added  every  six 
years.  The  Assyrians  employed  both 
the  dial  and  the  clepsydra.  Eclipses 
were  recorded  from  a  very  remote 
epoch,  and  their  recurrence  roughly  de- 
termined. The  principal  astronomical 
work,  called  the  "Illumination  of  Bel," 
was  inscribed  on  more  than  100  tablets. 

Literature  and  Civilization. — One  of 
the  most  important  results  of  the  ex- 
plorations has  been  the  discovery  in  the 
palace  of  Asshur-banipal  at  Nineveh, 
of  a  large  library  consisting  of  many 
thousand  tablets  of  baked  clay  inscribed 
with  minute  characters;  large  numbers 
of  these  are  now  stored  in  the  British 
Museum.  This  library,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, owes  its  origin  to  the  keen  political 
insight  of  Esar-haddon,  but  was  com- 
pleted by  his  son  Asshur-banipal,  whose 


name  most  of  the  tablets  bear.  Its 
educational  character  is  shown  by  the 
discovery  of  a  number  of  syllabaries, 
dictionaries,  and  text-books  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  ancient  Akkadian  and  Sumi- 
rian  languages.  There  have  been  found 
also  works  on  mathematics,  tables  of 
square  and  cube  roots,  as  well  as  lists 
of  plants,  metals,  and  precious  stones, 
animals,  and  birds;  records  of  eclipses 
and  other  asti'al  phenomena,  brief  lists 
of  laws  and  various  contract  tables. 

The  geographical  works  are  limited 
to  lists  of  countries  with  their  prod- 
ucts, such  as  "Lebanon,  cedar";  "Elam, 
horses";  "Cilicia,  tin  and  silver";  and 
"Arabia,  camels."  The  section  most  pro- 
lific in  discoveries  has  been  that  of  poetic 
and  mythological  literature.  In  1872 
the  late  George  Smith,  of  the  British 
Museum,  discovered  a  series  of  poetic 
legends  relating  to  the  great  Chaldean 
hero  Gilgamesh  (Gizdubar,  or  Izdubar), 
the  11th  tablet  of  which  contained  a  leg- 
end of  the  deluge,  very  closely  resem- 
bling the  Hebrew  account. 

Chroyiology. — The  chronology  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  now  rests  upon  a  firm 
basis,  being  founded  on  several  carefully 
prepared  chronological  inscriptions.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  "Eponym 
Canon,"  a  tablet  containing  a  list  of  the 
archons,  or  eponyms  of  Nineveh,  or  Ca- 
lah,  giving  an  exact  chronology  from 
913-659  B.  c.  As  each  of  these  officials 
was  in  office  only  one  year,  the  year  was 
named  after  them;  and,  as  the  date  of 
the  Bursagalu  is  fixed  by  a  solar  eclipse, 
the  dates  of  all  the  officials  can  be  ascer- 
tained. 

ASTER,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type 
of  the  order  asteracese,  or  composites. 
It  is  so  called  because  the  expanded 
flowers  resemble  stars.  There  is  but 
one  British  species,  the  A.  tripolium,  sea 
starwort,  or  Michaelmas  daisy.  In  the 
United  States  these  asters  grow  wild  in 
the  meadows  and  on  the  prairies.  They 
grow  to  beautiful  forms  under  cultiva- 
tion. The  popular  name  aster  is  applied 
to  some  species  not  of  this  genus.  Thus 
the  China  aster  is  callistephus  chinen- 
sis,  and  the  Cape  aster  agathxa  amel- 
loides. 

ASTERACE.ffl  (as-ter-as'e-i),  former- 
ly, an  order,  the  fourth  of  five  arranged 
under  the  alliance  composite,  or  aster- 
ales,  the  others  being  calyceraceas,  muti- 
siacese,  cichoraceae,  and  cynaracese.  These, 
excluding  cynaraceas,  constitute  the  com- 
posite proper.  The  term  asteracese  in 
this  sense  is  called  also  corymbiferas,  and 
comprehends  the  larger  portion  of  the 
modern  tubuliflorss. 


ASTEROIDS 


313 


ASTOB 


Now,  it  is  a  vast  order,  comprising  the 
whole  of  the  compositee  proper.  It  in- 
cludes plants  like  the  daisy,  the  thistle, 
the  dandelion,  and  others,  possessing 
what,  to  a  superficial  observer,  appears 
like  a  calyx,  but  is  in  reality  an  in- 
volucre, surrounding  a  receptacle  on 
which  are  situated  not,  as  might  at  first 
sight  appear,  numerous  petals,  but  many 
florets.  They  are  believed  to  constitute 
about  one-tenth  of  the  flowering  plants. 
They  are  everywhere  diffused,  but  in 
different  proportions  in  different  coun- 
tries; thus  they  constitute  one-seventh  of 
the  flowering  plants  of  France,  and  half 
those  of  tropical  America.  The  order  is 
divided  into  three  sub-orders :  (1)  hibull- 
floras;  (2)  lahiatiflmse ;  and  (3)  liguli- 
florae.  All  are  bitter.  For  more  specific 
information  regarding  their  qualities 
see  the  sub-orders  and  some  of  the 
genera. 

ASTEROIDS.    See  Planetoids. 

ASTEROLEPIS,  a  genus  of  ganoid 
fishes  named  on  account  of  the  starry 
color  of  its  scales. 

ASTEROPHYLLITES  (-fil-i'tez),  a 
genus  of  cryptogamous  plants,  allied  to 
calamites,  belonging  to  the  order  equise- 
t^cess.  All  are  fossil,  and  belong  to  the 
carboniferous  period.  Their  name  was 
given  on  account  of  the  starry  appear- 
ance of  the  verticillate  foliage.  Their 
stems  were  articulated  and  branched, 
and  it  is  now  known  that  the  fossils 
termed  volkmannia  constituted  their 
fructification. 

ASTHMA,  a  chronic  shortness  of 
breath,  from  whatever  cause  it  may 
arise.  It  is  most  common  in  persons 
possessing  the  nervous  temperament. 
After  some  precursory  symptoms,  it 
commences,  often  at  night,  with  a  parox- 
ysm in  which  there  is  a  great  tightness 
and  constriction  of  the  chest.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  a  morbid  contraction  of  the 
bronchial  muscles.  There  are  two  lead- 
ing varieties  of  the  disease,  a  nervous 
and  a  catarrhal,  the  former  of  pure 
sympathetic  and  symptomatic  forms, 
and  the  latter  latent,  humeral  and  mu- 
cous chronic  sub-varieties,  besides  an 
acute  congestive,  and  an  acute  catarrhal, 
form. 

ASTI  (as'te)  (Asta  Pompeia),  a  city 
of  Piedmont,  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Alessandria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tanaro,  35  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Turin  by 
rail.  It  has  a  large  Gothic  cathedral, 
which  was  completed  about  1348,  and  a 
royal  college.  There  is  carried  on  a 
considerable    trade   in   silk   and   woolen 


fabrics,  hats,  leather,  and  agricultural 
produce.  Asti  spuma/nte,  a  sparkling 
wine,  is  highly  esteemed.  The  city  is  of 
high  antiquity,  having  been  famous  for 
its  pottery  before  its  capture  by  the 
Gauls  in  400  B.  c.  On  the  occasion  of  its 
being  again  taken  and  destroyed  in  an 
irruption  of  the  Gauls,  it  was  rebuilt 
by  Pompey,  and  received  the  name  of 
Asta  Pompeia.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
Asti  was  one  of  the  most  powerful 
republics  of  upper  Italy.  It  was  captured 
and  burned  by  the  Emperor  Frederick 
I.  in  1155,  and,  after  a  series  of  vicis- 
situdes, came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Visconti  of  Naples ;  by  them  it  was  ceded 
to  the  French,  in  whose  hands  it  remained 
till  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  when 
the  Dukes  of  Savoy  acquired  it.  Alfieri 
was  born  here,  1749.    Pop.  about  45,000. 

ASTOR,  JOHN  JACOB,  an  American 
merchant,  born  in  Waldorf,  Germany, 
July  17,  1763.  In  1783  he  came  to  the 
United  States  and  engaged  in  buying  furs 
from  the  Indians  and  selling  them  to 
dealers.  His  success  in  the  fur  business 
led  him  to  become  the  owner  of  a  number 
of  vessels  in  which  he  shipped  furs  to 
London  and  brought  merchandise  there- 
from. In  furtherance  of  a  scheme  for 
becoming  independent  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  and  establishing  a  thoroughly 
American  system  of  fur  trading,  he  sent 
out  expeditions  to  open  up  intercourse 
with  the  Indians  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
by  which  the  present  city  of  Astoria  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river  in 
Oregon  was  planted  in  1811.  An  inter- 
esting outline  of  his  projects  in  this  con- 
nection is  given  in  Washington  Irving's 
"Astoria."  Mr.  Astor  acquired  large 
wealth,  invested  heavily  in  real  estate 
in  New  York  City;  and  at  his  death 
left  a  fortune  estimated  at  $20,000,000, 
and  the  sum  of  $400,000,,  with  which 
to  found  a  public  library  in  New  York 
City.     He  died  March  29,  1848. 

ASTOR,  JOHN  JACOB,  an  American 
capitalist,  born  in  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y., 
July  13,  1864;  great  grandson  of  John 
Jacob,  graduated  from  Harvard  Univer- 
sity in  1888.  In  1897  he  built  the  As- 
toria Hotel  in  New  York,  adjoining  the 
Waldorf  Hotel,  which  had  been  built 
by  his  cousin,  William  Waldorf  Astor, 
and  subsequently  the  two  were  united 
under  the  name  of  the  Waldorf-Astoria 
Hotel.  He  was  appointed  Colonel  on  the 
staff  of  Gov.  Morton;  was  commis- 
sioned a  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Vol- 
unteers in  May,  1898,  and  served  on 
inspection  and  staff  duty  in  the  United 
States  and  Cuba  till  the  surrender  of 
Santiago.      He    published    "A    Journey 


ASTOB 


314 


ASTRINGENTS 


to  Other  Worlds";  "A  Romance  of  the 
Future"  (1894).  Died  in  the  wreck  of 
the   "Titanic,"  April   15,   1912. 

ASTOR,  LADY  NANCY,  the  second 
woman  to  be  elected  to  the  British  Par- 
liament and  the  first  woman  to  take  ac- 
tually her  seat.  She  stood  as  the  Con- 
servative candidate  for  Plymouth  in 
1919  and  was  elected  by  a  considerable 
margin  over  Liberal  and  Labor  candi- 
dates. Her  campaign  was  notable  for 
the  wit  and  spirit  of  her  speeches.  She 
is  an  American  by  birth  and  is  the  wife 
of  Lord  Waldorf  Astor.  She  is  the 
mother  of  six  children.  She  has  spoken 
briefly  several  times  in  Parliament  on 
pending  questions. 

ASTOR,  WILLIAM  BACKHOUSE,  an 

American  capitalist,  born  in  New  York 
City,  Sept.  19,  1792;  eldest  son  of  John 
Jacob  Astor;  was  associated  with  his 
father  in  business;  increased  the  family 
fortune  to  $45,000,000;  and  gave  $550,- 
000  to  the  Astor  Library.  He  died  in 
New  York,  Nov.  24,  1875. 

ASTOR,  WILLIAM  WALDORF,  capi- 
talist, born  in  New  York  City,  March 
31,  1848;  received  a  private  education; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1875.  He 
was  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly 
in  1871,  and  to  the  Senate  in  1879;  was 
defeated  for  Congress  in  1881,  and  was 
United  States  Minister  to  Italy  in  1882- 
1885.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  John 
Jacob  Astor,  in  1890,  he  became  the  head 
of  the  Astor  family,  and  inherited  a 
fortune  said  to  aggregate  $100,000,000. 
He  removed  to  England  in  1890;  became 
the  owner  of  the  "Pall  Mall  Gazette" 
and  "Pall  Mall  Magazine";  and  was 
naturalized  a  British  subject  on  July  1, 
1899.  He  published  "Valentino"  (1885) 
and  "Sforza"  (1889),  both  romances. 
He  gave  considerable  sums  to  English 
charities  and  colleges  and  was  made  a 
peer  in  1916.  Died  in  London,  Oct.  18, 
1919. 

ASTOR  PLACE  RIOT,  a  fatal  affray 
Which  took  place  in  New  York  City, 
May  10,  1849,  in  which  the  participants 
were  the  partisans  of  the  actors,  Edwin 
Forrest  and  William  C.  Macready. 
Twenty-two  were  killed  and  36  wounded. 

ASTORIA,  a  city  of  Oregon,  the  county- 
seat  of  Clatsop  CO.,  on  the  Columbia 
river,  about  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Port- 
land, and  on  the  Spokane,  Portland,  and 
Seattle  railroad.  It  is  connected  with 
foreign  and  domestic  ports  by  several 
steamship  lines.  The  city  has  an  excel- 
lent water  front,  about  five  miles  in 
length.  It  is  the  center  of  an  important 
salmon  canning  industry,  and  has  iron 


works,  lumber  mills,  can  factories,  and 
other  industrial  establishments.  A 
large  export  trade  in  lumber  and  flour 
is  carried  on.  There  is  a  custom  house, 
postoffice,  parks,  library,  hospitals,  and 
other  handsome  public  buildings.  Lewis 
and  Clarke  established  a  fort  here,  and 
it  was  later  the  site  of  the  fur  trading 
station  built  in  1811  by  John  Jacob  As- 
tor. It  was  the  first  settlement  in  the 
valley  of  the  Columbia  river.  Pop. 
(1910)    9,599;    (1920)    14,027. 

ASTR.fflID.aE,  in  zoology,  a  family  of 
radiated  animals  belonging  to  the  class 
polypi  and  the  order  helianthoMa.  It 
is  especially  to  this  family  that  the 
formation  of  coral  reefs  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted. It  contains  the  genera  astrxa, 
meandrina,  etc. 

ASTRAGAL,  in  architecture,  a  small 
semi-circular  molding,  with  a  fillet  be- 
neath it,  which  surrounds  a  column  in 
the  form  of  a  ring,  separating  the  shaft 
from  the  capital. 

ASTRAGALUS,  the  upper  bone  of  the 
foot  supporting  the  tibia;  the  huckle, 
ankle,  or  sling  bone.  It  is  a  strong, 
irregularly-shaped  bone,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  others  by  powerful 
ligaments. 

ASTRAGALUS,  a  genus  of  papiliona- 
ceous plants,  herbaceous  or  shrubby,  and 
often  spiny.  A.  gummifer  yields  gum 
tragacanth. 

ASTRAKHAN  (as-tra-kan'),  a  Rus- 
sian city,  capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  on  an  elevated  island 
in  the  Volga.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop  and  has  a  large  cathedral, 
as  well  as  places  of  worship  for  Moham- 
medans, Armenians,  etc.  The  manu- 
factures are  large  and  increasing,  and 
the  fisheries  (sturgeon,  etc.)  very  im- 
portant. It  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Cas- 
pian, and  has  regular  steam  communi- 
cation with  the  principal  towns  on  its 
shores.  Pop.  about  150,000,  composed  of 
various  races.  The  government  has  an 
area  of  91,327  square  miles.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  two  vast  steppes,  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  the  Volga, 
and  forming  for  the  most  part  arid, 
sterile  deserts.     Pop.  about  1,350,000. 

ASTRAKHAN,  a  name  given  to  sheep- 
skins with  a  curled  woolly  surface  ob- 
tained from  a  variety  of  sheep  found  in 
Bokhara,  Persia,  and  Syria;  also  a 
rough  fabric  with  a  pile  in  imitation  of 
this. 

ASTRINGENTS,  substances  which 
produce  contraction  and  condensation 
of  the  muscular  fiber :  for  instance,  when 


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)-U;.    jnisoH   Obsoiatuiy 

NORTH    AND     SOUTH     SUN     SPOTS,    SEPTEMBER    9,    1908 


LMt.  ll'ilson  Observatory 

NORTHERN  PART  OF  THE  MOON,  AT  LAST  QUARTER.  NIGHT  IS  ADVANCING 
FROM  THE  LEFT.  THE  DARK  OVAL  PLAIN,  SURROUNDED  BY  A  BRIGHT  WALL, 
IS  "PLATO."  THE  MOUNTAINS  ABOVE  AND  TO  THE  LEFT  OF  "PLATO"  ARE 
THE  "LUNAR  ALPS."  THE  LONGER  RANGE,  EXTENDING  ACROSS  THE  UPPER 
LEFT-HAND    PART    OF    THE    VIEW^,    ARE    THE    "LUNAR    APENNINES" 


©Mt.  Wilson  Obscfxat.iry 

SOUTHERN  PART  OF  THE  MOON,  AT  LAST  QUARTER.  NIGHT  ADVANCES  FROM 
THE  LEFT.  THE  BROKEN  ROW  OF  YAWNING  BLACK  HOLES  ALONG  THE 
TERMINATOR  BETWEEN  DAY  AND  NIGHT  INCLUDE,  TOGETHER  WITH  THE 
SECOND  ROW  TO  THE  RIGHT,  WHOSE  BOTTOMS  ARE  STILL  IN  THE  SUNLIGHT, 
THE  GRANDEST  "RING  PLAINS"  AND  "CRATER  MOUNTAINS"  ON  THE  MOON. 
THE    LARGE    SMOOTH    ONE    AT    THE    BOTTOM    IS    "PTOLEMAEUS" 


B^CTTBfH^B^H^BwHIlMBWIWTnffi**'"^^  ^'^-'^''^'^'fTodflffl^nHE^^^^n^v^HiHENHnl 

WU^BI^BBISSS^^^^^^W- '    '^/j^^^^SEflUHBBnHfll^B^Bfl 

8BIE  ^£^1^^^ '           '  %  i^^^iPaB«99HHHBIHIi^^HHHHI^^9IHII 

n^^^^^^^-'-v  1    -."  ^'^^jsjwflwHHWHHIB^ 

H^l 

i).U/-.    Wilson    Obscriatory 

STAR  CLUSTER   M  22. 


SAGITTARII,  AUGUST   6 


Dil/^    U'llsun    Ohsovatary 

IRREGULAR    NEBULA   M    17.      SAGITTARII    (oMEGA)  ,   JULY   29,    1919 


©Verkes  Observatory 


Morehouse's  comet 


i.l/f.  Jl'ilso)i  Cbscrzatury 


THE  PLANET  SATURN 


Underwood  &  i  ndcrwood 

TRANSMITTING  CLOCKS  FOR  TIME  SIGNALS,  NAVAL  OBSERVATORY, 
WASHINGTON,  D.   C. 


ASTROLABE 


315 


ASTRONOMY 


applied  to  a  bleeding  wound  they  so 
contract  the  tissues  as  to  stop  the  hem- 
orrhage. The  contraction  thus  pro- 
duced is  different  from  that  effected  by 
an  ordinary  stimulant,  and  from  that 
caused  by  the  administration  of  a  tonic. 

ASTROLABE,  in  its  etymological  sense, 
any  instrument  for  taking  the  altitude 
of  a  star  or  other  heavenly  body,  a  defi- 
nition which  would  include  not  merely 
the  astrolabe,  properly  so  called,  but 
also  the  sextant,  the  quadrant,  the 
equatorial,  the  altitude  and  the  azimuth 
circle,  the  theodolite,  or  any  similar 
instrument. 

A  type  of  astrolabe  was  in  use  among 
astronomers  at  least  from  the  early  part 
of  the  2d  century  A.  D.,  if  not  even  from 
the  2d  or  3d  century  B.  c. 

ASTROLOGY,  originally  a  discourse 
concerning  the  stars;  subsequently  the 
true  science  of  astronomy;  now  the 
pseudo  science  which  pretends  to  fore- 
tell future  events  by  studying  the  posi- 
tion of  the  stars,  and  ascertaining  their 
alleged  influence  upon  human  destiny. 
Natural  astrology  professes  to  predict 
changes  in  the  weather  from  studying 
the  stars  and  judicial  or  judiciary  as- 
trology to  foretell  events  bearing  on  the 
destiny  of  individual  human  beings  or 
the  race  of  mankind  generally. 

The  Chinese,  the  Egyptians,  the  Chal- 
deans, the  Romans,  and  most  other  an- 
cient nations,  with  the  honorable  excep- 
tion of  the  Greeks,  became  implicit  be- 
lievers in  astrology.  It  was  partly  the 
cause  and  partly  the  effect  of  the  prev- 
alent worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  later  Jews,  the  Arabs,  with  other 
Mohammedan  races,  and  the  Christians 
in  medieval  Europe,  were  all  great  cul- 
tivators of  astrology.  The  ordinary 
method  of  procedure  in  the  Middle  Ages 
was  to  divide  a  globe  or  a  planisphere 
into  12  portions  by  circles  running  from 
pole  to  pole,  like  those  which  now  mark 
meridians  of  longitude.  Each  of  the 
12  spaces  or  intervals  between  these 
circles  was  called  a  "house"  of  heaven. 
The  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars  all 
pass  once  in  24  hours  through  the  por- 
tion of  heavens  represented  by  the  12 
"houses";  nowhere,  however,  except  at 
the  equator,  are  the  same  stars  uniform- 
ly together  in  the  same  house.  Every 
house  has  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
ruling  over  it  as  its  lord. 

The  houses  symbolize  different  ad- 
vantages or  disadvantages.  The  first 
is  the  house  of  life;  the  second,  of  riches; 
the  third,  of  brethren;  the  fourth,  of 
parents;  the  fifth,  of  children;  the  sixth, 
of  health;  the  seventh,  of  marriage; 
the  eighth,  of  death;  the  ninth,  of  reli- 


gion; the  tenth,  of  dignities;  the  elev- 
enth,  of  friends;  and  the  twelfth,  of 
enemies.  The  houses  vary  in  strength, 
the  first  one,  that  containing  the  part  of 
the  heavens  about  to  rise,  being  the 
most  powerful  of  all;  it  is  called  the 
ascendant,  while  the  point  of  the  eclip- 
tic just  rising  is  termed  the  horoscope. 
The  important  matter  was  to  ascertain 
what  house  and  star  was  in  the  ascend- 
ant at  the  moment  of  a  person's  birth, 
from  which  it  was  deemed  possible  to 
augur  his  fortune.  Astrology  still  flour- 
ishes in  Asia  and  Africa. 

ASTRONOMY,  the  science  that  treats 
of  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  including  the 
earth,  as  related  to  them.  It  is  the  old- 
est of  the  sciences,  and  the  mother  of 
those  generally  called  exact  mathema- 
tics, geodesy  and  physics. 

Astronomy  may  to-day  be  broadly  di- 
vided into  two  branches,  mathematical 
and  physical,  and  these  are  almost  sy- 
nonymous with  two  terms  recently  in- 
troduced, the  old  and  the  new  asti'on- 
omy,  as  defined  by  the  statement  that 
the  old  tells  us  whei'e  the  heavenly 
bodies  are,  the  new,  what  they  are.  The 
characteristic  feature  of  the  instruments 
and  methods  of  the  new  versus  the  old 
astronomy  is  that  the  new  deals  with 
some  special  form  of  radiant  energy, 
measuring  or  analyzing  the  vibrations 
transmitted  throughout  all  space  by 
means  of  the  elastic  medium  called 
ether. 

Under  the  two  broad  divisions  stated 
above,  mathematical  astronomy  would 
include  the  following  divisions,  which 
are  not,  however,  mutually  exclusive: 
Spherical  astronomy,  which  treats  of 
angles  and  directions  on  the  celestial 
sphere;  practical  astronomy,  treating 
of  the  instruments,  methods  of  observa- 
tion, and  of  calculation  employed  to 
get  at  the  facts  and  data  of  astronomy; 
theoretical  astronomy,  which  deals  with 
the  orbits,  tables  and  ephemerides  of  the 
sun,  moon,  planets,  and  comets,  includ- 
ing the  effect  of  their  mutual  attrac- 
tions, and  gravitational  or  mechanical 
astronomy,  which  treats  of  the  forces 
(principally  gravitation)  at  work  in 
space  and  the  motions  resulting  there- 
from. This  last  was  formerly  called 
physical  astronomy,  but  the  name  has 
been  monopolized  by  the  new  astronomy 
within  the  last  few  decades,  and  must 
now  be  reserved  for  it.  This  second 
branch,  likewise  called  astronomical 
physics  and  astro-physics,  attempts  to 
answer  the  question  of  what  the  heav- 
enly bodies  are,  the  nature  and  con- 
stitution of  their  interiors,  surfaces, 
atmosphere,  their  temperatures  and  radi- 


ASTRONOMY 


316 


ASTRONOMY 


ations,  and  the  effect  of  these  radiations 
upon  other  bodies,  and  all  allied  ques- 
tions arising  out  of  these.  Its  princi- 
pal instrument,  the  spectroscope,  has 
likewise  furnished  data  otherwise  un- 
attainable ini  the  field  of  mathematical 
astronomy,  viz.,  the  determination  of 
the  motion  to  or  from  us  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  by  displacement  of  the  lines  of 
their  spectra  due  to  this  motion. 


COELOSTAT- 


2>i?.  MIRROR, 
ISO  M  FOCUS  LBNS 


OBSERVfiiTION 

HOUSE 
F^OTO&RAPHIC 
F>LPrr£ 


m^ 


•RAY5  OPW/^RD 
TO  PLATE 


RfitYS  POWn/WARD 


LENS    .^ 
ORATING 


DIAGRAM    OF    COELOSTAT    OF     MT.    WILSON 
OBSERVATORY.     THE  TOWER  IS   164'    HIGH 

History. — The  Chinese,  Hindus,  Chal- 
deans, Egyptians,  and  Greeks  investi- 
gated the  heavens  long  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  In  China,  astronomy  was 
intimately  associated  with  state  poli- 
tics; the  Indians,  Chaldeans,  and  Egyp- 
tians made  it  a  matter  of  religion.  The 
Greek  historians  attribute  the  earliest 
knowledge  of  astronomical  science  to  the 
Chaldeans  and  Egyptians.  They  say 
that  the  former  discovered  the  Saros  or 


cycle  of  223  lunations,  nearly  equal  to 
18  years,  by  which  they  predicted  the 
return  of  previously  observed  eclipses 
and  made  use  of  other  empirical  cycles 
or  periods. 

Thales  (640  B.  c),  the  founder  of  the 
Ionic  school,  laid  the  foundation  of 
Greek  astronomy.  The  successors  of 
Thales  held  opinions  which,  in  many  re- 
spects, are  wonderfully  in  accordance 
with  modern  ideas.  Anaximander,  it 
is  said,  held  that  the  earth  moved  about 
its  own  axis,  and  that  the  moon's  light 
was  reflected  from  the  sun.  To  him  is 
also  attributed  the  belief  in  the  plural- 
ity of  worlds. 

Pythagoras  (500  B.  C.)  promulgated 
the  true  theory  that  the  sun  is  the  center 
of  the  planetary  world,  and  that  the 
earth  revolves  round  it.  But  the  views 
of  Pythagoras  met  with  little  or  no 
support  from  his  successors  until  the 
time  of  Copernicus.  Between  Pythag- 
oras and  the  advent  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  nearly  two  centuries 
later,  among  the  most  prominent  names 
in  astronomical  annals  is  that  of  Meton, 
who  introduced  the  Metonic  Cycle,  con- 
sisting of  125  months  of  30  days  each, 
and  of  100  of  29  days,  making  a  period 
of  6,940  days,  nearly  equal  to  19  solar 
years. 

To  the  Alexandrian  school,  owing  its 
existence  to  the  Ptolemies,  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  first  systematic  observa- 
tions in  astronomy. 

Hipparchus  of  Bithynia  (160-125 
B.  c),  was  a  theorist,  a  mathematician, 
and  observer.  He  catalogued  no  less 
than  1,081  stars.  He  discovered  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes;  he  deter- 
mined the  mean  motion  as  well  as  the 
inequality  of  the  motion  of  the  sun,  and 
the  length  of  the  year;  also  the  mean 
motion  of  the  moon,  her  eccentricity, 
the  equation  of  her  center  and  the  in- 
clination of  her  orbit;  and  he  suspected 
the  inequality  afterward  found  by  Ptol- 
emy (the  evection).  After  the  death 
of  Hipparchus,  astronomy  languished 
for  nearly  three   centuries. 

Ptolemy  (130-150  A.  D.),  besides  being 
a  practical  astronomer,  was  accom- 
plished as  a  musician,  a  geographer, 
and  a  mathematician.  His  most  im- 
portant discovery  in  astronomy  was  the 
evection  of  the  moon.  He  also  was  the 
first  to  point  out  the  effect  of  refraction. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  false  system 
known  by  his  name,  and  which  was  uni- 
versally accepted  as  the  true  theory  of 
the  universe  until  the  researches  of 
Copernicus  exploded  it.  The  Ptolemaic 
system  placed  the  earth,  immovable,  in 
the  center  of  the  universe,  making  the 
entire  heavens   revolve   round   it  in  the 


ASTRONOMY 


317 


ASTRONOMY 


course  of  24  hours.  The  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known,  however,  is  the  col- 
lection and  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  ancient  observations  in  his  great 
work,  the  "Megale  Syntaxis,"  which 
gives  a  complete  resume  of  the  astro- 
nomical knowledge  of  the  day.  The 
most  important  part  of  it  is  the  seventh 
and  eighth  books,  which  contain  the 
catalogue  of  stars  which  bears  Ptolemy's 
name,  though  it  is  only  a  compilation  of 
the  catalogue  of  Hipparchus  with  the 
positions  brought  up  to  the  time  of  Ptol- 


moon's  motion,  the  variation,  and  de- 
termined its  amount. 

The  revival  of  astronomy  in  Europe 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  George 
Purbach,  who  translated  the  "Alma- 
gest" at  Vienna.  His  pupil,  John  Mul- 
ler,  translated  into  Latin  the  works  of 
Ptolemy  and  the  conies  of  Appolonius, 
built  an  observatory  at  Nuremberg,  and 
equipped  it  with  instruments  of  his  own 
invention.     He  died  in  1476. 

Copernicus  (1473-1543)  exploded  the 
Ptolemaic  idea,  and  promulgated  a  cor- 


^  CMVAS 

<  DOME  PI?OT£CriPN 


THE  DOME  AND   MOUNTING  FOR  A  60"   REFLECTING  TELESCOPE 


emy.  These  latter  are  in  use  to-day, 
though  the  gaps  between  them  have 
been  filled  up  in  some  cases  by  more 
modern   asterisms. 

To  the  Arabs  we  owe  the  next  ad- 
vances in  astronomy.  The  most  illus- 
trious of  the  Arabian  school  were  Alba- 
tegnus,  or  AI  Batani  (880  A.  D.),  who  dis- 
covered the  motion  of  the  solar  apogee, 
and  who  was  the  first  to  make  use  of 
sines  and  versed  sines  instead  of  chords; 
and  Ibn-Yunis  (1000  A.  D.),  an  excellent 
mathematician,  who  made  observations 
of  great  importance  in  determining  the 
disturbances  and  eccentricities  of  Jupi- 
ter and  Saturn,  and  who  was  the  first 
to  use  cotangents  and  sectants.  Like- 
wise, at  about  the  same  time,  Abul  Wefa 
discovered   the   third    inequality   in   the 


rect  theory.  It  makes  the  sun  the  im- 
movable center  of  the  universe,  around 
which  all  the  planets  revolve  in  concen- 
tric orbits,  Mercury  and  Venus  within 
the  earth's  orbit,  and  all  other  planets 
without  it. 

Decidedly  the  most  industrious  ob- 
server and  eminent  practical  astronomer 
from  the  time  of  the  Arabs  to  the  latter 
half  of  the  16th  century  was  Tycho 
Brahe  (1546-1601).  He  made  the  first 
table  of  refractions,  and  discovered  the 
variation  and  annual  equation  of  the 
moon,  the  inequalities  of  the  motion  of 
the  nodes,  and  of  the  inclination  of  the 
lunar  orbit.  He  also  demonstrated  that 
the  region  of  the  comets  is  far  beyond 
the  orbit  of  the  moon,  and  he  deter- 
mined  the   positions   of   777    stars   with 


ASTRONOMY 


318 


ASTRONOMY 


an  accuracy    far    surpassing    anything  haps  the  greatest  of  these  was  the  in- 

before  done  in  that  line.    He  left  behind  vention  of  logarithms  by  Lord   Napier, 

him  a  mass  of  observations  of  the  sun  In  1603,  John  Bayer,  of  Augsburg,  pub- 

and    planets    which    he    had    made    to  lished    his   "Uranometria,"   or    maps    of 

demonstrate  the  truth  of  his  system  of  the    48    constellations    which    had    been 

the   universe,   but  which  afterward   be-  handed  down  from  Hipparchus  through 

came,  in  Kepler's  hands,  the  means  of  Ptolemy    in    the    "Almagest,"    and,    on 


THE  40"  REFRACTOR  TELESCOPE  AT  YERKES  OBSERVATORY 


its  overthrow  and  the  final  and  perma- 
nent establishment  of  the  truth  of  the 
Copernican  system.  Kepler's  brilliant 
discovery  of  the  three  laws  of  planetary 
motion  made  his  name  immortal. 

Galileo  Galilei  was  the  contemporary 
of  Kepler,  and,  as  his  discoveries  were 
of  a  more  popular  character,  he  obtained 
a  more  immediate  fame  and  reputa- 
tion. In  the  interval  between  the  great 
discoveries  of  Kepler  and  Galileo  and 
those  of  Newton  various  astronomers 
made  valuable  additions  to  astronomical 
knowledge  or  invented  new  apparatus 
for  observing  the  heavenly  bodies.     Per- 


these  maps,  he  for  the  first  time  assigned 
to  the  individual  stars  the  letters  that 
are  used  to-day.  The  researches  of 
Descartes  gave  a  new  help  to  mathe- 
matical analysis.  Horrox  observed  the 
transit  of  Venus  in  1639,  the  first  ever 
seen  by  man. 

The  most  accurate  determinations  of 
the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
made  without  the  help  of  the  telescope 
were  those  of  Hevelius,  a  rich  citizen  of 
Danzig.  The  catalogue  of  stars  which 
bears  his  name,  and  by  whose  numbers 
in  the  different  constellations  the  indi- 
vidual stars  are  still  called  to-day  with 


ASTRONOMY 


319 


ASTRONOMY 


the  distinguishing  letter  "H,"  is  the 
greatest  of  the  results  of  his  labors. 

Newton's  fame  rests  on  his  discovery 
of  the  law  of  gravitation,  announced  in 
the  "Principia"  in  1677.  Newton  also 
made  the  important  discovery  of  the 
revolution  of  comets  around  the  sun  in 
conic  sections,  proved  the  earth's  form 
to  be  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  gave  a 
theory  of  the  moon  and  tides,  invented 
fluxions  and  wrote  on  optics.  While 
the  foundations  of  gravitational  astron- 
omy were  thus  broadly  laid  by  Newton, 
Flamsteed,  the  first  astronomer-royal  at 
Greenwich,  and  Halley  were  greatly  im- 
proving and  extending  the  practical  de- 
partment of  the  science.  To  Flamsteed 
we  are  indebted  for  numerous  observa- 
tions on  the  fixed  stars,  on  planets,  sat- 
ellites and  comets,  and  for  a  catalogue 
of  2,884  stars.  His  "Historia  Ccelestis" 
formed  a  new  era  in  sidereal  astron- 
omy. Dr.  Halley,  who  succeeded  Flam- 
steed as  astronomer-royal,  discovered 
the  accelerated  mean  motion  of  the  moon, 
and  certain  inequalities  in  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  but  he  is  most  famed  for 
his  successful  investigations  into  the 
motions  and  nature  of  comets.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Dr.  Bradley,  who,  in  the 
year  of  Newton's  death,  made  the  im- 
portant discovery  of  the  aberration  of 
light,  which  furnishes  the  most  con- 
clusive proof  we  have  of  the  earth's  an- 
nual  motion. 

While  Bradley  was  at  work  at  Green- 
wich, at  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
Lacaille,  a  celebrated  French  astrono- 
mer, undertook  a  voyage  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  to  determine  the  sun's  par- 
allax, by  observations  of  Mars  and 
Venus  simultaneously  with  similar  ones 
in  Europe,  and  to  form  a  catalogue  of 
southern  circumpolar  stars.  In  a  sin- 
gle year  and  single-handed  he  observed 
the  positions  of  over  10,000  stars  and 
computed  the  places  of  1,942  of  them. 
The  latter  half  of  the  18th  century  was 
marked  by  the  brilliant  work  of  Sir 
William  Herschel,  who  discovered  the 
planet  Uranus  and  its  four  satellites, 
and  two  additional  satellites  of  Saturn; 
determined  the  direction  of  the  motion 
of  the  solar  system  in  space;  resolved 
the  Milky  Way  into  countless  myriads 
of  stars,  and  opened  up  a  boundless 
field  of  discovery  and  research  among 
the  nebulae  and  double  and  multiple 
stars. 

Maskelyne  perfected  the  method  of 
reducing  observations  of  lunar  distances 
at  sea  for  the  determination  of  longi- 
tudes, and  had  tables  of  lunar  distances 
first  published  in  the  British  "Nautical 
Almanac."  Lalande  observed  the  posi- 
tions  of  by  far  the   largest   number  of 


stars  that  had  been  catalogued  up  to  the 
end  of  the  18th  century.  These  wfere 
afterward  reduced  and  published  by 
Baily  in  a  catalogue  which  contains  over 
47,000  star  positions.  Mayer,  besides 
making  a  valuable  catalogue  of  zodiacal 
stars  at  about  the  same  time  as  those 
of  Bradley  and  Lacaille,  perfected  lunar 
tables  which  were  for  many  years  the 
most   accui'ate   in   existence.      The    18th 


MT.    WILSON   OBSERVATORY 

and  19th  centuries  were  astronomically 
connected  by  the  work  of  Piazzi  in  the 
observatory  established  at  Palermo  in 
1790,  where  on  the  night  of  Jan.  1,  1801, 
a  new  planet,  the  first  of  the  numerous 
belt  of  planetoids  between  Mars  and 
Jupiter,  was  discovered. 

Modern  Astronovvy. — Friedrich  Wil- 
helm  Bessel  contributed  more  than  any 
other  to  the  solid  advancement  of  the 
science  in  the  19th  century.  Bessel  com- 
bined in  an  extraordinary  degree  the 
qualities  of  an  able  mathematician  and 
a  skillful  observer.  Before  mentioning 
particularly  any  of  the  other  prominent 
astronomers  of  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century,  the  celebrated  optician 
Fraunhofer,  who  contributed  so  much  to 
their  success,  deserves  special  notice.  In 
connection  with  his  experiments  on  light 
for  the  further  perfection  of  his  lenses, 
Fraunhofer  was  led  to  the  discovery  of 


ASTRONOMY 


320 


ASTRONOMY 


the  host  of  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum, 
of  which  he  counted  600  and  mapped 
324,  and  which  are  to-day  known  as 
the  "Fraunhofer  Lines."  Though  he  did 
not  have  the  time  to  carry  this  dis- 
covery to  its  legitimate  conclusion,  this 
being  afterward  done  by  Kirchhoff  and 
Bunsen,  Fraunhofer's  labors  may  be 
considered  as  the  beginning  of  the  new 
astronomy. 

Frledrich  Georg  Wilhelm  Struve 
(1793-1864)  rendered  his  name  immor- 
tal by  the  accurate  determination,  with 
the  9^/^  inch  Dorpat  refractor,  of  the 
position-angles,  distances,  colors  and 
relative  brightness  of  3,112  double  and 
multiple  stars,  about  2,200  of  which 
were  new  discoveries.  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm August  Argelander  (1799-1875) 
ranks  next  to  Bessel  among  the  great 
astronomers  of  the  19th  century.  A 
pupil  of  the  latter,  he  thoroughly  im- 
bibed the  ideas  of  exactitude  in  astro- 
nomical observations  for  which  his  great 
master  was  pre-eminent,  and  he  carried 
them  out  in  all  his  subsequent  work. 
His  first  work  was  the  observations, 
made  while  his  observatory  at  Bonn  was 
being  completed,  for  the  formation  of 
the  "Uranometria  Nova,"  the  accepted 
standard    of    stellar    magnitudes. 

John  F.  W.  Herschel  (1792-1871),  fol- 
lowing in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  in 
1834  began  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
a  survey  of  the  southern  heavens,  using 
an  18-inch  reflector  of  his  own  con- 
struction. With  this,  in  the  course  of 
four  years,  he  accumulated  a  vast  store 
of  material,  in  the  way  of  new  double 
and  multiple  stars,  nebulae  and  star- 
clusters,  photometric  measures  of  stellar 
brightness,  "  soundings "  or  "  star- 
gauges"  in  the  Milky  Way,  to  show  the 
laws  of  the  distribution  of  the  stars  in 
space,  all  of  which  form  the  starting 
point  of  our  knowledge  of  the  southern 
heavens.  The  work  of  Sir  George  Bid- 
dell  Airy  (1801-1892)  next  deserves 
attention.  Appointed  in  1835  to  the 
directorship  of  the  Royal  Observatory  of 
Greenwich,  he  first  carried  to  completion 
the  great  work  begun  at  his  suggestion 
two  years  before — the  complete  reduc- 
tion, on  a  uniform  system,  of  all  the 
Greenwich  planetary  observations  from 
1750  onward. 

The  greatest  event  of  the  century  was 
the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune. 
The  work  of  Lagrange  and  Laplace  in 
the  domain  of  gravitational  astronomy 
was  continued  and  vastly  extended  in 
the  19th  century  by  several  eminent 
mathematicians,  astronomers,  notably  by 
Leverrier.  His  life  was  devoted  to  the 
perfection  of  the  theory  of  the  planetary 
motions.     Adams,  the  equal  sharer  with 


him  in  the  glory  of  the  discovery  of 
Neptune,  has  also  made  very  important 
additions  to  our  knowledge  in  the  same 
field,  and  in  the  United  States  we  have, 
in  the  persons  of  Simon  Newcombe  and 
George  W.  Hill,  their  worthy  successors 
and  collaborators.  The  amount  of  work 
which  Newcomb  published  in  the  line  of 
fundamental  star  places,  the  discussion 
of  old  eclipses  and  occultations,  with 
their  bearing  on  the  theory  of  the  moon's 
motion,  the  motion  of  Mercury,  etc., 
was  prodigious. 

The  theory  of  the  moon's  motion,  or 
the  lunar  theory,  as  it  is  generally 
called,  has  from  the  beginning  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  ablest  mathematical 
investigators.  The  two  who  stand  out 
prominently  before  all  others  are  Han- 
sen and  Delaunay.  In  various  other 
branches  of  gravitational  astronomy, 
several  names  deserve  special  mention. 
Olbers,  besides  being  the  discoverer  of 
several  comets  and  of  the  second  and 
fourth  planetoid,  is  best  known  for  his 
development  of  the  best  method  of  com- 
puting cometary  orbits.  Encke,  a  pupil 
of  Gauss,  developed  the  best  methods  of 
applying  the  method  of  least  squares  to 
computation,  determined  a  value  of  the 
solar  parallax,  which  stood  a  long  time 
as  giving  the  accepted  value  of  95,000,- 
000  miles  as  the  distance  of  the  sun,  but 
is  best  known  for  the  discovery  of  the 
remarkably  short  period  of  the  comet 
which  bears   his  name. 

Hall's  detection  of  the  two  minute 
and  remarkable  satellites  of  Mars  ranks 
next  to  that  of  Neptune  as  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  century.  It  was  not  an 
accidental  picking  up  of  easily  visible 
object  in  sweeps,  but  the  result  of  a  well 
planned  and  careful  search  at  the  most 
favorable  time,  the  opposition  of  1877, 
after  the  erection  of  the  26-inch  refrac- 
tor of  the  United  States  Naval  Obser- 
vatory. Hall  also  kept  up  systemati- 
cally the  observation  of  the  difficult  sat- 
ellite systems  of  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune  after  taking  charge  of  the  26- 
inch  Washington  refractor.  Next  came 
the  discovery  of  the  fifth  satellite  of 
Jupiter,  by  Prof.  Edward  E.  Barnard, 
of  the  Lick  Observatory,  Sept.  9,  1892. 
This  was  followed  by  the  discovery, 
March  18,  1899,  of  the  ninth  satellite 
of  Saturn,  by  Prof.  William  H.  Picker- 
ing,   of   the    Harvard    Observatory. 

The  work  done  at  Cordoba,  in  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Ap- 
thorp  Gould  and  his  assistants  in  1870, 
must  next  be  mentioned.  Dr.  Gould 
began  the  observation  for  a  uranometry 
of  the  southern  heavens,  to  include  all 
stars  down  to  the  seventh  magnitude. 
This    great    work    contains    the    names, 


ASTRONOMY 


321 


ASTRONOMY 


positions,  magnitudes,  to  the  nearest 
10th,  or  7,730  stars  situated  between 
— 10°  and  the  South  Pole,  and  the  mag- 
nitudes, to  the  nearest  quarter,  of  more 
than  1,000  others,  mostly  companions 
of  these,  or  situated  in  clusters,  the  joint 
light  of  which  equaled  a  seventh  mag- 
nitude star. 

The  New  Astronomy. — The  spectro- 
scope has  been  the  principal  instrument 
of  investigation  in  the  new  astronomy. 
After  the  work  of  Kirchhoff  and  Bun- 
sen,  the  next  important  step  was  the 
investigation,  with  the  diffraction  spec- 
troscope, by  Angstrom  and  Thalen,  of 
the  formation  of  the  so-called  normal 
spectrum,  in  which  the  distances  of  the 
lines  are  proportional  to  their  wave- 
lengths. The  map  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum constructed  in  this  way  has  been 
the  standard  for  the  wave-lengths  of 
the  Fraunhofer  line  until  within  a  very 
few  years.  The  work  of  Rowland  at  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  photograph- 
ing directly  the  spectrum  formed  from 
his  concave  mirror-gratings  (partly  in- 
vented by  him),  has  so  far  exceeded  the 
Angstrom  maps  that  the  latter  may  now 
be  considered  displaced.  The  phenom- 
ena attending  the  solar  eclipses  and  of 
comets  offered  a  new  field  for  the  spec- 
troscope, and  in  this  a  host  of  names  at 
once  claim  attention,  principal  among 
which  are  those  of  Young,  Hale,  direc- 
tor of  Yerkes,  Keeler  of  Lick's,  Vogel, 
Secchi,  Huggins,  Lockyer,  Janssen,  and 
Langley. 

The  simultaneous  and  independent 
discoveries  by  Lockyer  and  Janssen  in 
connection  with  the  Indian  solar  eclipse 
of  August,  1868  (that  the  solar  promi- 
nences, or  hydrogen  clouds  surrounding 
the  sun,  can  be  studied  at  any  time 
without  the  help  of  an  eclipse),  revolu- 
tionized the  methods  of  studying  that 
part  of  the  sun's  surroundings. 

Photometry,  or  the  measurement  of 
the  brightness  of  the  different  heavenly 
bodies,  so  far  as  its  results  are  con- 
cerned, is  properly  classed  under  the 
new  astronomy.  It  has,  however,  been 
employed  from  the  earliest  times,  with- 
out instrumental  assistance,  in  classify- 
ing the  stars  into  a  scale  of  magnitudes, 
and  in  later  days  in  observation  of  the 
changes  in  the  light  of  the  variable 
stars. 

Solar  Investigations. — Sir  John  Her- 
schel  and  Pouillet  were  the  first  to  meas- 
ure the  amount  of  heat  which  we 
receive  from  the  sun  by  noting  the 
inci'case  in  the  temperature  of  a  given 
amount  of  water  upon  which  a  given 
beam  of  sunlight  is  allowed  to  fall  for 
a  certain  time.  Using  various  forms  of 
equivalent  apparatus,  Waterston,  Erics- 


son, Secchi,  Crova,  Violle,  Langley,  and 
others  have  made  different  determina- 
tions of  the  so-called  "solar-constant," 
or  the  amount  of  radiant  energy  which 
falls  upon  a  square  meter  of  surface  at 
the  upper  limits  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  most  remarkable  work  of  all  in 
the  domain  of  radiant  energy  has  been 
that  of  Langley  with  his  bolometer.  By 
means  of  this  instrument  minute 
amounts  of  such  radiations,  which  were 
entirely  beyond  the  reach  of  all  previous 
experiments,  can  be  detected  and  accu- 
rately measured. 

Further  Progress.  —  In  summarizing 
the  grov/th  of  astronomy  during  the  19th 
century  we  enumerate  the  researches  of 
Henderson,  Winnecke,  Brunnow,  Gill, 
and  Elkin  in  stellar  parallax;  the 
double-star  discoveries  and  measures  of 
Struve  (Otto),  Dawes,  Dembowski, 
Burnham,  and  Stone;  the  discoveries  of 
comets  by  Pons,  Tuttle,  Tempel,  Swift, 
Brooks,  Barnard,  and  many  others;  the 
discovery  and  cataloguing  of  nebulae  by 
Herschel,  Lassel,  Tempel,  Swift,  Stone, 
and  Dreyer;  the  elaborate  work  of  Car- 
rington  on  sun  spots  and  the  positions 
of  northern  circumpolar  stars;  the 
charting  of  faint  ecliptic  stars  by  Cha- 
cornac,  the  Henry  brothers,  and  espe- 
cially Peters;  Chandler's  important 
work  in  variable  stars  and  in  variation 
of  latitude;  the  work  of  Schmidt  on  va- 
rious stars  and  in  selenography;  the 
discovery  of  difficult  planetary  satellites 
by  Lassel  and  Bond;  the  spectroscopic 
researches  of  Young,  Schuster,  Draper, 
Thollon,  and  Lohse;  the  determinations 
of  the  velocity  of  light  by  Fizeau,  Fou- 
cault,  Michelson,  and  Newcomb;  Gill's 
work  upon  the  parallax  of  Mars  and 
some  of  the  asteroids;  Elkin's  thorough 
remeasurement  of  the  position  of  the 
stars  of  the  Pleiades  with  the  heliom- 
eter;  Darwin's  investigation  of  the 
entirely  new  subject  of  the  bearing  of 
tidal  friction  upon  the  development  of 
planetary  and  satellite  systems  and 
Stone's  observations  at  the  Cape,  re- 
sulting in  the  formation  of  the  "Cape 
Catalogue,"  which  ranks  next  to  the 
work  of  Gould  in  furnishing  us  exact 
Ipositions  of  the  stars  of  the  southern 
heavens.  Harkness'  work  upon  the  re- 
duction of  the  American  observations  of 
the  transit  of  Venus  should  also  be  noted. 
Instruments. — The  history  of  the  prog- 
ress of  astronomy  in  the  19th  century 
would  be  incomplete  without  a  mention 
of  the  remarkable  opticians  and  mech- 
anicians whose  handiwork  has  made  it 
possible.  We  have  already  mentioned 
Fraunhofer.  Pre-eminent  among  them 
all  are  the  names  of  the  late  Alvan 
Clark,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  his  sons. 


ASTROPHYSICS 


322 


ATAHUALFA 


George  B.  and  Alvan  G.  Their  latest 
masterpieces  are  the  huge  36-inch  objec- 
tive of  the  Lick  telescope,  and  that  of 
the  Yerkes  instrument. 

In  the  matter  of  the  polishing  of  opti- 
cal surfaces,  the  figuring  of  lenses,  and 
the  ruling  of  gratings,  American  arti- 
sans have  excelled  all  others  from  their 
first  attempts.  Only  in  the  production 
of  instruments  of  precision  and  in  the 
making  of  optical  glass  do  they  still  yield 
superiority  to  European  artisans. 

Celestial  Photography. — As  early  as 
1840  Dr.  John  W.  Draper,  of  New  York, 
-btained  a  few  photographs  of  the  moon 
.bout  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  1846,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Bond  obtained  photo- 
graphic impressions  of  Vega  and  Castor, 
and  in  1850  obtained  the  picture  of  the 
moon. 

Among  the  successes  of  photography 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  new  astronomy  have 
been  photographs  of  stellar  spectra  by 
Pickering  at  the  Harvard  University- 
Observatory,  and  the  photographic  nor- 
mal spectrum  of  the  sun  recently  com- 
pleted by  Rowland  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University. 

The  Mount  Wilson  (Cal.)  Solar  Ob- 
servatory of  the  Carnegie  Institute 
(1904),  designed  for  spectroscopic  study 
of  the  sun  and  stars,  has  produced 
marvelous  photographs  of  these  bodies 
that  have  proved  invaluable  to  astron- 
omers. 

ASTROPHYSICS,  that  branch  of  as- 
tronomy which  deals  with  the  physical 
condition,  temperature,  and  chemical 
properties  of  the  celestial  bodies.  The 
chief  instruments  employed  are  the  spec- 
troscope, the  bolometer,  the  photometer, 
and  the  camera.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  the  Spectroscope  (g.  v.). 

ASTURIAS  (as-to're-az),  or  OVIEDO, 
a  northern  province  of  Spain,  washed  on 
the  N.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  area  4,207 
square  miles;  pop.  about  700,000.  The 
low  hills  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile  rise 
gradually  to  the  mountain-chain  which 
forms  the  S.  boundary,  and  which  is 
but  a  prolongation  of  the  Pyrenean 
system.  The  N.  slopes  are  broken  by 
steep  and  dark  valleys  or  chasms,  which 
are  among  the  wildest  and  most  pictur- 
esque in  Spain.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Nalon,  Navia,  and  Sella.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  industry.  The  coasts  have  good 
fisheries,  but  poor  harbors.  The  chief 
minerals  of  the  province  are  copper,  iron, 
lead,  cobalt,  arsenic,  antimony,  and  coal 
of  excellent  quality.  The  chief  towns 
are  Gijon,  Aviles,  Llanes,  and  Luarca. 
Oviedo,  the  capital,  has,  since  1833, 
given  its  name  to  the  whole  province. 
The  heir-apparent  of  the  Spanish  King 


has  the  title  of  Prince  or  Princess  of 
Asturias.  The  Romans  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  subduing  Asturias,  about  22 
B.  C.  Later  it  offered  an  asylum  to 
the  Goths,  whose  prince,  Pelayo,  bravely 
withstood  the  Arabs  (718  A.  D.) ;  his 
successors  carried  on  the  contest  suc- 
cessfully, and  became  Kings  of  Leon  in 
the  10th  century. 

ASTYAGES  (asrtl'a-jez),  son  of  Cyax- 
ares,  the  last  King  of  Media,  reigned 
594-559  B.  C.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
dethroned  by  Cyrus,  who,  according  to 
Herodotus,  was  his  grandson. 

ASUNCION  (as-on'shon),  or  ASSUMP- 
TION, the  capital  of  the  Republic  of 
Paraguay;  on  a  terrace  skirting  the 
left  bank  of  the  Paraguay  river.  It  has 
a  cathedral  (1845)  and  a  college.  The 
principal  articles  of  commerce  are 
leather,  tobacco,  sugar,  manioc,  and  mate 
or  Paraguay  tea.  It  was  founded  on 
Aug.  15,  1537,  the  feast  of  the  Assump- 
tion.   Pop.  about  120,000. 

ATACAMA  (at-a-ka'ma),  the  name, 
formerly,  of  two  provinces,  (1)  Chilean 
and  (2)  Bolivian;  now  entirely  belong- 
ing to  Chile.  Area  30,728  square  miles; 
pop.  about  70,000. 

The  Saline  of  Atacama  is  a  salt  mo- 
rass, mostly  dried  up,  1,074  square  miles 
in  extent,  on  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet. 
The  province  is  very  rich  in  minerals, 
especially  copper  and  silver. 

ATACAMITE,  an  orthorhombic,  trans- 
lucent mineral,  classed  by  Prof.  Dana 
under  his  oxychlorids.  The  hardness  is 
3  to  3.5;  the  sp.  gr.,  3.7  to  4.3;  the 
luster  verging  from  adamantine  to  vit- 
reous; the  color  bright  green,  with  an 
apple-green  streak.  It  is  massive  or 
pulverulent.  Composition :  Chlorine, 
15.51  to  16.33;  oxide  of  copper,  50  to 
66.25;  copper,  13.33  to  56.46;  water, 
16.91  to  22.60.  It  occurs  in  Atacama,  in 
Chile;  in  Australia;  in  Africa;  in  Spain; 
and  at  St.  Just,  in  Cornwall. 

ATAHUALPA  (at-a-whal'pa),  the  last 
Inca  of  Peru,  was  the  son  of  the  11th 
Inca,  Manco  Capac.  His  mother  was  of 
royal  lineage,  and  through  her  he  in- 
herited the  kingdom  of  Quito.  With  his 
elder  brother  Huascar,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  of  the  Incas  in  1523,  he  re- 
mained at  peace  for  five  years;  but,  on 
his  being  summoned  to  acknowledge  the 
dependency  of  his  kingdom  on  that  of 
Peru,  he  prepared  for  war,  entered  the 
dominions  of  Huascar  with  30,000  men, 
defeated  him  in  a  pitched  battle,  and 
thrust  him  into  prison.  Three  years 
afterward,  Pizarro  captured  the  island 
of  Puna,  and  Huascar,  hearing  in  prison 


ATALANTA 


323 


ATCHISON" 


of  the  victorious  stranger,  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  Puna  requesting  assistance. 
The  inca  also  proposed  an  interview  with 
the  Spaniard,  and  Pizarro  by  treachery- 
succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  the 
person  of  the  Inca.  Huascar  had  been 
put  to  death  by  order  of  his  brother,  and 
now  Atahualpa  was  declared  guilty  of 
treason  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  burned  alive,  in  1533.  The 
sentence  was  commuted  to  strangulation. 

ATALANTA,  the  daughter  of  Jason 
and  Clymene,  celebrated  for  her  skill  in 
archery,  was  a  native  of  Arcadia.  She 
slew  the  Centaurs,  Rhoecus  and  Hylaeus; 
sailed  to  Colchis  with  the  Argonauts, 
and  was  afterward  present  at  the  chase 
of  the  Calydonian  boar,  which  she  was 
the  first  to  wound.  Another  Atalanta, 
daughter  of  Schceneus,  King  of  Scyros, 
was  renowned  for  her  beauty,  and  swift- 
ness in  running.  She  required  each  of 
her  lovers  to  run  a  race  with  her.  Her 
admirer  was  to  run  before,  unarmed, 
while  she  followed  him  with  a  dart.  If 
she  could  not  overtake  him,  she  was  his 
own;  but  if  he  were  outrun,  he  was 
doomed  to  death,  his  head  to  be  set  up 
at  the  goal.  Many  had  fallen  victims  in 
the  attempt,  when  Hippomenes,  the  son 
of  Maegareus,  by  the  aid  of  Venus,  over- 
came her.  The  goddess  gave  him  three 
golden  apples,  which  he  threw  behind 
him,  one  after  the  other,  as  he  ran. 
Atalanta  stopped  to  pick  them  up,  and 
Hippomenes  reached  the  goal  before  her. 
Her  former  reserve  now  gave  place  to 
such  ungovernable  passion  that  the 
chaste  Ceres,  becoming  offended,  changed 
both  the  parties  into  lions,  and  compelled 
them  from  that  time  to  draw  her  chariot. 

ATAVISM,  in  biology,  the  tendency  to 
reproduce  the  ancestral  type  in  animals 
or  plants  which  have  become  consider- 
ably modified  by  breeding  or  cultivation ; 
the  reversion  of  a  descendant  to  some 
peculiarity  of  a  more  or  less  remote 
ancestor. 

ATBARA  (at-bar'a),  the  most  north- 
erly tributary  of  the  Nile.  It  rises  in 
the  Abyssinian  highlands,  receives  sev- 
eral large  tributaries,  and  enters  the 
Nile  about  18°  N. 

ATCHAFALAYA  (ach  -  a  -  f al  -  a'a) , 
("Lost  Water"),  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  an  outlet  of  the  Red  river,  which 
strikes  off  before  the  junction  of  that 
river  with  the  Mississippi,  flows  south- 
ward, and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
Atchafalaya  Bay.  Its  length  is  250 
miles. 

ATCHEEN  (also  ACHEEN  or  ATCHIN; 
called  by  the  Dutch  Atjeh),  until  187.^ 

22 — Vol.  I — Cyo, 


an  independent  state  in  the  N.  W.  part 
of  Sumatra,  now  a  province  of  the  Dutch 
Indies,  with  an  area  of  20,471  square 
miles;  pop.  about  800,000.  The  surface 
is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  west- 
ern half  by  the  mountain  chain  which 
traverses  the  whole  island,  and  which 
rises  in  Abong-Abong  to  11,000  feet. 
The  flora  and  fauna  agree  with  those  of 
Sumatra;  pepper  and  areca  nuts  are 
produced  in  Atcheen.  The  natives  em- 
ploy themselves  in  agriculture,  cattle 
rearing,  trade,  fisheries,  weaving  cloth, 
and  working  in  gold,  silver,  and  iron.  In 
appearance,  dress,  character,  and  man- 
ners they  are  distinct  from  the  rest  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Sumatra.  Of  darker 
color  and  lower  stature  than  the  latter, 
they  are  also  more  active  and  indus- 
trious, good  seamen  and  soldiers;  but 
they  are  treacherous,  revengeful,  blood- 
thirsty, immoral  and  inordinately  ad- 
dicted to  opium.  The  capital  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  Kota  Radja  or  Atcheen,  in  the 
northwestern  extremity,  situated  on  a 
stream  navigable  by  boats.  It  contains  a 
Dutch  garrison  of  several  thousand  men. 
During  the  earlier  half  of  the  17th 
century  Atcheen  was  a  powerful  sulta- 
nate, with  supremacy  over  several  is- 
lands and  a  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Its  power  gradually  declined;  but  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  the  treaty  between 
the  English  and  the  Dutch,  in  1824,  to 
reserve  its  independence.  The  inevitable 
war,  however,  broke  out  in  1873,  and 
ended  as  inevitably,  though  not  without 
a  desperate  resistance,  in  the  conquest 
and  annexation  of  the  sultanate. 

ATCHISON,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Atchison  co.,  Kan.;  on  the  Missouri  river 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe, 
the  Burlington,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific 
railroads;  25  miles  N.  by  N.  W.  of  Leav- 
enworth. The  city  is  an  important  com- 
mercial center,  by  reason  of  its  excellent 
river  and  extensive  railroad  facilities. 
It  exports  largely  g:rain,  flour,  live  stock, 
and  dressed  meats,  and  has  many  im- 
portant manufacturing  establishments. 
There  are  gas,  electric  light,  sewer, 
water  and  electric  railway  plants;  sev- 
eral public  parks;  a  noteworthy  bridge 
across  the  Missouri  river;  an  attractive 
Union  depot;  National  banks;  and  daily, 
weekly  and  monthly  periodicals.  Atchi- 
son is  the  seat  of  the  State  Soldiers* 
Orphans'  Home,  of  Midland  College 
(Lutheran)  and  St.  Benedict's  College 
(Roman  Catholic),  and  has  a  public 
library,  public  high  and  graded  schools, 
and  a  number  of  high  graded  private 
schools.  Pop.  (1910)  16,429;  (1920) 
12,630. 


ATE 


324 


ATHaBVANA 


ATE  (a'te),  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
goddess  of  hate,  injustice,  crime  and 
retribution.  At  the  birth  of  Hercules  she 
led  Zeus  to  make  a  rash  oath,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  she  was  hur'od  from 
Olympus  to  the  earth,  where  she  still 
worked  mischief.  The  Litai,  daughters 
of  Zeus,  followed  her,  and,  if  prayed  to, 
repaired  the  evil  she  had  perpetrated. 

ATELES  (at'e-les),  a  genus  of  South 
American  monkeys,  of  the  division  with 
long  prehensile  tails,  to  which  the  name 
Sapajou  is  sometimes  collectively  ap- 
plied. The  English  name  of  spider- 
monkey  is  sometimes  used  as  a  generic 
designation;  the  fore-limbs  are  either 
destitute  of  a  thumb  or  have  a  rudimen- 
tary one. 

ATELLAN^  PABTJL^  (at-el-an'e[i] 
fab'6-le[i],  called  also  Oscan  plays),  a 
kind  of  light  interlude,  in  ancient  Rome, 
performed,  not  by  the  regular  _  actors, 
but  by  freeborn  young  Romans;  it  origi- 
nated from  the  ancient  Atella,  a  city  of 
the  Oscans. 

ATHABASCA,  a  river  lake,  and  for- 
mer district  of  Canada.  The  Athabasca 
or  Elk  river  rises  on  the  E.  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  the  province  of  Al- 
berta, flows  in  a  N.  E.  direction  through 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  falls 
into  Lake  Athabasca  after  a  course  of 
about  750  miles.  Lake  Athabasca,  or 
Lake  of  the  Hills,  is  about  190  miles 
S.  S.  E.  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  means  of  the 
Slave  river,  a  continuation  of  the  Peace. 
It  is  about  200  miles  in  length  from  E. 
to  W.,  and  about  35  miles  wide  at  the 
broadest  part,  but  gradually  narrows  to 
a  point  at  either  extremity.  The  district 
of  Athabaska,  formed  in  1882,  lay  im- 
mediately E.  of  British  Columbia  and 
N.  of  Alberta;  area  about  251,900  square 
miles.  Its  territory  was  in  1905  ab- 
sorbed by  the  provinces  of  Alberta,  Sas- 
katchewan, and  Manitoba. 

ATHABASCAN  INDIANS,  a  linguis- 
tic stock  of  North  American  Indians, 
extending  from  British  North  America 
and  Alaska  to  Mexico,  who  derive  their 
name  from  Lake  Athabasca  in  British 
North  America.  The  locations  of  this 
Indian  family  are  best  given  under  three 
groups:  Northern,  Pacific  and  South- 
ern. (1)  The  Northern  group  includes 
all  the  Athabascan  tribes  of  Alaska  and 
British  North  America,  among  which  are 
the  Ah-tena,  K'naiakhotana,  Kutchin, 
Kaiyvh-khotana,  KoyK-khotana,  Montag- 
nais,  Una-khotana,  Montoguards,  and 
TakuUi.  (2)  The  Pacific  group  consists 
of    the    tribes    inhabiting    the    present 


States  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Cali- 
fornia, to  which  regions  they  migrated 
upon  the  advent  of  the  white  man. 
Among  the  tribes  of  this  division  are 
Chasta  Costa,  Kaltserea  tunne,  Hupa, 
Chetco,  Kenesti,  Kwatami,  Kwalhiokwa, 
Micikqwutme,  Mikono  tunne,  Owilapsh, 
Qwinctunnetun,  Teceme,  Naltunne, 
Saiaz,  Tcetlestcan  tunne,  Tolowa,  Glata- 
kanai,  Yukitce,  and  Tutu.  (3)  The  South- 
ern group,  which  is  the  best  known,  is 
composed  of  the  various  Apache,  Navajo 
and  Lipan  tribes,  who  inhabit  Oklahoma, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Mexico.  The 
number  of  these  Indians  is  about  30,000. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED,  a  formulary 
or  confession  of  faith,  said  to  have  been 
drawn  up  by  Athanasius,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  in  the  4th  century,  to  justify 
himself  against  the  calumnies  of  his 
Arian  enemies.  It  was  famous  in  the 
6th  century  and  commented  upon,  to- 
gether with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  by  Venantius  Fortunatus, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers.  It  was  not,  however, 
then  styled  the  Athanasian  Creed,  but 
simply  the  Catholic  Faith.  The  Sabel- 
lians  considered  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit  as  one  in  person;  this  was 
"confounding  the  persons":  the  Arians 
considered  them  as  differing  in  essence; 
this  was  "dividing  the  substance";  and 
against  these  two  errors  was  the  creed 
originally  framed.  This  creed  was  used 
in  France  about  the  year  850;  was  re- 
ceived in  Spain  about  100  years  later, 
and  in  Germany  about  the  same  time. 
It  was  both  said  and  sung  in  England  in 
the  10th  century;  was  commonly  used  in 
Italy  at  the  expiration  of  that  century, 
and  at  Rome  a  little  later.  This  creed  is 
appointed  to  be  read  in  the  Church  of 
England. 

ATHANASIUS,  ST.  (ath-a-na'she-us), 
one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
Church,  born  at  Alexandria  about  296 
A.  D.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
eloquence  at  the  Synod  of  Nice  (325), 
where  his  efforts  were  instrumental  in 
securing  the  acceptance  of  the  Nicene 
Creed.  The  creed  which  bears  his  name 
was  supposed  to  have  been  formulated  by 
him,  but  the  term  Athanasian  was  not 
applied  to  it  until  some  centuries  after 
his  death.  He  became  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  in  328,  being  afterward  de- 
posed and  reinstated  five  times.  His 
chief  works,  including  "Orations  Against 
the  Arians"  and  "Festal  Letters,"  ap- 
peared in  an  English  translation  by 
Archibald  Robertson  (New  York,  1892). 
He  died  in  Alexandria,  May  2,  373. 


ATHARVANA       (at-a'van-e), 
fourth  of  the  Indian  Vedas. 


the 


ATHEISM 


325 


ATHENS 


ATHEISM,  literally,  disbelief  in  a 
God,  if  such  an  attainment  is  possible; 
or,  more  loosely,  doubt  of  the  existence 
of  a  God;  practically,  a  denial  that  any- 
thing can  be  known  about  the  super- 
natural, supposing  it  to  exist.  Among 
the  Greeks  atheism  consisted  in  a  denial 
or  non-recognition  of  the  gods  of  the 
state.  The  atheism  of  the  18th  century 
was  a  protest  against  the  persecution 
of  fanaticism;  and,  like  its  predecessors, 
put  forward  little  or  nothing  to  replace 
the  system  it  attempted  to  destroy.  The 
atheism  of  the  19th  century  may  be  taken 
to  include  every  philosophic  system  which 
rejects  the  notion  of  a  personal  Creator; 
in  this  sense  it  ranks  as  a  genus,  of  which 
Atomism,  Pantheism,  Positivism,  etc., 
are  species.  Strictly,  it  is  the  doctrine 
chat  sees  in  matter  the  sole  principle  of 
the  universe. 

ATHEL,  or  JETHEL,  an  Old  English 
word  meaning  noble,  eminent  not  only  in 
blood  or  by  descent  but  in  mind ;  frequent- 
ly a  part  of  Anglo-Saxon  proper  names. 

ATHELING,  a  title  of  honor  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  meaning  one  who  is 
of  noble  blood.  The  title  was  gradually 
confined  to  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal, 
and  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  is  used 
exclusively  for  the  sons  or  brothers  of 
the  reigning  king.  It  was  first  conferred 
on  Edgar  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  his 
grand-uncle,  who  bestowed  it  when  he 
designed  to  make  him  successor  to  him- 
self on  the  throne. 

ATHELNEY,  formerly  an  island  in 
the  midst  of  fens  and  marshes,  now 
drained  and  cultivated,  in  Somersetshire, 
England,  about  7  miles  S.  E.  of  Bridge- 
water.  Alfred  the  Great  took  refuge  in 
it  during  a  Danish  invasion,  and  after- 
ward founded  an  abbey  there. 

ATHELSTAN,  ADELSTAN,  iETHEL- 
STAN,  or  EALSTAN,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
King,  the  son  and  successor  of  Edward 
the  Elder,  and  grandson  of  Alfred  the 
Great;  born  in  895,  and  on  Edward's 
death,  in  925,  was  chosen  king  by  the 
people  of  Mercia  and  Wessex.  North- 
umbria,  Scotland,  and  the  British  states 
of  Cumberland,  Wales,  and  Cornwall, 
acknowledged  him  as  their  superior  lord, 
and  his  alliance  was  courted  by  all  the 
princes  of  western  Europe.  Louis  IV. 
of  France  was  protected  by  Athelstan 
during  the  usurpation  of  Raoul,  and  re- 
covered the  throne  by  his  aid.  The  Em- 
peror Otho  the  Great  married  his  sister 
Elgiva,  In  937,  Constantine  of  Scotland, 
and  other  princes,  formed  a  league 
against  Athelstan,  who  totally  defeated 
them.     He  died  at  Gloucester,  A,  D.  941, 


ATHENA  (ath-e'na),  or  ATHENE,  a 
Greek  goddess,  identified  by  the  Romans 
with  Minerva,  According  to  the  legend, 
before  her  birth  Zeus  swallowed  her 
mother,  and  Athena  afterward  sprang 
from  the  head  of  Zeus  with  a  mighty 
war  shout  and  in  complete  armor.  In 
her  character  of  a  wise  and  prudent 
warrior  she  was  contrasted  with  the 
fierce  Ares  (Mars).  In  the  wars  of  the 
giants  she  slew  the  famed  Enceladus. 
The  sculptor,  the  architect,  and  the 
painter,  as  well  as  the  philosopher,  the 
orator  and  the  poet,  considered  her  their 
tutelar  deity.  She  is  also  represented 
among  the  healing  gods.  In  the  images 
of  the  goddess  a  manly  gravity  and  an 
air  of  reflection  are  united  with  female 
beauty  in  her  features.  As  a  warrior 
she  is  represented  completely  armed,  her 
head  covered  with  a  gold  helmet.  As  the 
goddess  of  peaceful  arts  she  appears  in 
the  dress  of  a  Grecian  matron.  To  her 
insignia  belong  the  segis,  the  Gorgon's 
head,  the  round  argive  buckler;  and  the 
owl,  the  cock,  the  serpent,  an  olive  branch, 
and  a  lance  were  sacred  to  her.  All 
Attica,  particularly  Athens,  was  sacred 
to  her,  and  she  had  numerous  temples 
there.  Her  most  brilliant  festival  at 
Athens  was  the  Panathenaea,  participated 
in    by   all    the    tribes    of   the    city-state. 

ATHENS,  anciently  the  capital  of 
Attica  and  center  of  Greek  culture,  now 
the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece. 
It  is  situated  in  the  central  plain  of  At- 
tica, about  4  miles  from  the  Saronic  Gulf 
or  Gulf  of  ^gina,  an  arm  of  the  ^gean 
Sea  running  in  between  the  mainland 
and  the  Peloponnesus,  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  about  1550  B.  C,  by  Cecrops, 
the  mythical  Pelasgian  hero;  and  to  have 
borne  the  name  Cecropia  until  under 
Erechtheus  it  received  the  name  of 
Athens  in  honor  of  Athene, 

Topography. — The  Acropolis,  an  ir- 
regular oval  crag,  150  feet  high,  with  a 
level  summit  1,000  feet  long  by  500  in 
breadth,  was  the  original  nucleus  of  the 
city.  The  three  chief  eminences  near 
the  Acropolis — the  Areopagus  to  the  N. 
W.,  the  Pnyx  to  the  S.  W.,  and  the  Mu- 
seum to  the  S.  of  the  Pnyx — were  in- 
cluded within  the  city  boundary  as  the 
sites  of  its  chief  public  buildings,  the 
city  itself,  however,  afterward  taking  a 
northerly  direction.  On  the  E.  ran  the 
Ilissus  and  on  the  W.  the  Cephissus,  while 
to  the  S.  W.  lay  three  harbors — Phalerum, 
the  oldest  and  nearest;  the  Pirseus,  the 
most  important;  and  Munychia,  the 
Piraean  Acropolis.  At  the  height  of  its 
prosperity  the  city  was  connected  with 
its  harbors  by  three  massive  walls  (the 
"long  walls"). 


ATHENS 


326 


ATHENS 


Architecture. — The    architectural    de-  and  built  the  Theseum  on  an  eminence 

velopment  of  Athens  may  be  dated  from  N.  of  the  Areopagus;  his  brother-in-law, 

the  rule  of  the  Pisistratids   (560-510  B.  Peisianax,    erecting    the    famous     Stoa 

C.),who  are  credited  with  the  foundation  Poecile,  a  hall  with  walls  covered  with 

of  the  huge  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus,  paintings    (whence  the   Stoics  got  their 

completed    by    Hadrian    seven    centuries  name).    Under  Pericles  the  highest  point 

later,   the   erection   of   the   Pythium   or  of  artistic  development  was  reached.    An 

temple  of   Pythian   Apollo,   and   of   the  odeium  was  erected   on   the   E.   of  the 


ATHENS,    GREECE 


Lyceum  or  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceus — all 
near  the  Ilissus;  and  to  whom  were  due 
the  inclosure  of  the  academy,  a  gymna- 
sium and  gardens  to  the  N.  of  the  city, 
and  the  building  of  the  Agora  with  its 
Portico  or  Stoa,  Bouleuterium  or  Senate- 
house,  Tholus  and  Prytanium.  With  the 
foundation  of  Athenian  democracy  under 
Clisthenes,  the  Pnyx  or  place  of  public 
assembly,  with  its  semi-circular  area  and 
Cyclopean  wall,  first  became  of  impor- 
tance, and  a  commencement  was  made  to 
the  Dionysiac  theater  (theater  of  Diony- 
sus or  Bacchus)  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
Acropolis. 

Reconstruction. — After  the  destruction 
wrought  by  the  Persians  in  480  B.  C, 
Themistocles  reconstructed  the  city  upon 
practical  lines,  and  with  a  larger  area, 
inclosing  the  city  in  new  walls  7%  miles 
m  circumference,  erecting  the  N.  wall  of 
the  Acropolis,  and  developing  the  mari- 
time resources  of  the  Piraeus;  while 
Cimon  added  to  the  southern  fortifi- 
cations of  the  Acropolis,  placed  on  it  the 
temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  planted  the 
Agora  with  trees,  laid  out  the  Academy. 


Dionysiac  theater,  for  the  recitations  of 
rhapsodists  and  musicians;  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  architects  Ictinus  and  Mnesicles 
and  of  the  sculptor  Phidias  the  Acropolis 
was  perfected.  In  the  interval  between 
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  and 
the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  few  additions 
were  made.  Then,  however,  the  long 
walls  and  Piraeus,  destroyed  by  Lysander, 
were  restored  by  Conon,  and  under  the 
orator,  Lycurgus,  the  Dionysiac  temple 
was  completed,  the  Panathenaic  stadium 
commenced,  and  the  choragic  monuments 
of  Lysicrates  and  Thrasyllus  erected. 
Later  on  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  gave  it 
the  Ptolem£eum  near  the  Theseum,  At- 
tains I,  the  stoa  N.  E.  of  the  Agora, 
Eumenes  II.  that  near  the  great  theater, 
and  Antiochus  Epiphanes  carried  on  the 
Olympium.  Under  the  Romans,  it  con- 
tinued a  flourishing  city. 

The  City  in  Decline. — But  after  a  time 
Christian  zeal,  the  attacks  of  barbarians, 
and  robberies  of  collectors,  made  sad  in- 
roads among  the  monuments.  About  420 
A.  D.  paganism  was  totally  annihilated 
at   Athens,   and   when   Justinian   closed 


ATHENS 


327 


ATHLONE 


even  the  schools  of  the  philosophers,  the 
reverence  for  buildings  associated  with 
the  names  of  the  ancient  deities  and 
heroes  was  lost.  The  Parthenon  was 
turned  into  a  church  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  St.  George  stepped  into  the  place 
of  Theseus.  Finally  in  1456,  the  place 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The 
Parthenon  became  a  mosque,  and  in  1687 
was  greatly  damaged  by  an  explosion 
at  the  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Venetians. 
Modern  Athens. — Soon  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  War  of  Liberation,  in  1821, 
the  Turks  surrendered  Athens,  but 
captured  it  again  in  1826-1827.  It  was 
then  abandoned  until  1830.  In  1835  it 
became  the  royal  residence,  and  made 
rapid  progress.  The  modern  city  mostly 
lies  northward  and  eastward  from  the 
Acropolis,  and  consists  mainly  of  straight 
and  well-built  streets.  Among  the  princi- 
pal buildings  are  the  royal  palace,  a 
stately  building  with  a  fagade  of  Fentelic 
marble  (completed  in  1843),  the  univer- 
sity, the  academy,  public  library,  theater, 
and  observatory.  There  are  four  foreign 
archagological  schools  or  institutes,  the 
French,  German,  American,  and  British. 
During  the  European  War  of  1914-1918, 
Athens  was  a  center  of  intrigue  for  the 
combattant  nations,  each  endeavoring  to 
coerce  the  government  in  their  favor. 
These  conditions  led  to  occasional  violent 
outbreaks,  especially  when  the  Allies 
sought  to  disarm  the  Greeks  guarding 
the  city.  Pop.  about  200,000.  See  Greece. 

ATHENS,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Clarke  co.,  Ga. ;  on  the  Oconee  river,  and 
the  Central  of  Georgia,  the  Georgia,  the 
Southern  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  rail- 
roads; 67  miles  E.  of  Atlanta,  the  State 
capital.  It  is  in  a  cotton-growing  region; 
has  a  large  trade  in  that  staple;  and 
contains  cotton  and  woolen,  cottonseed 
oil,  bobbin,  and  hosiery  mills,  iron  works, 
furniture  factories,  and  other  industrial 
plants.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University 
of  Georgia,  the  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts,  Lucy  Cobb 
Institute,  and  a  State  Normal  School. 
There  are  electric  light  and  street  rail- 
way plants,  banks,  several  hotels,  and 
daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals. 
Pop.     (1910)   14,913;   (1920)   16,748. 

ATHENS',  a  city  of  Ohio,  the  county- 
seat  of  Athens  co.,  on  the  Hocking  river, 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwest- 
ern, the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Central,  and 
the  Hocking  Valley  railroads.  It  has 
important  manufactures  orf  lumber  prod- 
ucts and  is  the  center  of  an  important 
coal-mining  region.  There  is  situated 
the  Ohio  State  University  (q.  v.),  a 
State  hospital  for  the  inr-^ne,  a  library. 


and  other  public  buildings.     Pop.  (1910) 
5,463;    (1920)   6,418. 

ATHERINE,  a  pretty  little  fish,  from 
five  to  six  inches  long,  called  also  the 
sandsmelt.  It  is  the  A.  presbyter  of 
Cuvier.  It  is  found  along  the  southern 
coasts  of  Europe,  occupying  a  region  dis- 
tinct from  that  in  which  the  smelt 
(osmerus  eperlanus)  occurs.  It  is  used 
as  food.  There  is  an  American  species, 
the  nienidixt  notata,  commonly  called 
silversides. 

Of  the  form  atherina,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  order  acanthopterygii  and 
the  family  viugilidx  (mullets).  Several 
species  are  known  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  elsewhere.  The  young,  which  con- 
gregate together,  are  the  aphyes  of  the 
ancients.  Now,  in  the  S.  of  Europe,  they 
are  called  nonnat. 

ATHERTON,  GEBTRTJDE  FRANK- 
LIN, an  American  author,  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal. ;  a  great-grandniece  of 
Benjamin  Franklin;  was  educated  in  Cal- 
ifornia and  Kentucky,  and  married  the 
late  George  H.  B.  Atherton.  She  began 
her  literary  work  while  living  in  San 
Francisco  in  1878,  and  has  made  a 
specialty  of  describing  Spanish  life  in 
California  as  it  was  previous  to  1846. 
Her  publications  include  "The  Dooms- 
woman"  (1892)  ;  "Before  the  Gringo 
Came"  (1894);  "American  Wives  and 
English  Husbands"  (1898);  "The  Cali- 
fornians"  (1898);  "A  Daughter  of  the 
Vine"  (1899) ;  "Senator  North"  (1900) ; 
"Aristocrats"  (1901);  "Rulers  of  Kings" 
(1904);  "Rezanov"  (1906);  "Ancestors" 
(1907);  "The  Tower  of  Ivory"  (1910); 
Perch  of  the  Devil"  (1914) ;  "Mrs.  Bal- 
fame"  (1916)  ;  etc. 

ATHLETES,  combatants  who  took  part 
in  the  public  games  of  Greece.  The  pro- 
fession was  an  honorable  one;  tests  of 
birth,  position,  and  character  were  im- 
posed, and  crowns,  statues,  special  priv- 
ileges, and  pensions  were  among  the  re- 
wards of  success.  In  April,  1896,  the 
ancient  Olympic  games  were  revived  at 
Athens  (the  776th  Olympiad)  under  the 
personal  patronage  of  the  King  of  Greece, 
who  presented  crowns  of  victory  to  44 
contestants,  of  whom  11  were  from  the 
United  States,  the  largest  number  of 
victors  from  any  country.  The  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  games  led  to  the 
formation  of  an  international  committee 
to  arrange  for  future  contests,  the  first 
one  taking  place  in  Paris  during  the  Ex- 
position of  1900.  Oljanpic  games  were 
resumed  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition, 
Buffalo,   1901.     See   Olympic  Games. 

ATHLONE.  a  town  in  Ireland,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Shannon,  chiefly  in  West- 


ATHOL 


328 


ATLANTA 


meath,  80  miles  W.  of  Dublin  by  rail. 
The  Shannon  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bow- 
string and  lattice  iron  bridge  of  two 
arches,  175  and  40  feet  span.  Athlone 
Castle,  founded  in  the  reign  of  King 
John,  was  one  of  the  chief  military 
positions  in  Ireland.  In  the  war  of  1688 
it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  William 
III.  in  person,  but  was  afterward  taken 
by  Gen.  Ginkell.  The  fortifications  cover 
15  acres,  and  contain  barracks  for  1,500 
men.     Pop.  10,000. 

ATHOL,  a  town  in  Worcester  co., 
Mass.,  on  Miller's  river,  and  the  Boston 
and  Albany,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine 
railroads;  44  miles  N.  W.  of  Worcester. 
It  has  electric  railways  connecting  with 
the  suburbs,  and  is  principally  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  warps, 
shoes,  sewing  silk,  fine  mechanical  tools, 
matches,  organ  cases,  pocket-books,  bil- 
liard tables,  and  furniture.  The  town 
has  several  National  banks,  public  li- 
brary, high  school,  and  several  weekly 
and  monthly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1910)  8,- 
536;    (1920)    9,792. 

ATHOB,  HATHOR,  or  HETHER,  an 

Egyptian  goddess,  identified  with  Aphro- 
dite or  Venus.  Her  symbol  was  the  cow 
bearing  on  its  head  the  solar  disk  and 
hawk  feather  plumes.  Her  chief  temple 
was  at  Denderah.  From  her  the  third 
month  of  the  Egyptian  year  derived  its 
name. 

ATHOS,  MOUNT,  or  HAGION-OROS, 
or  MONTE  SANTO,  a  famous  mountain 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  on  a  peninsula  pro- 
jecting into  the  -lEgean  Sea,  between  the 
Gulfs  of  Contesa  and  Monte   Santo.     It 
rises  abruptly  from  the  water  to  a  height 
of  6,349  feet  above  sea  level,  and  in  its 
lower   parts   is  covered  with  forests   of 
pine,    oak,    chestnut,    etc.,    above    which 
towers  a  bare  conical  peak.     Herodotus 
states  that  the   fleet   of   Mardonius,  the 
Persian  general,  in  attempting  to  double 
this  mountain,  was  reported  to  have  lost 
more   than    300    ships   and    20,000    men. 
When    Xerxes    invaded    Greece    he    de- 
termined to  guard  against  the  recurrence 
of  a  similar  disaster  by  cutting  a  canal 
across  the  peninsula ;  of  which  great  work 
the  traces  still  remain.    In  modern  times, 
Athos  has  been  occupied  for  an  extended 
period   by   a    number    of   monks    of   the 
Greek  Church,  who  live  in  a  sort  of  forti- 
fied monasteries,  in  number  about  20,  of 
different  degrees  of  magnitude  and  im- 
portance.     These,    with    the    farms    or 
metochis   attached   to   them,   occupy   the 
whole  peninsula ;  hence  it  has  derived  its 
modern   name    of   Monte    Santo.      These 
monasteries  are  situated  in  positions  of 
strikingly    romantic    beauty.      Some    of 


them  belong  to  Russians,  others  to  Bul- 
garians and  Serbians. 

ATITLAN  (at-it'lan),  a  lake  and 
mountain  of  Central  America,  in  Guate- 
mala. The  lake  is  about  24  miles  long 
and  10  broad;  the  mountain  is  an  active 
volcano,  12,160  feet  high. 

ATKINS,  ALBERT  HENRY,  an 
American  sculptor,  born  in  Milwaukee. 
He  studied  art  in  Boston  and  in  Paris. 
In  1909  he  became  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  the  Rhode  Island  School  of 
Design,  Department  of  Sculpture.  Among 
his  best  known  works  are  the  Copenhagen 
Memorial  Fountain  at  Boston,  and  the 
Lapham  Memorial  at  Milwaukee.  He 
also  made  architectural  sculptures  for 
several  churches  and  many  protraits  and 
ideal  sculptures.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Arts  and 
other  art  societies. 

ATKINSON,  EDWARD,  an  American 
political  economist,  born  in  Brookline, 
Mass.,  Feb.  10,  1827;  graduate  of  Dart- 
mouth College.  He  has  become  widely 
known  by  his  papers  and  pamphlets  on 
trade  competition,  banking,  railroading, 
fire  prevention,  the  money  question,  tariff, 
etc.  Soon  after  the  battle  in  Manila  Bay, 
he  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  Anti- 
Imperialist  League.  Among  his  publi- 
cations are  "The  Distribution  of  Prod- 
ucts" (1885)  ;  "Industrial  Progress  of 
the  Nation"  (1889) ;  "The  Science  of  Nu- 
trition" (1892)  ;  "Taxation  and  Work" 
(1892);  "Every  Boy  His  Own  Book" 
(1893);  etc.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Dec.  11,  1905. 

ATKINSON,  ELEANOR,  an  American 
author,  born  at  Rensselaer,  Ind.  She  was 
educated  at  the  Indianapolis  Normal 
Training  School,  for  several  years 
taught  at  Indianapolis  and  Chicago,  and 
was  a  special  writer  on  the  Chicago 
press.  Her  writings  include  "The  Boy- 
hood of  Lincoln"  (1908);  Lincoln's  Love 
Story"  (1909);  "The  Story  of  Chicago" 
(1910);  "Johnny  Appleseed"  (1915); 
"Hearts  Undaunted"    (1917);  etc. 

ATLANTA,  a  city  of  Georgia,  the 
county-seat  of  Fulton  co.,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Georgia.  It  is  on  the  Atlantic, 
Birmingham  and  Atlantic,  the  Georgia, 
the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  Nash- 
ville, Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis,  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Southern,  and 
other  railroads.  Atlanta  is  the  most  im- 
portant industrial  and  commercial  center 
of  the  Southeast  and  is  also  the  financial 
center  and  the  central  distributing  point 
for  the  Southeast.  It  lies  in  the  heart 
of  one  of  the  richest  regions  of  the  world, 
as  yet  largely  undeveloped.     It  had  in 


ATL  ANTES 


329 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


1920  over  600  factories  manufacturing 
over  1,000  different  articles,  with  a 
product  of  about_  $80,000,000  per  year. 
These  factories  give  employment  to  over 
30,000  operators.  There  are  also  500 
branch  offices  of  manufacturing  plants 
located  outside  the  city.  The  most 
important  products  are  cotton  goods, 
fertilizers,  cart  wheels,  machinery,  lum- 
ber, terra  cotta,  bricks,  wagons,  fur- 
niture, cottonseed  oil,  etc.  It  is  an  im- 
portant educational  center,  having  52 
institutions  of  learning  in  addition  to  64 
public  schools  and  commercial  colleges. 
Among  the  leading  institutions  of  higher 
education  are  the  Georgia  School  of 
Technology,  Emory  University,  Ogle- 
thorpe University,  and  Lanier  Uni- 
versity. There  are  also  several  colleges 
for  women,  including  the  Agnes  Scott 
College,  Scott  College  and  Conservatory, 
and  Elizabeth  Mather  College,  and  five 
colleges  for  negroes.  There  are  18  public 
parks  and  playgrounds,  a  fine  public 
library,  a  State  library,  the  State  capitol, 
city  hall,  custom  house,  Carnegie  library, 
and  other  important  public  buildings. 
There  is  an  auditorium  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  8,000  in  which  performances 
are  given  annually  by  the  Metropolitan 
Grand  Opera  Co.  There  are  20  banks 
and  trust  companies.  The  bank  clear- 
ings in  1919  amounted  to  $3,219,186,317. 
The  assessed  value  of  real  estate  in  1919 
was  $145,670,012,  and  of  personal  prop- 
erty $58,237,329.  There  were  in  1920 
405  miles  of  water  mains  and  a  sewerage 
disposal  plant  which  was  erected  at  a 
cost  of  nearly  $4,000,000.  The  Federal 
Reserve  Bank  of  the  Sixth  District  is  lo- 
cated in  the  city.  Atlanta  is  an  impor- 
tant city  for  the  publication  of  news- 
papers and  periodicals. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1837  as 
Marthasville.  It  was  later  known  as 
Terminus,  and  was  finally  named  Atlanta. 
It  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by 
Sherman  after  the  Battle  of  Atlanta  in 
1864.  The  increase  in  population  follow- 
ing the  Civil  War  was  rapid.  Pop. 
(1890)  65,533;  (1900)  89,872;  (1910) 
154,839;    (1920)    200,616. 

ATLANTES,  in  architecture,  colossal 
statues  of  men  used  instead  of  pillars 
to  support  an  entablature.  Roman  archi- 
tects called  them  telamo7ies  (Greek). 
When  statues  of  women  support  an  en- 
tablature, they  are  generally  called 
caryatides. 

ATLANTIC  CITY,  a  city  and  noted 
seaside  resort  in  Atlantic  co.,  N.  J.;  on 
a  long,  sandy  island,  known  as  Absecon 
Beach;  60  miles  S.  E.  of  Philadelphia, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steam  and 
electric  railroads.     The  island  stretches 


along  the  coast  for  10  miles;  has  an 
average  width  of  %  of  a  mile,  and  is 
from  4  to  5  miles  from  the  mainland.  At 
the  N.  end  is  the  Absecon  Light,  well 
known  to  coastwise  sailors.  The  city  has 
several  miles  of  bathing  beach,  a  mag- 
nificent promenade  on  the  ocean  front, 
a  very  large  number  of  hotels  and  board- 
ing houses,  electric  lights,  public  schools, 
churches  of  the  principal  denominations, 
several  National  banks,  and  daily,  week- 
ly, and  monthly  periodicals.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  first  all-the-year-round  resort 
in  the  United  States,  its  splendid  climate 
giving  it  a  large  popular  patronage  even 
in  the  dead  of  winter.  The  transient 
population  varies,  but  is  estimated  at 
from  400,000  to  500,000.  Pop.  (1910) 
46,150;    (1920)    50,707. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  the  vast  expanse 
of  sea  lying  between  the  W.  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Africa  and  the  E.  coasts  of 
North  and  South  America,  and  extending 
from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  Oceans; 
greatest  breadth,  between  the  W.  coast 
of  northern  Africa  and  the  E.  coast  of 
Florida,  4,150  miles;  least  breadth,  be- 
tween Norway  and  Greenland,  930  miles; 
superficial  extent,  25,000,000  square 
miles.  The  principal  inlets  and  bays  are 
Baffin  and  Hudson  Bays,  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  North 
Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay, and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  prin- 
cipal islands  N.  of  the  equator  are  Ice- 
land, the  Faroe  and  British  Islands,  the 
Azores,  Canaries,  and  Cape  de  Verde 
Islandls,  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton, 
and  the  West  India  Islands;  and  S.  of 
the  equator,  Ascension,  St.  Helena,  and 
Tristan  da  Cunha. 

Principal  Currents. — The  great  cur- 
rents of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Equatorial 
current  (divisible  into  the  main,  northern, 
and  southern  equatorial  currents),  the 
Gulf  Stream,  the  north  African  and 
Guinea  current,  the  southern  connecting 
current,  the  southern  Atlantic  current, 
the  Cape  Horn  current,  Rennels  cur- 
rent, and  the  Arctic  current.  The  current 
system  is  primarily  set  in  motion  by  the 
trade  winds  which  drive  the  water  of 
the  intertropical  region  from  Africa 
toward  the  American  coasts.  Besides 
the  surface  currents,  an  under  current  of 
cold  water  flows  from  the  poles  to  the 
equator,  and  an  upper  current  of  warm 
water  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles. 

Depths. — The  greatest  depth  yet  dis- 
covered is  N.  of  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West 
Indies,  namely  27,360  feet.  Cross-sec- 
tions of  the  North  Atlantic  between  Eu- 
rope and  America  show  that  its  bed  con- 
sists of  two  great  valleys  lying  in  a 
north  and  south  direction,  and  separated 
by  a  ridge,  on  which  there  is  an  average 


ATLANTIS 


330 


ATMOSPKli-JtiE 


depth  of  1,600  or  1,700  fathoms,  while 
the  valleys  on  either  side  sink  to  the 
depth  of  3,000  or  4,000  fathoms.  A 
ridge,  called  the  Wyville-Thomson  Ridge, 
with  a  depth  of  little  more  than  200 
fathoms  above  it,  runs  from  near  the 
Butt  of  Lewis  to  Iceland,  cutting  off  the 
colder  water  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  from 
the  warmer  water  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
South  Atlantic,  of  which  the  greatest 
depth  yet  found  is  over  3,000  fathoms, 
resembles  the  North  Atlantic  in  having 
an  elevated  plateau  or  ridge  in  the 
center,  with  a  deep  trough  on  either  side. 
The  saltiness  and  specific  gravity  of  the 
Atlantic  gradually  diminish  from  the 
tropics  to  the  poles,  and  also  from  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  tropics  to  the 
equator.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the 
British  Isles  the  salt  has  been  stated  at 
one-thirty-eighth  of  the  weight  of  the 
water.  The  North  Atlantic  is  the  great- 
est highway  of  ocean  traffic  in  the  world. 

ATLANTIS,  or  ATLANTICA,  an  is- 
land, said  by  Plato  and  others  to  have 
once  existed  in  the  ocean  immediately 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gades;  that  is,  in 
what  is  now  called  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a 
short  distance  W.  of  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar. Homer,  Horace,  and  some  others 
made  two  Atlanticas,  distinguished  as 
the  Hesperides  and  the  Elysian  Fields, 
and  believed  to  be  the  abodes  of  the 
blessed.  Atlantis  is  represented  as  hav- 
ing ultimately  sunk  beneath  the  waves, 
leaving  only  isolated  rocks  and  shoals  in 
its  place.  "The  New  Atlantis"  is  the 
title  which  Lord  Bacon  gives  to  a  liter- 
ary fragment,  in  which  he  sketched  out 
an  ideal  commonwealth. 

ATLANTOSAURTJS,  a  gigantic  fossil 
reptile,  order  dinosauria,  obtained  in  the 
upper  Jurassic  strata  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  attaining  a  length  of  80  feet 
or  more. 

ATLAS,  an  extensive  mountain  sys- 
tem in  north  Africa,  starting  near  Cape 
Nun,  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  traversing 
Morocco,  Algiers  and  Tunis,  and  termi- 
nating on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean; 
divided  generally  into  two  parallel 
ranges,  running  W.  to  E.,  the  Greater 
Atlas  lying  toward  the  Sahara,  and  the 
Lesser  Atlas  toward  the  Mediterranean. 
The  principal  chain  is  about  1,500  miles 
long,  and  the  principal  peaks  rise  above 
or  approach  the  line  of  perpetual  con- 
gelation. The  highest  elevations  are  al- 
most 15,000  feet,  many  other  peaks  aver- 
aging 11,000  feet.  Silver,  antimony, 
lead,  copper,  iron,  etc.,  are  among  the 
minerals.  The  vegetation  is  chiefly  Eu- 
ropean in  character,  except  on  the  low 
grounds  and  next  the  desert. 


ATLAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  name 
of  a  Titan,  whom  Zeus  condemned  to 
bear  the  vault  of  heaven.  The  same  namr^ 
is  given  to  a  collection    of    maps    '^. 


ATLAS 

charts,  and  was  first  used  by  Gerard 
Mercator  in  the  16th  century,  the  figure 
of  Atlas  bearing  the  globe  being  given 
on  the  title-pages  of  such  works. 

ATLAS,  in  anatomy,  is  the  name  of 
the  first  vertebra  of  the  neck,  which  sup- 
ports the  head.  It  is  connected  with  the 
occipital  bone  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit 
of  the  nodding  movement  of  the  head, 
and  rests  on  the  second  vertebra,  or  axis, 
their  union  allowing  the  head  to  turn 
from  side  to  side. 

ATMOSPHERE,  literally,  the  air  sur- 
rounding our  planet,  and  which,  as  the 
etymology  implies,  is,  speaking  broadly, 
a  "sphere"  (not,  of  course,  a  solid,  but 
a  hollow  one).  With  strict  accuracy,  it 
is  a  hollow  spheroid.  Its  exact  height  is 
unknown.  At  2.7  miles  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  half  its  density  is  gone, 
and  the  remainder  is  again  halved  for 
every  further  rise  of  2.7  miles.  Some 
small  density  would  remain  at  45  miles 
high.  At  80  miles,  this  would  have  all 
but  disappeared.  But  from  sundry  ob- 
servations, made  at  Rio  Janeiro  and 
elsewhere,  on  the  twilight  arc,  M.  Liais 
infers  that  the  extreme  limit  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  between  198  and  212  miles. 


i 


ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSUBE 


331 


ATOMIC  WEIGHTS 


In  the  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  temperature  falls  at  least  a  degree 
for  every  852  feet  of  ascent;  hence,  even 
in  the  tropics,  mountains  of  any  con- 
siderable elevation  are  snow-capped.  The 
atmosphere  appears  to  us  blue,  because, 
absorbing  the  red  and  yellow  solar  rays, 
it  reflects  the  blue  one.  There  appears 
to  be  no  atmosphere  around  the  moon; 
but  the  case  seems  different  with  the 
sun,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn. 
Figuratively,  any  pervading  intellec- 
tual, moral,  religious,  or  other  influence 
by  which  one  is  surrounded;  as  in  the 
expression,  "He  lives  in  an  atmosphere 
of  suspicion." 

ATMOSPHERIC      PRESSURE,      the 

pressure  exerted  by  the  atmosphere,  not 
merely  downward,  but  in  every  direc- 
tion. It  amounts  to  14.7  pounds  of 
weight  on  each  square  inch,  which  is 
often  called  in  round  numbers  15.  On 
a  square  foot  it  is=2,160  pounds,  or 
nearly  a  ton.  It  would  act  upon  our 
bodies  with  crushing  effect  were  it  not 
that  the  pressure,  operating  in  all  direc- 
tions, produces  an  equilibrium.  If  any 
gas  or  liquid  press  upon  a  surface  with 
a  force  of  15  pounds  on  a  square  inch, 
it  is  generally  described  as  having  a 
pressure  of  one  atmosphere;  if  60 
pounds,  of  four  atmospheres;  if  120 
pounds,  of  eight  atmospheres,  and  so  on. 

ATOLL,  the  name  applied  by  geologists 
and  others  to  any  one  of  the  lagoon 
islands,  or  annular  coral  reefs  found  in 
the  Pacific  and  the  Indian  Oceans,  the 
Red  Sea,  and  some  other  parts  of  the 
tropics.  An  atoll  is  a  ring  of  coral  rock, 
oval  rather  than  circular  in  form.  On 
the  top  of  the  coral  rock,  which  rises 
but  slightly  above  the  sea-level,  is  vege- 
tation of  some  luxuriance.  On  the  con- 
vex circumference  of  the  ring  is  a  beach 
of  white  sand,  exterior  to  which  is  a  line 
of  breakers.  The  ring  of  land,  which  is 
less  than  half  a  mile  across,  encircles  a 
lagoon.  In  the  larger  atolls  there  are 
generally  two  or  three  breaks  in  the 
ring,  affording  ship  channels  into  the  la- 
goon; these  mark  the  spots  where  fresh 
water,  discharged  from  the  old  subsid- 
ing land  into  the  sea,  prevented  the  coral 
animals,  which  are  marine,  from  locating 
themselves  or  building. 

ATOM,  in  '.nental  philosophy,  a  particle 
of  matter  so  infinitely  small  that  it  can- 
not again  be  subdivided. 

In  natural  philosopHy,  one  of  the  ex- 
ceedingly minute  ultimate  particles  of 
matter,  aggregates  of  an  immense  num- 
ber of  which,  held  in  their  place  by  mo- 
lecular forces,  constitute  all  material 
bodies. 


In  chemistry,  the  smallest  particle  into 
which  an  element  can  be  divided.  An 
atom  cannot  exist  in  a  separate  state, 
but  unites  with  one  or  more  atoms  to 
form  a  molecule.  The  atoms  of  differ- 
ent elements  have  definite  relative 
weights  fixed  and  invariable  for  each, 
the  weight  of  an  atom  of  hydrogen  being 
regarded  as  unity. 

ATOMIC  PHILOSOPHY,  in  mental 
and  natural  philosophy,  the  doctrine  of 
atoms,  broached  by  Leucippus,  developed 
by  Democritus  and  modified  by  Epicurus. 
It  represented  atoms  as  possessed  of 
gravity  and  motion,  and  attributed  to 
their  union  the  formation  of  all  things. 

ATOMIC  THEORY,  a  <theory,  first 
propounded  by  John  Dalton  in  his  "New 
System  of  Chemical  Philosophy,"  pub- 
lished in  1807.  He  stated  that  the  atoms 
of  each  element  were  incapable  of  being 
subdivided,  and  each  had  a  definite  rel- 
ative weight,  compared  with  that  of  hy- 
drogen as  1 ;  that  the  composition  of  a 
definite  chemical  compound  is  constant; 
that  if  two  elements,  A  and  B,  are  ca- 
pable of  uniting  with  each  other  in  sev- 
eral proportions,  the  quantities  of  B, 
which  unite  with  a  given  quantity  of  A, 
usually  bear  a  simple  relation  to  one 
another.  Dalton  supposed  that  one  ele- 
ment replaced  another  atom  for  atom, 
but  it  has  since  been  found  that  one 
atom  of  an  element  can  replace  one 
or  more  atoms  of  another  element,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  atomicities. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHTS,  the  proportions 

by  weight  in  which  the  various  elemen- 
tary substances  unite  together.  It  is 
necessary  that  one  element  be  selected 
as  the  starting-point  of  the  series  and  an 
arbitrary  sum  aflSxed  to  it,  so  that  there- 
by all  the  other  elements  can  have  their 
sums  awarded  to  them,  according  to  the 
proportional  amounts  in  which  they  com- 
bine with  each  other.  The  second  law 
mentioned  under  the  atomic  theory  ex- 
plains the  manner  in  which  this  can  be 
done,  and  how  far  the  numbers  are  arbi- 
trary. In  all  systems  of  atomic  weights 
in  modern  use,  the  atomic  weight  of  hy- 
drogen is  taken  as  unity,  and  the  atomic 
weight  of  the  other  elements  are  then 
fixed,  so  as  to  give  on  the  whole  the  sim- 
plest and  most  consistent  formula  for 
their  compounds.  There  are  two  systems 
of   atomic   weights   at    present   in    use: 

(1)  The  old  system,  which,  after  much 
discussion,  was  adopted  about  1845;  and 

(2)  the  new  system,  which  is,  in  many 
respects,  a  revival  of  the  system  of  Ber- 
zelius,  and  which  may  be  said  to  have 
come  into  general  use  by  scientific  chem- 
ists about  1860. 


ATONEMENT 


382 


ATROPOS 


ATONEMENT,  in  theology,  the  sacri- 
ficial offering  made  by  Christ  in  expiation 
of  the  sins,  according  to  the  Calvinists, 
of  the  elect  only;  according  to  the 
Arminians,    of    the    whole    human    race. 

The  Day  of  Atonement,  or  the  Great 
Day  of  Atonement,  was  on  the  10th  of 
the  seventh  month.  It  is  still  observed 
as  a  day  of  humiliation  and  supplication 
by  Hebrews  all  over  the  world. 

ATRATO  (at-ra'to),  a  river  of  Colom- 
bia, interesting  because  it  has  repeatedly 
been  made  to  bear  a  part  in  schemes  for 
a  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama. Rising  on  the  Western  Cordillera 
at  an  altitude  of  10,560  feet  above  sea- 
level,  it  runs  for  about  400  miles  north- 
ward through  low,  swampy  country,  and 
falls  by  several  mouths,  interrupted  by 
bars,  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  It  is 
navigable  by  steamers  for  fully  250  miles, 
being  750  to  1,000  feet  wide,  and  8  to 
70  feet  deep.  A  route,  surveyed  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  1871,  pro- 
posed to  connect  the  Atrato  and  the 
Jurador,  flowing  into  the  Pacific,  by  a 
canal  48  miles  long.  At  the  Paris  In- 
ternational Congress  (1879)  for  deciding 
the  best  route  for  the  interoceanic  canal, 
that  route  was  with  various  others  re- 
jected in  favor  of  Panama.  Gold-dust  is 
found  in  and  about  the  Atrato. 

ATBEK  (a-trek'),  a  river  of  Persia, 
rising  in  Khorassan,  among  the  Hazar 
Masjid  Mountains,  and  thence  flowing 
nearly  350  miles  westward  to  the  Caspian 
Sea,  from  Shatt  downward  along  the 
boundary  with  the  Russian  Empire. 

ATREUS  (afros),  the  son  of  Pelops 
and  Hippodamia.  He  and  his  brother 
Thyestes  murdered  their  half-brother 
Chrysippus,  from  jealousy  of  the  affection 
entertained  for  him  by  their  father. 
Thereupon,  they  fled  to  Eurystheus, 
with  whose  daughter  .^rope,  Atreus 
united  himself,  and,  after  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law  became  King  of  Mycene. 
Thyestes  seduced  the  wife  of  his  brother 
and  had  two  sons  by  her.  Atreus,  after 
the  discovery  of  this  injury,  banished 
Thyestes  with  his  sons.  Thirsting  for 
revenge,  Thyestes  conveyed  away  secretly 
a  son  of  his  brother,  and  instigated  him 
to  murder  his  own  father.  This  design 
was  discovered,  and  the  youth,  whom 
Atreus  thought  to  be  the  son  of  his 
brother,  was  put  to  death.  Too  late  did 
the  unhappy  father  perceive  his  mistake. 
He  pretended  to  be  reconciled  to  Thyestes, 
and  invited  him,  with  his  two  sons,  to  a 
feast ;  and  after  he  had  caused  the  latter 
to  be  secretly  slain,  he  placed  a  dish 
made  of  their  flesh  before  Thyestes,  and. 
When    he   had   finished   eating,    brought 


the  bones  of  his  sons,  and  described  the 
dreadful   revenge  which   he   had   taken. 

ATRIPLEX,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  chenopadiacese  (cheno- 
pods).  Eight  species  are  indigenous, 
and  one  or  two  more  partially  natural- 
ized, in  Great  Britain.  Of  the  former 
may  be  mentioned  the  A.  laciniata,  or 
frosted  sea-orache;  the  A.  babingtoni,  or 
spreading  fruited;  the  A.  patuUa,  or 
spreading  halberd-leaved;  the  A.  angus- 
tifolia,  or  narrow-leaved  orache;  and  the 
A.  littoralis,  or  grass-leaved  sea-orache. 
The  leaves  may  be  used  as  pot  herbs. 

ATRIUM,  in  ancient  times,  the  hall 
or  principal  room  in  an  ancient  Roman 
house.  It  communicated  with  the  street 
by  the  vestibule  and  the  front  door. 
There  was  in  the  center  of  its  ceiling  a 
large  aperture,  called  compluvium,  de- 
signed to  admit  light.  Beneath  it  there 
was  scooped  out  in  the  pavement  a  cistern 
called  impluvium.  In  a  large  house, 
rooms  opened  into  the  atrium  from  all 
sides,  and  were  lighted  from  it. 

In  medieval  times,  till  the  12th  century, 
a  covered  court.  After  the  12th  century, 
the  churchyard. 

ATROPA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  solanacess,  or  night- 
shades. It  contains  the  well-known 
species,  A.  belladonna,  or  deadly  night- 
shade. It  is  three  or  more  feet  high, 
has  its  ovate  leaves  paired,  large  and 
small  together,  drooping  lurid  purple 
flowers,  and  blackberries  of  the  size  of 
a  small  cherry,  which  if  eaten  produce 
delirium,  dilation  of  the  pupils  of  the 
eyes,  and  death.  The  flowers  and  fruit 
are  both  powerful  medicinal  agents.  It  is 
largely  used  by  the  homoeopathic  school. 

ATROPHY,  a  wasting  of  the  flesh 
due  to  some  interference  with  the 
nutritive  processes.  It  may  arise  from 
a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  permanent, 
oppressive  and  exhausting  passions,  or- 
ganic disease,  a  want  of  proper  food,  or 
of  pure  air.  In  old  age  the  whole  frame 
except  the  heart  undergoes  atrophic 
change,  and  it  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  infancy  as  a  consequence  of  improper, 
unwholesome  food,  exposure  to  cold,  damp 
or  impure  air,  etc.  Single  organs  or  parts 
of  the  body  may  be  affected  irrespective 
of  the  general  state  of  nutrition. 

ATROPIN,  or  ATROPINE,  a  crystal- 
line alkaloid  obtained  from  the  deadly 
nightshade  {atropa  belladonna).  It  is 
very  poisonous  and  produces  persistent 
dilation  of  the  pupil. 

ATROPOS,  the  eldest  of  the  Fates, 
who  cuts  the  thread  of  life  with  her 
shears, 


I 


ATTACH^ 


333 


ATTEBBURY 


ATTAClrfi  (at-a-sha),  a  military, 
naval  or  suoordinate  member  of  the  dip- 
lomatic service  attached  to  an  embassy 
or  legation. 

ATTACHMENT,  in  law,  the  taking 
into  the  custody  of  the  law  the  person 
or  property  of  one  already  before  the 
court,  or  of  one  whom  it  is  sought  to 
bring  before  it.  Attachment  of  person: 
A  writ  issued  by  a  court  of  record,  com- 
manding the  sheriff  to  bring  before  it  a 
person  who  has  been  guilty  of  contempt 
of  court,  either  in  neglect  or  abuse  of 
its  process  or  of  subordinate  powers.  At- 
tachment of  property:  A  writ  issued  at 
the  institution  or  during  the  progress  of 
an  action,  commanding  the  sheriff  or 
other  proper  officer  to  attach  the  prop- 
erty, rights,  credits  or  effects  of  the  de- 
fendant to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the 
plaintiff.  The  laws  and  practice  con- 
cerning the  attachment  vary  in  different 
countries. 

In  the  United  States  attachment  may 
be  defined  as  the  taking  into  the  custody 
of  the  law  the  person  or  property  of  one 
who  is  already  before  the  court,  or  of 
one  whom  it  is  sought  to  bring  before 
the  court;  also  a  writ  for  this  purpose. 
To  some  extent  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a 
criminal  process.  In  some  States  a  plain- 
tiff can  at  the  beginning  of  an  action 
to  recover  money  attach  the  property  of 
the  defendant  as  a  security  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  judgment  expected  to  be  re- 
covered; and  in  case  of  recovery  the 
property  is  applied  in  satisfaction  of  the 
judgment.  But  the  more  usual  rule  is 
that  there  can  be  no  seizure  of  property, 
except  in  specified  cases,  till  the  rights 
of  the  parties  have  been  settled  by  judg- 
ment of  the  court.  The  exceptions  are 
chiefiy  in  cases  where  the  defendant  is 
a  non-resident  or  a  fraudulent  debtor, 
or  is  attempting  to  conceal  or  remove 
his  property.  In  some  States,  attach- 
ments are  distinguished  as  foreign  and 
domestic — the  former  issued  against  a 
non-resident  having  property  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  State,  the  latter 
against  a  resident  in  the  State;  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  person  or  property  being 
necessary  for  an  attachment.  An  attach- 
ment issued  under  a  State  law  which 
has  not  been  adopted  by  Congress,  or  by 
a  rule  of  court,  cannot  be  sustained  in  a 
United  States  court.  Money  due  to  a 
seaman  for  wages  is  not  attachable  in 
the  hands  of  a  purser,  the  purser  being 
a  distributing  agent  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  no  sense  a  debtor  of  the 
seaman. 

ATTALEA,  a  genus  of  American 
palms,  comprising  the  piassava  palm, 
which  produces  coquilla  nuts. 


ATTALTJS  (at'a-lus),  the  names  of 
three  kings  of  ancient  Pergamus,  241- 
133  B.  C,  the  last  of  whom  bequeathed 
his  kingdom  to  the  Romans.  They  were 
all  patrons  of  art  and  literature. 

ATTAR,  or  OTTO,  OF  ROSES   (oil  of 

roses) ,  an  essential  oil  obtained  from  the 
petals  of  three  species  of  roses,  viz.,  rosa 
centifolia,  moschata  and  damascena.  The 
rose  gardens  of  Ghazipur,  in  India,  have 
long  been  famed  for  the  production  of 
this  precious  liquid.  These  gardens  are 
large  fields,  planted  with  rows  of  small 
rose  bushes.  The  blossoms,  which  unfold 
in  the  morning,  are  all  gathered  before 
noon,  and  their  petals  are  at  once  trans- 
ferred to  clay  stills,  and  distilled  with 
twice  their  weight  of  water.  The  rose 
water  which  comes  over  is  placed  in 
shallow  vessels  covered  with  moist  mus- 
lin  to  exclude  dust,  and  exposed  all  night 
to  the  cool  air.  In  the  morning  the  thin 
film  of  oil  which  has  collected  on  the  top 
is  carefully  swept  off  with  a  feather  and 
transferred  to  a  small  vial.  This  proc- 
ess is  repeated  morning  after  morning, 
till  nearly  the  whole  of  the  oil  is  sep- 
arated from  the  water.  Attar  is  also 
imported  from  Syria,  Persia,  Turkey, 
and  Bulgaria.  It  is  frequently  adulter- 
ated with  spermaceti  and  a  volatile  oil, 
which  appears  to  be  derived  from  one  or 
more  species  of  andropogon,  and  which 
is  called  oil  of  gingergrass,  or  oil  of 
geranium.  Pure  attar  of  rose,  carefully 
distilled,  is  at  first  colorless,  but  speed- 
ily becomes  yellowish.  It  congeals  below 
80°;  melts  at  84°. 

ATTENTION.    See    PSYCHOLOGY. 

ATTERBURY,  FRANCIS,  an  English 
prelate,  born  March  6,  1662,  and  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  and  Oxford.  In 
1687,  he  took  his  degree  of  M.  A.,  and 
appeared  as  a  controversialist  in  a  de- 
fense of  the  character  of  Luther,  en- 
titled "Considerations  on  the  Spirit  of 
Martin  Luther,"  etc.  He  also  assisted 
his  pupil,  Charles  Boyle,  in  his  famous 
controversy  with  Bentley  on  the  "Epistles 
of  Phalaris."  Having  taken  orders,  in 
1G91,  he  settled  in  London,  became  chap- 
lain to  William  and  Mary,  preacher  of 
Bridewell,  and  lecturer  of  St.  Bride's. 
After  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne  he 
was  made  Dean  of  Carlisle.  In  1712,  h« 
was  made  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  and, 
in  1713,  Bishop  of  Rochester  and  Dean 
of  Westminster.  After  the  death  of  the 
Queen,  in  1714,  he  distinguished  himself 
by  his  opposition  to  George  I.;  and,  hav- 
ing entered  into  a  correspondence  with 
the  Pretender's  party,  was,  in  1722,  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower.  Being  banished 
from  the  kingdom,  he  settled  in  Paris. 


ATTERBUBY 


334 


ATTILA 


He  died  Feb.  15,  1732,  and  his  body 
was  privately  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

ATTERBUBY,  WILLIAJI  WAIi- 
LACE,  an  American  railway  official,  born 
in  New  Albany,  Ind.,  in  1866.  He  grad- 
uated from  Yale  University  in  1886,  and 
he  served  as  an  apprentice  in  shops  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  then  became 
road  foreman  for  various  divisions  of 
that  line.  He  was  rapidly  promoted,  be- 
coming general  manager  of  the  lines  east 
of  Pittsburgh  and  Erie  in  1903,  serving 
until  1909.  He  was  made  a  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in 
1909.  In  1917  he  was  given  general 
charge  of  the  construction  and  operation 
of  the  United  States  military  railroads 
in  France  with  a  commisson  of  brigadier- 
general.  Largely  through  his  efforts  this 
field  of  operation  became  highly  organ- 
ized in  France  and  had  much  to  do  with 
the  success  of  the  American  Expedition- 
ary Force  in  its  campaigns.  He  was  a 
member  of  several  engineering  societies. 

ATTICA,  a  state  of  ancient  Greece, 
the  capital  of  which,  Athens,  was  once 
the  first  city  in  the  world.  The  territory 
was  triangular  in  shape,  with  Cape  Sun- 
ium  (Colonna)  as  its  apex  and  the 
ranges  of  Mounts  Cithseron  and  Parnes 
as  its  base.  On  the  N.  these  ranges  sep- 
arated it  from  Boeotia ;  on  the  W.  it  was 
bounded  by  Megaris  and  the  Saronic 
Gulf;  on  the  E.  by  the  .^gean.  Its  most 
marked  physical  divisions  consisted  of 
the  highlands,  midland  district,  and  coast 
district,  with  the  two  famous  plains  of 
Eleusis  and  of  Athens.  The  Cephissus 
and  Ilissus,  though  small,  were  its  chief 
streams^  its  principal  hills,  Cithseron, 
Parnes,  Hymettus,  Pentelicus,  and  Lau- 
rium. 

History. — According  to  tradition  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  Attica  lived  in  a 
savage  manner  until  the  time  of  Cecrops, 
who  came,  1550  B.  c,  with  a  colony  from 
Egypt,  taught  them  all  the  essentials  of 
civilization,  and  founded  Athens.  One  of 
Cecrops'  descendants  founded  11  other 
cities.  To  Theseus  is  assigned  the  honor 
of  uniting  these  cities  in  a  confederacy, 
with  Athens  as  the  capital,  thus  forming 
the  Attic  state.  After  the  death  of  Cod- 
rus,  1068  B.  c,  the  monarchy  was  abol- 
ished, and  the  government  vested  in 
archons  elected  by  the  nobility,  at  first 
for  life,  in  752  B.  c.  for  10  years,  and  in 
683  B.  c.  for  one  year  only.  The  severe 
Constitution  of  Draco  was  succeeded  in 
594  B.  c.  by  the  milder  code  of  Solon,  the 
democratic  elements  of  which,  after  the 
brief  tyranny  of  the  Pisistratids,  were 
emphasized  and  developed  by  Clisthenes, 
He  divided  the  people  into  10  classes,  and 


made  the  Senate  consist  of  500  persons, 
establishing  as  the  government  an  oli- 
garchy modified  by  popular  control. 
Then  came  the  splendid  era  of  the  Per- 
sian War,  which  elevated  Athens  to  the 
summit  of  fame.  Miltiades  at  Marathon 
and  Themistocles  at  Salamis  conquered 
the  Persians  by  land  and  by  sea.  Attica 
appears  to  have  contained  a  territory  of 
nearly  850  square  miles,  with  some  500,- 
000  inhabitants,  360,000  of  whom  were 
slaves,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  city 
numbered  180,000.  Cimon  and  PericleSi 
444  B.  c,  raised  Athens  to  its  point  of 
greatest  splendor,  though  under  the  lat- 
ter began  the  Peloponnesian  War,  which 
ended  with  the  conquest  of  Athens  by 
the  Lacedaemonians.  The  succeeding 
tyranny  of  the  Thirty,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  a  Spartan  garrison,  was  over- 
thrown by  Thrasybulus,  with  a  temporary 
partial  restoration  of  the  power  of 
Athens;  but  the  battle  of  Cheronaea  (338 
B.  c.)  made  Attica,  in  common  with  the 
rest  of  Greece,  a  dependency  of  Macedon, 
The  attempts  at  revolt  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  were  crushed,  and  in  260  B.  C. 
Attica  was  still  under  the  sway  of  An- 
tigonus  Gonatus,  the  Macedonian  king. 
A  period  of  freedom  under  the  shelter  of 
the  Achsean  League  then  ensued,  but 
their  support  of  Mithridates  led  in  146 
B.  c.  to  the  subjugation  of  the  Grecian 
states  by  Rome.  After  the  division  of 
the  Roman  empire  Attica  belonged  to  the 
empire  of  the  East  until,  in  396  A.  D.,  it 
was  conquered  by  Alaric  the  Goth,  and 
the  country  devastated. 

Attica,  along  with  the  ancient  Boeotia, 
now  forms  a  nome  or  province  (Attike 
and  Viotia)  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece; 
area,  2,472  square  miles;  pop.  about 
450,000. 

ATTICUS,   TITUS  POMPONIUS    (at' 

ekus),  a  noble  Roman,  the  contemporary 
of  Cicero  and  Caesar.  He  displayed  such 
address  and  tact,  that,  during  the  war 
between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  he  managed 
to  remain  neutral ;  sent  money  to  the  son 
of  Marius,  while  he  secured  the  attach- 
ment of  Sylla;  and,  when  Cicero  and 
Hortensius  were  rivals,  was  equally 
intimate  with  both.  When  young,  he 
resided  at  Athens.  He  was  an  author 
and  poet,  and  reached  the  age  of  77, 
without  sickness.  When  at  last  he  be- 
cam.e  ill,  he  refused  all  nourishment,  and, 
therefore,  ended  his  life  by  voluntary 
starvation.  Died  32  B.  C.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  Epicurus. 

ATTILA  (at'6-la),  the  famous  leader 
of  the  Huns,  was  the  son  of  Mundzuk, 
succeeding  (with  his  brother  Bleda) 
their  uncle  Rhuas.  Their  rule  extended 
over  a  great  part  of  northern  Asia  and 


ATTILA 


S35 


ATTRACTION 


Europe,  and  they  threatened  the  Eastern 
Empire,  and  twice  compelled  the  weak 
Theodosiug  II.  to  purchase  an  inglorious 
peace.  Attila  caused  his  brother  Bleda 
to  be  murdered  (444) ,  and  extended  his 
dominion  over  all  the  peoples  of  Germany 
and  exacted  tribute  from  the   Eastern 


ATTILA,  THE  HUN 

and  Western  emperors.  The  Vandals, 
the  Ostrogoths,  the  Gepidse,  and  a  part 
of  the  Franks  united  under  his  banners, 
and  he  speedily  formed  a  pretext  for 
leading  them  against  the  Empire  of  the 
East.  He  laid  waste  all  the  countries 
from  the  Black  to  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and 
in  three  encounters  defeated  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius,  but  could  not  take 
Constantinople.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and 
Greece  all  submitted  to  the  invader,  who 
destroyed  70  flourishing  cities;  and  The- 
odosius was  obliged  to  purchase  a  peace. 
Turning  to  the  W.,  the  "scourge  of  God," 
as  the  universal  terror  termed  him, 
crossed  with  an  immense  army  the 
Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Seine,  went 
to  the  Loire,  and  laid  siege  to  Orleans. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  city  repelled  the 
first  attack,  and  the  united  forces  of  the 
Romans  under  Aetius  and  of  the  Visi- 
goths under  their  King  Theodoric,  com- 
pelled Attila  to  raise  the  siege.  He  re- 
treated to  Champagne,  and  waited  for 
the  enemy  in  the  plains  of  Chalons. 
When  the  victory  of  Attila  seemed  as- 
sured the  Gothic  prince,  Thorismond,  the 
son  of  Theodoric,  poured  down  from  the 
neighboring  height  upon  the  Huns,  who 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  In 
the  following  year  Attila  tried  to  seize 
upon  Italy,  and  demanded  Honoria,  the 
sister  of  Valentinian  III.,  in  marriage, 
with  half  the  kingdom  as  a  dowry.  When 
this  demand  was  refused  he  conquered 
and  destroyed  Aquileia,  Fadua,  Vicenza, 


Verona,  and  Bergamo,  laid  waste  the 
plains  of  Lombardy,  and  was  marching 
on  Rome  when  Pope  Leo  I.  went  with 
the  Roman  ambassadors  to  his  camp  and 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  peace.  Attila 
went  back  to  Hungary,  and  died  on  the 
night  of  his  marriage  with  Hilda  or 
Ildico  (453),  either  from  the  bursting 
of  a  blood  vessel  or  by  her  hand. 

ATTLEBORO,  a  town  in  Bristol  co., 
Mass.,  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  railroad;  32  miles  S.  W.  of 
Boston.  It  was  incorporated  in  1694; 
contains  nearly  a  dozen  villages;  and  is 
principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  jewelry,  watches  and  clocks,  silver- 
ware, hats,  buttons,  and  cotton  and 
woolen  goods.  It  has  a  National  bank, 
high  school,  public  library,  and  daily 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  16,215;  (1920) 
19,731. 

ATTORNEY,  a  person  appointed  to 
do  something  for  and  in  the  stead  and 
name  of  another.  An  attorney  may  have 
general  powers  to  act  for  another;  or, 
his  power  may  be  special,  and  limited 
to  a  particular  act  or  acts.  A  special 
attorney  is  appointed  by  a  deed  called  a 
power  or  letter  of  attorney,  specifying 
the  acts  which  he  is  authorized  to  do. 
An  attorney  at  law  is  a  person  qualified 
to  appear  for  another  before  a  court  of 
law  to  prosecute  or  defend  any  action  on 
behalf  of  his  client.  The  rules  and 
qualifications,  whereby  one  is  authorized 
to  practice  as  an  attorney  in  any  court 
are  very  different  in  different  countries, 
and  in  the  different  courts  of  the  same 
country. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  a  govern- 
mental law  officer.  In  the  United  States 
the  Department  of  Justice  is  presided 
over  by  the  Attorney-General,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  furnish  all  legal  advice 
needed  by  Federal  authorities  and  conduct 
all  litigation  in  which  the  United  States 
is  concerned.  He  is  also  called  upon  to 
recommend  persons  to  fill  the  places  of 
judges  of  the  United  States  Circuit  and 
District  Courts.  There  is  an  Attorney- 
General  in  each  State  whose  duty  it  is  to 
furnish  legal  advice  to  the  Legislature; 
he  represents  the  State  in  suits  at  law, 
and  aids  in  prosecuting  offenses  against 
the  State. 

In  England  the  highest  legal  function- 
ary permanently  retained,  on  a  salary, 
to  take  the  part  of  the  crown  in  any 
suits  affecting  the  royal  (by  which  is 
really  meant  the  public)  interests.^  In 
precedence,  he  ranks  above  the  Solicitor- 
General. 

ATTRACTION,  in  natural  philosophy, 
a  force  in  virtue  of  ..which  the  material 


ATTUCZS 


336 


AUBURN 


particles  of  all  bodies  tend  necessarily  to 
approach  each  other.  It  operates  at 
whatever  distances  the  bodies  may  be 
from  each  other,  whether  the  space  be- 
tween them  be  filled  with  other  masses 
of  matter  or  is  vacant,  and  whether  the 
bodies  themselves  are  at  rest  or  are  in 
motion.  When  they  are  not  closely  in 
contact,  the  attraction  between  them  is 
called  that  of  gravitation  or  of  gravity. 

It  is  of  various  kinds:  (1)  The  at- 
traction of  gravitation  or  of  gravity  is 
the  operation  of  the  above-mentioned  at- 
traction when  the  bodies  acting  and  acted 
upon  are  not  closely  in  contact.  It  is 
often  called  the  law  of  gravity  or  gravi- 
tation, but  the  term  law  in  this  case 
means  simply  generalization.  It  states 
the  universality  of  a  fact,  but  does  not 
really  account  for  it.  By  this  law  or 
generalization,  the  attraction  between 
any  two  material  particles  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  product  of  their 
masses,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  of  their  distance  asunder.  (2) 
Molecular  attraction  differs  from  the 
former  in  acting  only  at  infinitely  small 
distances.  It  ceases  to  be  appreciable 
when  the  distances  between  the  mole- 
cules become  appreciably  large.  It  is 
divided  into  cohesion,  affinity,  and  ad- 
hesion. 

Capillary  attraction,  meaning  the  at-- 
traction  excited  by  a  hair-like  tube  on  a 
liquid  within  it,  is,  properly  speaking, 
a  variety  of  adhesion. 

In  magnetism,  the  power  excited  by  a 
magnet  or  loadstone  of  drawing  and  at- 
taching iron  to  itself. 

In  electricity,  the  power  possessed  by 
an  electrified  body  of  drawing  certain 
other  bodies  to  itself.  The  repulsions  or 
attractions  between  two  electrified  bodies 
are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  squares 
of  their  distance.  The  distance  remain- 
ing the  same,  the  force  of  attraction  or 
repulsion  between  two  electrified  bodies 
is  directly  as  the  product  of  the  quanti- 
ties of  electricity  with  which  they  are 
charged. 

ATTUCKS,  CRISPUS,  a  mulatto  or 
half-breed  Indian,  born  about  1720;  was 
a  leader  of  the  crowd  of  people,  who,  on 
March  5,  1770,  provoked  the  British  sol- 
diers in  Boston  to  open  fire,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  Attucks  and  others 
and  created  the  incident  known  as  the 
Boston  massacre.  The  British  officer  of 
the  day  and  six  of  his  men  were  tried 
for  murder  and  acquitted  by  a  jury. 

ATWATER,  WILBER  OLIN,  an 
American  chemist,  born  in  Johnsburg, 
N.  Y.,  May  3,  1844;  was  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University  in  1865;  made  a 
special  study  of  chemistry  in  the  Shef- 


field Scientific  School  of  Yale  and  the 
Universities  of  Leipsic  and  Berlin;  be- 
came Professor  of  Chemistry  in  East 
Tennessee  University  in  1873;  was  di- 
rector of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  in  1875-1877,  and 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Storrs 
(Conn.)  Experiment  Station  in  1887.  He 
was  connected  for  several  years  with  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture.   He  died  in  1907. 

ATYS,  or  ATTYS  (at'is),  in  classical 
mythology,  the  shepherd  lover  of  Cybele, 
who,  having  broken  the  vow  of  chastity 
which  he  made  her,  castrated  himself. 
In  Asia  Minor  Atys  seems  to  have  been 
a  deity,  with  somewhat  of  the  same 
character  as  Adonis. 

AUBE  (ob),  a  N.  E.  French  depart- 
ment; area,  2,326  square  miles;  pop. 
about  240,000.  The  surface  is  undulat- 
ing, and  watered  by  the  Aube,  etc.  The 
N.  and  N.  W.  districts  are  bleak  and 
infertile,  the  S.  districts  remarkably  fer- 
tile. A  large  extent  of  gjound  is  under 
forests  and  vineyards,  and  the  soil  is 
admirable  for  grain,  pulse,  and  hemp. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  worsted  and 
hosiery.  Troyes  is  the  capital.  The 
river  Aube,  which  gives  name  to  the 
department,  rises  in  Haute-Marne,  flows 
N.  W.,  and,  after  a  course  of  113  miles, 
joins  the  Seine.    Capital,  Troyes. 

AUBER,  DANIEL  FRAN9OIS  ES- 
PRIT (o-ba'),  a  French  operatic  com- 
poser, born  Jan.  29,  1782,  at  Caen,  in 
Normandy;  studied  under  Cherubini. 
His  first  great  success  was  his  opera  "La 
Bergere  Chatelaine,"  produced  in  1820. 
In  1822  he  had  associated  himself  with 
Scribe  as  librettist,  and  other  operas  fol- 
lowed. Chief  among  them  were  "Masa- 
niello;  or  La  Muette  de  Portici"  (1828); 
"Fra  Diavolo"  (1830);  "Lestocq" 
(1834);  "L'Ambassadrice"  (1836);  "Le 
Domino  Noir"  (1837) ;  "Les  Diamants 
de  la  Couronne"  (1841) ;  "Marco  Spada" 
(1853);  "La  Fiancee  du  Roi  de  Garbe" 
(1864).  Despite  his  success  in  "Masa- 
niello"  his  peculiar  field  was  comic  opera. 
He  died  in  Paris,  May  13,  1871. 

AUBURN,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Androscoggin  co..  Me.;  on  the  Andros- 
coggin river  and  the  Maine  Central  and 
Grand  Trunk  railroads,  30  miles  S.  W. 
of  Augusta.  The  river,  which  separates 
Auburn  from  the  city  of  Lewiston,  has 
a  fall  of  60  feet  near  the  cities,  giving 
them  excellent  power  for  manufactur- 
ing. Auburn  is  principally  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  shoes,  though  it  is 
doing  considerable  in  the  lines  of  cotton 
goods,  furniture,  and  tanned  leather.  It 
is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has  1  Na- 


AUBURN 


337 


AUCTION 


tional  bank,  a  high  school,  and  public 
library.  Pop,  (1910)  15,064;  (1920) 
16,985. 

AUBURN,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  outlet  of 
Owasco  Lake  and  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River  and  the  Lehigh  Val- 
ley railroads;  174  miles  W.  of  Albany. 
The  city  is  an  important  industrial  cen- 
ter, its  principal  manufactures  being 
reapers,  mowers,  binders,  threshing  ma- 
chines and  other  agricultural  imple- 
ments, carpets,  cotton,  woolen  and  iron 
goods,  and  shoes,  for  which  the  lakes 
provide  excellent  power.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
(Presb.),  founded  in  1821;  a  large  State 
prison,  a  prison  for  women,  and  a  State 
armory.  There  are  also  about  25  churches, 
an  Academic  High  School,  Academy  ol 
Music,  2  National  banks,  hospital,  or- 
phan asylum,  several  public  libraries 
and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Among  its  public  attractions  is  a  statue 
of  the  late  William  H.  Seward,  who  lived 
here.  Pop.  (1910)  34,668;  (1920) 
86,192. 

AUBURN  THEOLOGICAL  S:EM:I- 
NARY,  a  Presbyterian  institution  in  Au- 
burn, N.  Y.;  organized  in  1820;  at  the 
close  of  1919  had  13  professors  and  in- 
structors; 45  students;  number  of  grad- 
uates, 1,616;  president,  Rev.  G.  B.  Stew- 
art, D.  D. 

AUCH  (osh),  an  ancient  town  of 
France;  capital  of  the  department  of 
Gers;  on  the  Gers  river;  43  miles  S.  of 
Agen.  In  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  Ausci  or  Auscii. 
It  contains  an  archbishop's  palace,  a 
Gothic  cathedral,  public  library,  royal 
college,  museum  of  natural  science  and 
a  town  hall.  It  is  also  noted  for  its 
manufactures  of  cotton  stuffs,  leather, 
linen,  etc.     Pop.  about  14,000. 

AUCHENIA,  a  genus  of  mammalia  of 
the  order  ruminantia  and  the  family 
camelidse.  It  includes  the  llamas,  which 
are  the  American  representatives  of  the 
camels  so  well  known  in  the  Eastern 
world.  They  have  no  dorsal  humps,  and 
their  toes  are  completely  divided.  ^  There 
are  about  four  species  of  auchenia:  the 
A.  guanaco,  or  guanaco;  the  A.  glama, 
or  llama;  the  A.  paco,  the  paco  or  al- 
paca; and  the  A.  vicunia,  or  vicuna. 

AUCHTERARDER,  a  town  in  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  with  manufactures  of 
tweeds,  tartans,  etc.  The  opposition  to 
the  presentee  to  the  church  of  Auck- 
terader  (1839)  originated  the  struggle 
"Which  ended  in  the  formation  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland. 


AUCKLAND,  a  town  in  New  Zealand, 
in  the  North  Island,  founded  in  1840, 
and  situated  on  Waitemata  harbor,  one 
of  the  finest  harbors  of  New  Zealand, 
where  the  island  is  only  6  miles  across, 
there  being  another  harbor  (Manukau) 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  isthmus.  It 
is  about  1,300  miles  from  Sydney,  1„650 
miles  from  Melbourne,  and  5,440  miles 
from  San  Francisco.  The  harbor  has  two 
good  entrances,  with  lighthouse;  and  is 
defended  by  batteries.  There  are  numer- 
ous wharves  and  jetties,  and  a  couple  of 
graving  docks,  one  of  which — the  Cal- 
liope dock,  opened  in  1887 — is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  whole  of  the  Southern 
Seas.  Its  site  is  picturesque,  the  streets 
are  spacious  and  the  public  buildings,  in- 
cluding a  university  college,  are  numer- 
ous and  handsome.  It  has  a  large  and 
increasing  trade.  It  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  colony.  Pop.,  including 
suburbs,  about  125,000.  The  provincial 
district  of  Auckland  forms  the  northern 
part  of  North  Island,  with  an  area  of 
25,746  square  miles;  the  surface  is  very 
diversified;  volcanic  phenomena  are 
common,  including  geysers,  hot  lakes, 
etc.;  rivers  are  numerous;  wool,  timber, 
kauri-gum,  etc.,  are  exported.  Much  gold 
has  been  obtained  in  the  Thames  Valley 
and  elsewhere. 

AUCKLAND,  WILLIAM  EDEN, 
LORD,  an  English  statesman,  born  April 
3,  1744;  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford; 
called  to  the  bar,  1768;  Under-Secretary 
of  State  1772,  and  in  1776  Lord  of 
Trade.  In  1778  he  was  nominated,  in 
conjunction  with  Lord  Howe  and  others, 
to  act  as  mediator  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  insurgent  American  colonies.  He 
was  afterward  Secretary  of  State  for 
Ireland,  Ambassador  Extraordinary  to 
France,  Ambassador  Extraordinary  to 
the  Netherlands.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1788,  and  died  May  28,  1814. 

AUCKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  lying 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  S.  of  New 
Zealand.  The  largest  of  these  islands  is 
about  30  miles  long  by  15  broad,  and  is 
covered  with  dense  vegetation.  They  are 
almost  entirely  uninhabited,  belong  to 
the  British  and  are  a  station  for  whal- 
ing ships. 

AUCTION,  the  public  disposal  of 
goods  to  the  highest  bidder.  None  but 
those  who  have  taken  out  an  auction  li- 
cense are  at  present  allowed  to  conduct 
such  sales.  The  goods  may  be  put  up  at 
a  low  figure,  and  then  competitors  for 
them  bidding  against  each  other  will 
raise  this  to  a  higher  price.  This  is 
what  is  generally  done.  In  what  is  called 
a  "Dutch  auction,"  however,  the  process 


AUCUBA 


838 


ATJGEREAU 


is  reversed.  The  goods  are  put  up  at  a 
price  much  above  their  value,  and  grad- 
ually lowered  till  a  bid  is  given  for 
them,  and  they  are  then  forthwith 
knocked  down  to  the  one  from  "Whom  it 
proceeded. 

AUCUBA,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  coriiaceas,  or  cornels, 
The  only  known  species  is  A.  japonica, 
a  well  known  evergreen,  with  leaves  like 
those  of  the  laurel  in  form  and  mottled 
with  yellow. 

AUDE  (6d),  a  maritime  department 
in  the  S.  of  France;  area,  2,438  square 
miles;  mainly  covered  by  hills  belong- 
ing to  the  Pyrenees  or  the  Cevennes,  and 
traversed  W.  to  E.  by  a  valley  drained 
by  the  Aude.  The  loftier  districts  are 
bleak  and  unproductive;  the  others  toler- 
ably fertile,  yielding  good  crops  of  grain. 
The  wines,  especially  white,  bear  com- 
parison with  any.    Pop.  about  300,000. 

AUDIOMETER,  or  AUDIMETER,  an 

instrument  devised  by  Professor  Hughes, 
the  inventor  of  the  microphone.  Origi- 
nally its  object  was  to  measure  with  pre- 
cision the  sense  of  hearing.  Among^  its 
constituent  parts  are  an  induction  coil,  a 
microphone  key  and  a  telephone.  The 
audiometer  has  been  materially  modified, 
and  is  now  principally  used  for  obtaining 
a  balance  of  induction  from  two  electric 
coils  acting  upon  a  third  one.  A  scale 
is  provided  to  show  the  extent  of  the 
movement. 

AUDIPHONE,  an  invention  to  assist 
the  hearing  of  deaf  persons,  in  whom  the 
auditory  nerve  is  not  entirely  dsetroyed. 
The  instrument,  made  of  a  thin  sheet  of 
ebonite  rubber  or  hard  vulcanite,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  palm  leaf  fan,,  with  a  handle 
and  strings  attached  to  bend  it  into  a 
curving  form,  and  a  small  clamp  for  fix- 
ing the  string  at  the  handles.  The  audi- 
phone  is  pressed  by  the  deaf  person  using 
it  against  his  upper  front  teeth,  with  the 
convex  side  outward;  when  so  placed  it 
communicates  the  vibrations  caused  by 
musical  sounds  or  articulate  speech  to  the 
organs  of  hearing. 

AUDIT,  an  examination  into  accounts 
or  dealings  with  money  or  property,  along 
with  vouchers  or  other  documents  con- 
nected therewith,  espeaially  by  proper 
officers,  or  persons  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Also  the  occasion  of  receiving  the 
rents  from  the  tenants  on  an  estate. 

AUDITORY,  pertaining  to  the  organs 
of  hearing. 

AUDUBON,  JOHN  JAMES,  an 
American  naturalist  of  French  extrac- 
tion,  born   near   New   Orleans,   May   4, 


1780;  was  educated  in  France,  and  stu- 
died painting  under  David.  In  1798  he 
settled  in  Pennsylvania,  but,  having  a 
great  love  for  ornithology,  he  set  out  in 
1810  with  his  wife  and  child,  descended 
the  Ohio,  and  for  many  years  roamed  the 
forests  in  every  direction,  drawing  the 
birds  which  he  shot.  In  1826  he  went  to 
England,  exhibited  his  drawings  in  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  and  Edinburgh,  and 
finally  published  them  in  an  unrivalled 
work  of  double-folio  size,  with  435  colored 
plates  of  birds,  the  size  of  life  ("The 
Birds  of  America,"  4  vols.,  1827-1839), 
with  an  accompanying  text  ("Ornitho- 
logical Biography").  On  his  final  return 
to  the  United  States  he  labored  with  Dr. 
Bachman  on  an  illustrated  work  entitled 
"The  Quadrupeds  of  America"  (1843- 
1850,  3  vols.).  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  June  27,  1851. 

AUERBACH,  BERTHOLD  (ou'er- 
bach),  a  German  novelist,  born  at  Nord- 
stetten,  Wurttemberg,  Feb.  28,  1812;  be- 
gan to  write  while  a  student  in  Heidel- 
berg, and  under  the  pseudonym  "THEO- 
BALD Chauber"  produced  a  "Biography 
of  Frederick  the  Great"  (1834-1836).  A 
series  of  novels  from  the  history  of 
Judaism,  under  the  collective  title  "The 
Ghetto,"  of  which  "Spinoza"  (1837)  and 
"Poet  and  Merchant"  (1839)  were  print- 
ed in  separate  editions,  was  followed  by 
a  translation  of  Spinoza,  with  a  critical 
biography  (1841) ;  and  by  "The  Educated 
Citizen :  a  Book  for  the  Thinking  Human 
Mind"  (1842).  His  next  work,  "Black 
Forest  Village  Stories"  (1843),  was 
translated  into  nearly  all  European  lan- 
guages and  established  his  fame.  To  this 
class  of  tales  belong  also  "The  Profes- 
sor's Lady"  (1847)  ;  "Joseph  in  the  Snow** 
(1860);  "After  Thirty  Years"  (1876). 
"On  the  Heights"  (1865)  constituted  the 
crowning  success  of  his  literary  career. 
It  was  followed  by  the  "Villa  on  the 
Rhine"  (1868)  and  "The  Head  Forester" 
(1879).  He  died  at  Cannes,  France,  Feb. 
8,  1882. 

AUERSTADT  (ou'er-stedt) ,  a  village 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  10 
miles  W.  of  Naumburg.  It  is  famous  for 
the  great  battle  which  took  place  there 
Oct.  14,  1806,  between  the  French  under 
Davoust,  and  the  Prussian  army  under 
Duke  Charles  of  Brunswick,  which  ended 
in  a  great  victory  for  the  former.  Na- 
poleon, who  had,  on  the  same  day,  de- 
feated the  main  army  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam II.  at  Jena,  made  Davoust  Duke  of 
Auerstadt. 

AUGEREAU  (6zh-r6'),  PIERRE 
FRANCOIS  CHARLES,  DUKE  OF  CAS- 
TIGLIONE,  a  celebrated  French  general. 


AUGIER 


339 


AUGSBURG,  CONFESSION  OF 


born  at  Paris  in  1757.  He  joined  the 
army  as  a  private  soldier,  proceeded  to 
Spain,  and  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  adju- 
tant-general. He  then  took  high  com- 
mand under  Napoleon  I.  in  Italy,  and  in 
1796,  at  the  head  of  his  own  brigade, 
stormed  the  bridge  of  Lodi.  To  him  Na- 
poleon owed  the  brilliant  victories  of 
Castiglione  and  Arcole.  Augereau  hav- 
ing been  sent  by  Napoleon  to  Paris  be- 
came military  commander  of  the  capital, 
and  led  the  coup  d'etat,  or  Revolution  of 
Fructidor,  by  which  the  enemies  of  the 
Directory  were  seized  and  overthrown. 
Appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army 
on  the  German  frontier,  he  became  so 
wildly  democratic  that  the  Directory  dis- 
placed him  and  sent  him  to  Perpignan. 
He  refused  to  assist  Napoleon  in  the 
revolution  which  preceded  the  consulate 
and  the  empire.  In  1805,  being  created 
a  Marshal  of  France,  Augereau  com- 
manded at  the  reduction  of  the  Vorarl- 
berg;  was  at  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1806, 
and  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Berlin.  He 
commanded  the  French  at  Eylau  in  1807, 
and,  in  1809  and  1810,  commanded  in 
Catalonia,  where  he  committed  great  ex- 
cesses. Augereau  was  at  the  great  bat- 
tles of  Leipsic,  Oct.  16,  17,  and  18,  1813, 
and  in  1814,  commanded  at  Lyons,  to 
repel  the  march  of  the  Austrians  from 
that  direction  on  the  capital.  Yielding 
to  superior  numbers,,  he  retired  to  the 
S.  and  displaying  little  attachment  to 
Napoleon,  acknowledged  the  Bourbons, 
retained  his  honors,  and  became  a  peer. 
He  died  in  June,  1816. 

ATJGIER,  GUILLAUME  VICTOR 
EMILE  (6zh-ya'),  a  French  dramatic 
poet,  born  at  Valence,  Sept.  20,  1820.  "La 
Cigue,"  his  first  play  (1844),  was  accept- 
ed by  the  managers  of  the  Odeon  Theatre 
and  established  the  popularity  of  the 
author.  "Gabrielle,"  a  five-act  comedy, 
has  been  pronounced  Augier's  most  fin- 
ished and  best  constructed  work,  whether 
as  regards  plot,  poetry  or  the  delineation 
of  character.  He  was  nominated  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academie  Frangaise,  and  then 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  At  the 
solicitation  of  Mile.  Rachel,  Augier  wrote 
"Diane,"  a  piece  in  five  acts.  In  1868 
his  "Fils  de  Giboyer"  had  a  great  success. 
He  may  be  said  to  have  founded  a  new 
school  in  French  dramatic  literature.  He 
died  Oct.  25,  1889. 

AUGITE,  an  important  mineral,  in- 
teresting from  its  geological  as  well  as 
its  mineralogical  relations.  Dana  applies 
the  name  to  the  greenish  or  brownish- 
black  and  black  kinds  of  aluminous  pyrox- 
ene, found  chiefly  in  ei'uptive,  but  some- 
times also  in  metamorphic,  rocks.  When 
altered  into  hornblende  it  is  called  tralite. 

23— Vol.  I — Cyc 


Augite  Was  once  suspected  by  many 
mineralogists  to  be  essentially  the  same 
mineral  as  hornblende,  differing  only  in 
this  respect,  that  the  former  species  re- 
sulted from  rapid  and  the  latter  from 
slow  cooling.  But  Dana  separates  the 
two,  regarding  hornblende  as  an  alumi- 
nous variety  of  amphibole  and  not  of 
pyroxene.  Both  are  found  in  modern  and 
in  ancient  volcanic  products. 

AUGSBURG  (ougs-porg),  a  city  of 
south  Germany,  capital  of  Suabia,  in  the 
former  Kingdom  of  Bavaria.  It  is 
situated  on  a  large  and  fertile  plain 
watered  by  the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech, 
35  miles  N.  W.  of  Munich.  Augsburg  was 
for  ages  one  of  the  richest,  most  commer- 
cial and  powerful  of  the  free  cities  of  the 
German  Empire.  Among  noted  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  arsenal,  Abbey  of  St. 
Ulric,  and  the  town  hall,  one  of  the  finest 
edifices  in  Germany.  Augsburg's  great- 
est commercial  importance  arose  from 
its  being,  next  to  Frankfort,  the  chief 
seat  of  banking  and  exchange  operations 
in  central  Europe.  A  large  trade  is  car- 
ried on  in  engraving,  printing  and  book- 
selling. Augsburg  was  once  of  much 
greater  population  and  importance  than 
it  is  at  present.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Roman  Emperor  Augustus,  12  B.  c.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  became  early  dis- 
tinguished for  its  trade,  and  in  the  14th, 
15th,  and  16th  centuries  attained  to 
almost  regal  power  and  opulence.  Augs- 
burg  has  been  the  theater  of  many  memo- 
rable events.  In  addition  to  the  proceed, 
ings  of  the  Diet,  with  respect  to  the 
memorable  confession  of  faith,  there,  in 
1530,  was  concluded  the  peace  which 
guaranteed  the  full  enjoyment  of  their 
rights  and  liberties  to  the  Protestants. 
Augsburg  continued  to  be  a  free  city 
until  1806,  when  Napoleon  ceded  it  to 
Bavaria.    Pop.  about  125,000. 

AUGSBURG,  CONFESSION  OF,  the 
name  given  to  the  celebrated  declaration 
of  faith,  compiled  by  Melanchthon,  and 
revised  by  Luther  and  other  reformers,  f 
which  was  read  before  the  Diet  of  Augs-  ■ 
burg,  June  25,  1530.  It  consisted  of  28 
articles,  seven  of  which  contained  refuta- 
tions of  Roman  Catholic  errors,  and  the 
remaining  21  set  forth  the  leading  tenets 
of  the  Lutheran  creed.  Soon  after  its 
promulgation,  the  last  hope  of  inducing 
the  Pontiff  to  reform  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  was  abandoned,  and  the  complete 
severance  of  the  connection  followed.  An 
answer  by  the  Roman  Catholics  was  read 
Aug.  3,  1530;  when  the  Diet  declared 
that  it  had  been  refuted.  Melanchthon 
then  drew  up  a  somewhat  different  con* 
fession.  The  first  is  called  the  unaltered; 
the  second  the  altered  confession. 


AUGSBURG,  DIET  OF 


340 


AUGUSTA 


AUGSBURG,  DIET  OF,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  numerous  diets,  or  par- 
liaments, held  at  Augsburg,  convened  in 
1530.  Pope  Clement  VII.  refusing  to 
call  a  general  council  for  the  settlement 
of  all  religious  disputes,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  summoned  another  diet  at 
Augsburg,  which  met  on  June  20,  1530, 
On  the  25th  the  famous  "Confession"  was 
read,  and  on  Aug.  3  an  answer  was  made 
by  the  Roman  Catholics,  whereupon  it 
was  proclaimed  that  the  Protestants  must 
conform  in  all  points  to  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Charles  V.  soon  after  delivered 
his  decision,  in  which  he  gave  the  Protes- 
tants till  April  15,  1531,  to  reunite  them- 
selves to  the  Mother  Church.  The  Em- 
peror engaged  to  induce  the  Pope  to  sum- 
mon a  national  or  general  council  and 
later  announced  his  intention  to  execute 
the  edict  of  Worms,  made  some  severe 
enactments  against  the  Protestants,  and 
reconstituted  the  Imperial  Chamber. 

AUGSBURG,  LEAGUE  OF,  a  league 
entered  into  and  concluded  at  Augsburg, 
July  9,  1686,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
treaties  of  Munster  and  Nimeguen,  and 
the  truce  of  Ratisbon.  It  was  negotiated 
by  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  on  June 
21,  in  the  above  year,  for  the  purpose  of 
resisting  the  encroachments  of  France. 
The  contracting  parties  were  the  Empe- 
ror Leopold  I.,  the  Kings  of  Spain  and 
Sweden,  the  Electors  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria,  and  the  Circles  of  Suabia,  Fran- 
conia,  Upper  Saxony  and  Bavaria.  The 
league  was  to  be  in  force  for  three  years, 
and  might  then  be  renewed.  England 
acceded  to  it  in  1689. 

AUGUST,  the  name  given  to  the 
eighth  month  of  our  year.  It  was  named 
B.  c.  30,  by  the  Roman  Emperor  Augus- 
tus, after  himself,  as  he  regarded  it  as  a 
fortunate  month  for  him,  being  that  in 
which  he  had  gained  several  important 
victories.  Before  this  time  it  was  called 
Sextilis,  or  the  sixth  month,  the  year 
beginning  with  March.  The  name  of 
July  had,  in  like  manner,  been  Quintilis, 
before  it  was  changed  by  Julius  Cjesar; 
and  as  it  contained  31  days,  the  Senate, 
in  order  that  Augustus  might  not  be  be- 
hind Csesar,  decreed  that  August  also 
should  have  31  days,  and  that^,  for  this 
purpose^  a  day  should  be  taken  away 
from  February. 

AUGUSTA,  or  AGOSTO,  a  fortified 
city  of  Sicily,  11  miles  N.  of  Syracuse  by 
rail.  It  stands  on  a  rocky  islet  joined 
by  a  bridge  to  a  peninsula  projecting  into 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  near  the  site 
of  the  Megara  Hyblaea  of  the  ancients. 
The  port  is  spacious,  but  of  rather  diffi- 
cult access.    Salt,  oil,  wine,  cheese,  fruit, 


honey,  grain,  and  sardines  are  exported. 
Pop.  about  16,000.  Near  it  was  fought 
in  1676  a  great  naval  battle  between  the 
French  under  Duquesne,  and  a  Spanish 
and  Dutch  fleet  under  the  famous  Ad- 
miral De  Ruyter.  The  latter  was  defeat- 
ed, and  received  a  v/ound  of  which  he 
died  at  Syracuse. 

AUGUSTA,  city,  and  county-seat  of 
Richmond  co.,  Ga.;  on  the  Savannah 
river,  and  numerous  railroads;  120  miles 
N.  W.  of  Savannah.  The  site  is  about 
700  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  city  has 
an  even  temperature  and  a  dry,  invigo- 
rating atmosphere.  The  city  is  laid  out 
with  broad  streets  which  intersect  at 
right  angles,  and  many  of  them  are  beau- 
tifully shaded  with  trees.  The  city  hall 
is  in  a  park  which  also  contains  a  granite 
monument  in  memory  of  the  Georgia 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, and  an  imposing  monument  to  the 
Confederate  dead  of  the  State  has  been 
erected  on  Broad  street,  the  principal 
thoroughfare  of  the  city.  The  city  has 
several  parks,  and  a  United  States  arse- 
nal;, and  in  the  suburbs  are  Summerville, 
a  noted  health  resort,  the  principal  ceme- 
tery, and  attractive  fair  grounds.  Au- 
gusta has  a  large  trade  in  cotton,  lum- 
ber, fruit  and  vegetables,  but  its  main 
importance  is  in  its  manufacturing  en- 
terprises. The  principal  industrial  plants 
are  cotton  mills.  The  city  is  the  seat 
of  the  Medical  College  of  Geoi'gia,  and 
has  an  orphan  asylum,  public  hospitals, 
the  Louise  King  Home,  a  juvenile  refor- 
matory, several  National  and  State 
banks,  and  several  daily  and  weekly 
periodicals.  Pop.  (1910)  41,040;  (1920) 
52,548. 

AUGUSTA,  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Maine,  and  county-seat  of  Kennebec 
CO.;  on  the  Kennebec  river,  and  the 
Maine  Central  railroad;  63  miles  N.  E. 
of  Portland.  The  city  is  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  on  a  series  of  terraces, 
the  principal  part  being  on  the  W.  bank. 
It  was  first  permanently  settled  by  trad- 
ers from  Massachusetts  in  1754;  was 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  Hallo- 
well,  in  1771 ;  was  reduced  by  the  setting- 
off  of  Hallowell  in  1797 ;  became  the  cap- 
ital of  the  State  in  1831;  and  received 
a  city  charter  in  1849.  In  the  State 
House  is  the  State  library,  a  notable 
collection  of  portraits  of  American  states- 
men, and,  in  the  rotunda,  an  impressive 
array  of  the  Civil  War  battle  flags  of 
the  Maine  Volunteers.  In  the  principal 
park  is  a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  monu- 
ment. On  the  E.  side  of  the  river  are 
the  State  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  and 
United  States  arsenal.  Four  miles 
from    Augusta   is   a    National    Soldiers* 


ATTGUSTA 


341 


AUGUSTUS 


Home.  The  principal  manufactures, 
which  are  promoted  by  an  abundant 
water  power,  are  cotton  goods,  paper, 
wood  pulp,  and  lumber.  The  city  is 
lighted  by  electricity,  and  has  electric 
street  railways,  several  National  banks, 
high  school,  Lithgow  Public  Library,  a 
number  of  weekly  periodicals,  etc.  Pop. 
(1910)   13,211;   (1920)  14,114. 

AUGUSTA,  a  title  first  given  to  his 
wife  Livia,  after  the  death  of  Augustus, 
according  to  the  will  of  the  emperor.  It 
was  afterward  conferred  by  Claudius  on 
Agrippina  (a.  d.  51),  and  by  Nero  on  his 
wife  Poppaea,  as  well  as  her  daughter  (a. 
D.  64).  Eventually  it  became  a  common 
title  of  the  mother,  wife,  sister,  or  daugh- 
ter of  an  emperor. 

AUGUSTA  VICTOBIA,  Duchess  of 
Schleswig  -  Holstein-  Sonderburg-Augus- 
tenburg,  born  Oct.  22,  1858;  daughter  of 
the  late  Duke  Friedrich;  married  Prince 
Friedrich  Wilhelm,  afterward  Wilhelm 
II.,  Feb.  27,  1881;  became  Empress  of 
Germany  and  Queen  of  Prussia  on  the 
accession  of  her  husband  to  the  thrones 
in  June,  1888.  She  has  borne  the  former 
Emperor-King  seven  children,  the  former 
Crown  Prince,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  being 
born  May  6,  1882.  She  is  the  author  of 
a  book  of  reminiscences  of  her  travels  in 
Palestine  with  the  former  Emperor  in 
1898.  After  the  Emperor's  flight  to 
Holland  in  November,  1918,  she  joined 
him  a  little  later  and  has  since  shared 
his  exile. 

AUGUSTINE  (a'gus-ten),AURELIUS 
AUGUSTINUS,  ST.,  a  renowned  father 
of  the  Christian  Church,  was  born  at 
Tagaste,  in  Africa,  in  354,  his  mother, 
Monica,  being  a  Christian,  his  father, 
Patricius,  a  pagan.  His  parents  sent 
him  to  Carthage  to  complete  his  educa- 
tion, but  he  disappointed  their  expecta- 
tions by  leading  a  life  of  pleasure.  A 
book  of  Cicero's  led  him  to  study 
philosophy;  but  dissatisfied  with  this, 
he  joined  the  Manichseans.  He  left 
them  after  nine  years  and  went  to 
Rome  and  then  to  Milan.  Here  St. 
Ambrose,  bishop  of  the  city,  and  the 
reading  of  St.  Paul  converted  him  to 
the  Christian  faith.  After  preparation 
for  baptism  he  received  it  from  Am- 
brose, being  then  in  his  33d  year.  He 
returned  to  Africa,  sold  his  property, 
giving  the  proceeds  to  the  poor,  and 
became  assistant  to  the  bishop  of  Hippo, 
succeeding  to  the  see  in  395.  Of  his 
various  works  his  "Confessions"  is 
most  secure  of  immortality.  He  died 
Aug.  28,  430,  while  Hippo  was  besieged 
by  the  Vandals.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
enthusiasm,  self-devotion,  zeal  for  truth, 
and     powerful     intellect,     and,     though 


there  have  been  fathers  of  the  Church 
more  learned,  none  have  wielded  a  more 
powerful  influence.  His  writings  are 
partly  autobiographical,  partly  polemical, 
homiletic,  or  exegetical.  The  greatest 
is  the  "City  of  God"  ("De  Civitate 
Dei"),  a  vindication  of  Christianity. 

AUGUSTINE,  or  AUSTIN,  ST.,  the 
Apostle  of  the  English,  flourished  at  the 
close  of  the  6th  century,  was  sent  with 
40  monks  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  to  introduce 
Christianity  into  Saxon  England,  and 
was  kindly  received  by  Ethelbert,  King 
of  Kent,  whom  he  converted,  baptizing 
10,000  of  his  subjects  in  one  day.  In 
acknowledgment  of  his  tact  and  success 
Augustine  received  the  archiepiscopal 
pall  from  the  Pope,  with  instructions  to 
establish  12  sees  in  his  province,  but  he 
could  not  persuade  the  British  bishops 
in  Wales  to  unite  with  the  new  English 
Church.     He  died  in  604  or  605. 

AUGUSTINIANS,  or  AUGUSTINES, 

members  of  several  monastic  fraternities 
who  follow  rules  framed  by  the  great  St. 
Augustine  or  deduced  from  his  writings, 
of  which  the  chief  are  the  Canons  Reg- 
ular of  St.  Augustine,  or  Austin  Canons, 
and  the  Begging  Hermits  or  Austin 
Friars.  The  Austin  Canons  were  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  about  1100. 
They  took  the  vow?  of  chastity  and  pov- 
erty, and  their  habit  was  a  long,  black 
cassock  with  a  white  rochet  over  it.  The 
Austin  Friars,  originally  hermits,  went 
barefooted,  and  formed  one  of  the  four 
orders  of  mendicants.  An  order  of  nuns 
had  also  the  name  of  Augustines.  Their 
garments,  at  first  black,  were  latterly 
violet. 

AUGUSTULUS,  ROMULUS,  the  last 
of  the  Western  Roman  emperors;  he 
reigned  during  one  year  only  (475-476), 
when  he  was  overthrovm  by  Odoacer 
and  banished. 

AUGUSTUS  CAIUS  JULIUS  CJESAR 
OCTAVIANUS,  originally  called  Caius 
Octavius,  Roman  Emperor,  was  the  son 
of  Caius  Octavius  and  Atia,  a  daughter 
of  Julia,  the  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  He 
was  born  63  B.  c,  and  died  14  A.  D.  Oc- 
tavius was  at  Apollonia,  in  Epirus,  when 
he  received  news  of  the  death  of  his  uncle 
(44  B.  c),  who  had  previously  adopted 
him  as  his  son.  He  returned  to  Rome  to 
claim  Caesar's  property  and  avenge  his 
death,  and  now  took,  according  to  usage, 
his  uncle's  name,  with  the  surname  Octa- 
vianus.  He  was  aiming  secretly  at  the 
chief  power,  but  at  first  he  joined  the 
republican  party,  and  assisted  at  the  de- 
feat of  Antony  at  Mutina.  He  got  him- 
self chosen  consul  in  43.  Soon  after  the 
first    triumvirate    was    formed    between 


AUGUSTUS 


342 


AUK 


him  and  Antony  and  Lepidus,  and  this 
was  followed  by  the  conscription  and 
assassination  of  300  senators  and  2,000 
knights  of  the  party  opposed  to  the  tri- 
umvirate. Next  year  Octavianus  and 
Antony  defeated  the  republican  army  un- 
der Brutus  and  Cassius  at  Philippi.  The 


THE  STATUE  OF  THE  EMPEROR  AUGUSTUS 

victors  now  divided  the  Roman  world 
between  them,  Octavianus  getting  the 
West,  Antony  the  East,  and  Lepidus 
Africa.  Sextus  Pompeius,  who  had  made 
himself  formidable  at  sea,  had  now  to  be 
put  down;  and  Lepidus  was  deprived  of 
all  authority  (36  B.  C.)  and  retired  into 
private  life.  Antony  and  Octavianus  now 
shared  the  empire  between  them;  but 
while  the  former,  in  the  East,  gave  him- 
self up  to  a  life  of  luxury,  and  alienated 
the  Romans  by  his  alliance  with  Cleo- 
patra, Octavianus  skillfully  cultivated 
popularity,  and  soon  declared  war  osten- 
sibly against  the  Queen  of  Egypt.  The 
naval  victory  of  Actium,  in  which  the 
fleet  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  was  de- 
feated, made  Octavianus  master  of  the 
world,  31  B.  c.  He  returned  to  Rome 
29  B.  c.  Gradually  all  the  highest  offices 
of  state,  civil  and  religious,  were  united 
in  his  hands,  and  the  new  title  of  Augus- 
tus was  also  assumed  by  him,  being 
formally  conferred  by  the  Senate  in  27 
B.  c.  Under  him  successful  wars  were 
carried  on  in  Africa  and  Asia  (against 
the   Parthians),  in   Gaul   and   Spain,  in 


Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  etc.;  but  the  deiiat 
of  Varus  by  the  Gemnans  under  Armin- 
ius  with  the  loss  of  three  legions,  A.  D. 
9,  was  a  great  blow  to  him  in  his  old  age. 
Many  useful  decrees  proceeded  from  him, 
and  various  abuses  were  abolished.  He 
adorned  Rome  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
was  said,  "He  found  it  of  brick,  and  left 
it  of  marble."  He  was  a  patron  of 
literature;  Vergil  and  Horace  were  Ix;- 
friended  by  him,  and  their  works  and 
those  of  their  contemporaries  are  the 
glory  of  the  Augustan  Age.  His  death, 
which  took  place  at  Nola,  plunged  the 
empire  into  the  greatest  grief.  He  was 
thrice  married,  but  had  no  son,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  stepson  Tiberius. 

AUGUSTUS  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
born  1526.  During  a  peaceful  reign  he 
greatly  beautified  Dresden,  his  capital, 
and  built  the  palace  of  Augustenburg. 
Died  1586. 

AUGUSTUS  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  King  of  Poland,  born  at  Dresden  in 
1670.  On  account  of  his  enormous  mus- 
cular power,  he  was  surnamed  the  Iron- 
handed,  and  the  Strong.  He  succeeded 
his  older  brother  in  1694,  and  com- 
manded an  expedition  against  the  Turks. 
Owing  to  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  in 
1696,  the  throne  of  Poland  became  va- 
cant, and  Augustus,  after  many  in- 
trigues, was  proclaimed  King  in  1697. 
He  then  formed  an  alliance  with  Peter 
the  Great  against  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden,  but  the  latter  hero  defeated 
Augustus  in  a  sanguinary  battle  at 
Pultusk,  penetrated  to  Warsaw,  and 
there  caused  Stanislaus  Lecszinski  to  l>e 
elected  King  of  Poland,  in  place  of 
Augustus.  A  long  war  followed,  without 
advantage  to  Augustus,  until  the  over- 
throw of  Charles,  at  Pultowa,  which 
event  replaced  him  on  the  throne.  The 
Poles  regarded  him  as  a  foreigner  and 
a  usurper,  and  as  the  mere  vassal  of 
Russia.     Augustus  died  in  1733. 

AUGUSTUS  III.,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  King  of  Poland,  born  at  Dresden, 
1696,  was  the  son  of  Augustus  II.  He 
was  an  indolent,  idle,  and  pleasure- 
seeking  prince,  and  his  politics  were 
entirely  dependent  on  Russia.  His 
daughter,  Maria  Josepha,  was  married 
to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  from  which 
alliance  sprang  Louis  XVI.,  Louis  XVIII. , 
and  Charles  X.     Died  in  1763. 

AUK,  the  name  given  to  several  sea 
birds,  especially  the  great  and  the  little 
auk.  The  great  auk  is  the  alca  impennis 
of  Linnasus.  Its  bones  left  behind  show 
that  it  was  formerly  abundant  on  the 
shores  of  Iceland,  Greenland  and  Den- 
mark.    The  little  auk  of   Pennant   and 


AITLD  LANG  SYNE 


343 


AURELIUS 


others,  called  also  the  common  rotche, 
and  the  little  white  and  black  diver  is 
the  viergulus  vielanoleiicos  of  Yarrell's 
"British  Birds,"  the  M.  alle  of  Carpenter 
and  Dallas,  and  the  aica  aUe  of  Linnseus. 
It  has  the  breast,  the  belly,  a  dot  above 
the  eyes,  and  a  stripe  on  the  wing,  white ; 
the  rest  of  the  plumage  black.  Its  length 
is  9  inches,  and  the  extent  of  its  wings 
16.  Its  dimensions  are  thus  about  those 
of  a  large  pigeon.  It  nestles  in  holes  or 
crevices  on  the  bare  rocks,  lajing  one 
bluish-green  egg.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
Arctic  seas.  It  is  found  also  in  Great 
Britain. 

AULD  LANG  SYNE  (awld  lang  zin), 
a  Scottish  phrase  meaning,  literally  "old 
long  since";  hence  the  times  of  long 
ago,  etc. 

ATJLD  REEKIE,  an  epithet  or  sobri- 
quet applied  to  Edinburgh,  on  account  of 
its  smoky  appearance  as  seen  from  a  dis- 
taiice;  ov,  as  some  say,  on  account  of  the 
former  uncleanliness  of  its  public  thor- 
oughfares; a  reproach  now,  happily, 
jvithout  relevancy. 

AULIC,  name  given  to  a  council  (the 
Reichshofrath)  in  the  old  German  Em- 
pire, one  of  the  two  supreme  courts  of 
the  German  Empire,  the  other  being  the 
court  of  the  imperial  chamber  (Reichs- 
kammergericht.)  The  title  is  now  applied 
in  Germany  in  a  general  sense  to  the 
chief  council  of  any  department,,  politi- 
cal, administrative,  judicial,  or  military. 

ATJLIS,  in  ancient  Greece,  a  seaport 
in  Boeotia,  on  the  strait  called  Euripus, 
between  Boeotia  and  Euboea. 

AUMALE  (o-miil'),  a  small  French 
town,  in  the  department  of  Seine-Infe- 
rieure,  35  miles  N.  E.  of  Rouen,  which 
has  given  titles  to  several  notables  in 
French  history.  Jean  d'Arcourt.  eighth 
Count  d'Aumale,  fought  at  Agincourt,  and 
defeated  tie  English  at  Gravelle  (1423). 
Claude  II.,  Due  d'Aumale,  one  of  the 
chief  instigators  of  the  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  was  killed  1573.  Charles 
PE  Lorraine,  Due  d'Aumale,  was  an  ar- 
dent partisan  of  the  League  in  the  polit- 
ico-religious French  wars  of  the  16th 
century.  Henri  Eugene  Philippe  Louis 
d'Orleans,  Due  d'Aumale,  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  was  born 
in  Paris,  Jan.  16,  1822.  In  1847  he  suc- 
ceeded Marshal  Bugeaud  as  Governor- 
Genei'al  of  Algeria,  whore  he  had  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  war  against  Abd- 
el-Kader.  After  the  Revolution  of  1848 
he  retired  to  England;  but  he  returned 
to  France  in  1871,  and  was  elected  a 
meml>er  of  the  AssomHy;  became  Inspec- 
tor-general of  the  army  in  1879,  and  was 


expelled,  along  with  the  other  royal 
princes,  in  1886.  The  same  year  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Institute  of  France  his 
grand  Chantilly  estate,  with  all  its  price- 
less art  and  historical  treasures.  The 
decree  of  banishment  was  revoked  on  the 
fall  of  Boulanger,  and  the  Duke  returned 
to  Chantilly.  He  published  a  "History 
of  the  House  of  Conde."  He  died  in 
Zucco,  Sicily,  May  6,  1827. 

AirRANTIACE.a:  (a-ran-te-as'e-i),  an 
order  of  plants,  classed  by  Lindley  in 
his  rutales,  or  rutal  alliance.  They  have 
from  throe  to  five  petals,  stamina  the 
same  in  number,  or  twice  as  many,  or 
some  multiple  of  the  petals,  hj-pogj-nous. 
The  fruit  is  pulpy,  and  is  many-celled. 
There  is  no  genus  aurantium.  The  typ- 
ical one  is  citrus,  which  contains  the 
orange,  the  lemon,  the  lime,  etc.  There 
are  about  95  known  species,  all  fi'om 
India. 

AURELIAN,  LUCIUS  DOMITIUS 
AURELIANUS,  Emperor  of  Rome,  of 
humble  origin,  was  born  about  212  a.  d., 
rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  the  anny, 
and  on  the  death  of  Claudius  II.  (270) 
was  chosen  Emperor.  He  delivered  Italy 
from  the  barbarians  (Alemanni  and  Mar- 
comanni),  and  conquered  the  famous  Ze- 
nobia.  Queen  of  Palmyra.  He  followed 
up  his  victories  by  the  reformation  of 
abuses,  and  the  restoration  throughout 
the  empire  of  order  and  regularity.  He 
lost  his  life,  A.  D.  275,  by  assassination, 
when  heading  an  expedition  against  the 
Persians. 

AURELIUS  ANTONINUS,  MARCUS, 

often  called  simply  M.^RCUS  Ai'RELIUS, 
Roman  Emperor  and  philosopher,  son- 
in-law,  adopted  son.  and  successor  of  An- 
toninus Pius,  born  A.  D.  121,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  161;  died  180.  His  name 
originally  was  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  He 
voluntarily  shared  the  government  with 
Lucius  VoVus,  whom  Antoninus  Pius  had 
also  adopted.  A  war  with  Parthia  broke 
out  in  the  year  of  his  accession,  and  did 
not  terminate  till  166.  A  confederacy  of 
the  northern  tribes  now  threatened  Italy, 
while  a  frightful  pestilence,  brought  from 
the  East  with  the  army,  raged  in  Rome 
itself.  Both  emperors  set  out  in  person 
against  the  rebellious  tril>es.  In  169 
Verus  died,  and  the  sole  command  of  the 
war  devolved  on  Marcus  Aurelius,  who 
prosecuted  it  with  the  utmost  rigor,  and 
nearly  exterminated  the  Mai-comanni.  His 
victory  over  the  Quadi  (174)  is  connect- 
ed with  a  famous  legend.  Dion  Cassius 
tells  us  that  the  12th  legion  of  the  Roman 
army  was  shut  up  in  a  detilo,  and  reduced 
to  great  straits  for  want  of  water,  when 
n  '^ridv  of  Christians  enrolled  in  the  le- 


AUREUS 


344 


AUROBA 


gion  prayed  for  relief.  Not  only  was 
the  rain  sent,  which  enabled  the  Romans 
to  quench  their  thirst,  but  a  fierce  storm 
of  hail   beat  upon  the  enemy,  which   so 


MARCUS   AURELIUS 

terrified  them  that  a  complete  victory 
was  obtained,  and  the  legion  was  ever 
after  called  "The  Thundering  Legion." 
After  this  victory,  the  Marcomanni,  the 
Quadi,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  bar- 
barians, sued  for  peace.  Aurelius  re- 
turned to  Rome,  after  visiting  Egypt 
and  Greece,  but  soon  new  incursions  of 
the  Marcomanni  compelled  him  once  more 
to  take  the  field.  He  defeated  the  enemy 
several  times,  but  was  taken  sick  at 
Sirmium,  and  died  at  Vindobona 
(Vienna)  in  180.  His  only  extant  work 
is  the  "Meditations,"  written  in  Greek, 
and  which  has  been  translated  into  most 
modern  languages. 

AUREUS,  the  first  gold  coin  which 
was  coined  at  Rome,  207  B.  C.  Its  value 
varied  at  different  times,  from  about  $3 
to  $6. 

AURICHALCITE,  a  mineral  placed 
by  Dana  under  the  fourth  section  of  his 
hydrous  carbonates.  It  occurs  in  acicular 
crystals,  forming  drusy  incrustations; 
also  columnar,  plumose,  granular,  or 
laminated.  Its  luster  is  pearly;  its  color, 
pale-green,  or  sometimes  azure.  It  is 
found  in  England  at  Roughten  Gill,  in 
Cumberland;  at  Leadhills,  in  Lanark- 
shire; in  Spain,  Asia,  and  the  United 
States.     Buratite,  by  some  called  lime- 


aurichalcite,  occurs  in  France  and  in 
Austro-Hungary. 

AURICULA,  a  well  known  and  beau- 
tiful garden  flower,  the  primula  auricula. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Alpine  districts  of 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,  and 
occurs  also  in  Astrakhan.  In  its  wild 
state  its  colors  are  generally  yellow  and 
red,  moi'e  rarely  purple,  and  occasion- 
ally variegated  or  mealy.  A  still  great- 
er variety  of  colors  has  been  introduced 
by  cultivation.  In  zoology,  a  genus  of 
pulmoniferous  mollusks,  the  typical  one 
of  the  family  auriculidse.  They  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  brackish  swamps  of  tropical 
islands. 

AURIFABER,  the  Latinized  name  of 
JoHANN  GOLDSCHMIDT,  one  of  Luther's 
companions,  born  in  1519,  became  pastor 
at  Erfurt  in  1566;  died  there  in  1579. 
He  collected  the  unpublished  manuscripts 
of  Luther,  and  edited  the  "Epistolae"  and 
the  "Table-Talk." 

AURIGA  (a-re'ga),  in  astronomy,  the 
Wagoner,  a  constellation  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  containing  68  stars,  in- 
cluding Capella  of  the  fii'st  magnitude. 

AURILLAC  (5-re-yak),  a  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Can- 
tal;  on  the  Jordanne  river;  272  miles  S. 
of  _  Paris.  It  is  noted  for  its  ancient 
buildings,  among  which  are  the  Church 
of  Notre  Dame,  constructed  in  the  13th 
century,  and  the  castle  of  St.  Stephen. 
Most  of  the  town  is  of  modern  construc- 
tion. It  has  manufactures  of  jewelry, 
copper,  kettles,  paper,  woolen  stuffs  and 
carpets.     Pop.  about  18,000. 

AURINGER,  OBADIAH  CYRUS,  an 

American  poet,  born  at  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y., 
June  4,  1849.  He  served  for  some  years 
in  the  United  States  navy.  In  1875  he 
became  a  farmer  in  his  native  place. 
Among  his  works  are  "Scythe  and 
Sword"  (1887) ;  "Episode  of  Jane  Mc- 
Crea,"  "The  Book  of  the  Hills,"  "Eagle 
Bride"   (1911),  etc. 

AUROCHS,  the  English  and  very  near- 
ly the  German  name  of  the  aurochs  fos- 
sile  of  Cuvier,  the  60s  irtis  of  some  other 
writers,  now  called  bison  priscus.  It 
belongs  to  the  order  ruminantixi  and  the 
family  bovidse.  It  is  a  species  of  ox, 
with  a  shaggy  coat  and  mane,  found  by 
the  Romans  in  the  forests  of  Germany 
and  Belgium,  and  still  existing  in  small 
numbers  in  Lithuania. 

AURORA,  a  city  in  Kane  co.,  111.,  on 
the  Fox  river,  and  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  the  Burlington  Route,  and 
other  railroads;  38  miles  W.  of  Chicago. 
It  contains  several  locomotive,  car,  and 


AURORA  BOREALIS 


345 


AUSTEN 


railroad  repair  shops;  large  cotton  and 
woolen  mills;  watch  and  carriage  fac- 
tories ;  smelting  and  silver  plating  works ; 
stove  and  machine  works;  and  other  in- 
dustries. It  is  the  farming  and  manu- 
facturing center  for  Kane  and  adjoining 
counties.  It  has  churches,  State  hospital, 
Aurora  College,  electric  light  and  street 
railway  plants,  water  works,  National 
banks,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.   (1910)   29,807;   (1920)   36,265. 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  a  luminous 
meteoric  phenomenon  appearing  in  the 
N.,  most  frequently  in  high  latitudes,  the 
corresponding  phenomenon  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere  being  called  aurora  aus- 
tralis,  and  both  being  also  called  polar 
light,  streamers,  etc.  The  northern  au- 
rora has  been  far  the  most  observed  and 
studied.  It  usually  manifests  itself  by 
streams  of  light  ascending  toward  the 
zenith  from  a  dusky  line  of  cloud  or  haze 
a  few  degrees  above  the  horizon,  and 
stretching  from  the  N.  toward  the  W. 
and  E.,  so  as  to  form  an  arc  with  its 
ends  on  the  horizon,  and  its  different 
parts  and  rays  are  constantly  in  motion. 
Sometimes  it  appears  in  detached  places; 
at  other  times  it  almost  covers  the  whole 
sky.  It  assumes  many  shapes  and  a  va- 
riety of  colors,  from  a  pale  red  or  yellow 
to  a  deep  red  or  blood  color;  and  in  the 
northern  latitudes  serves  to  illuminate 
the  earth  and  cheer  the  gloom  of  the 
long  winter  nights.  The  appearance  of 
the  aurora  borealis  so  exactly  resembles 
the  effects  of  artificial  electricity  that 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  their 
causes  are  identical.  The  aurora  borealis 
is  frequently  accompanied  by  sound, 
which  is  variously  described  as  resem- 
bling the  rustling  of  pieces  of  silk  against 
each  other,  or  the  sound  of  wind  against 
the  flame  of  a  candle.  The  aurora  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  is  quite  a  similar 
phenomenon  to  that  of  the  northern. 

AURUNGZEBE  (au-rung-zeb') ,  known 
as  the  Great  Mogul,  or  Emperor  of  Hin- 
dustan, born  Oct.  22,  1618.  He  was  the 
son  of  Shah  Jehan,  and  properly  named 
Mohammed,  but  received  from  his  grand- 
father that  of  Aurungzebe  (Ornament  of 
the  Throne) .  After  deposing  and  impris- 
oning his  father,  and  putting  his  broth- 
ers to  death,  Aurungzebe,  in  1658,  was 
crowned  sole  monarch  of  the  great  Mogul 
Empire.  His  long  reign  was  more  re- 
markable for  its  internal  policy  than  for 
its  outward  events.  Aurungzebe  carried 
on  many  wars,  conquered  Golconda  and 
Beejapur,  and  subjugated  the  Mahrattas. 
Aurungzebe  died  at  Ahmednuggur,  in  the 
Deccan,  Feb.  21,  1709,  master  of  21 
provinces,  and  of  a  revenue  of  about 
$200,000,000. 


AUSABLE  CHASM,  a  picturesque  and 
popular  American  summer  resort,  in  New 
York  State;  12  miles  from  Plattsburg, 
and  1  mile  from  Keeseville.  It  is  an  iso- 
lated formation,  wholly  independent  of, 
and  disconnected  from,  any  other  similar 
panorama.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
chasm,  the  river  is  hemmed  into  a  chan- 
nel not  more  than  10  feet  wide  by  walls 
of  rock  from  100  to  200  feet  high.  Low- 
er down  the  walls  gradually  spread  apart 
till  in  some  places  there  is  a  distance  be- 
tween them  of  50  feet,  and  then  extend 
with  sharp  turns  and  occasional  enlarge- 
ments for  nearly  2  miles.  The  trip 
through  the  chasm  may  be  made  in  a 
small  boat  or  on  foot. 

AUSCULTATION,  the  art  of  discover- 
ing diseases  within  the  body  by  means 
of  the  sense  of  hearing.  Being  carried 
out  most  efficiently  by  means  of  an  in- 
strument called  a  stethoscope,  it  is  often 
called  mediate  auscultation.  It  is  used  to 
study  the  natural  sounds  produced  with- 
in the  body,  especially  the  action  of  the 
lungs  and  heart,  both  in  health  and  dis- 
ease. Its  operation  can  be  facilitated  by 
percussion  of  the  surface. 

AUSPICES,  among  the  Romans,  omens, 
especially  those  drawn  from  the  flight  or 
other  movements  of  birds,  or,  less  prop- 
erly, from  the  occurrence  of  lightning  or 
thunder  in  particular  parts  of  the  sky. 
These  were  supposed  to  be  indications  of 
the  will  of  heaven,  and  to  reveal  futurity. 
At  first  only  the  augurs  took  the  auspices, 
but  after  a  time  civil  officers,  discharg- 
ing important  functions,  had  the  right 
of  doing  so.  Two  kinds  of  auspices, 
however,  arose — a  greater  and  a  lesser; 
the  former  reserved  to  dictators,  consuls, 
censors,  prastors,  or  the  commander-in- 
chief  in  war;  the  latter  permitted  to  less 
exalted  functionaries.  The  glory  of  a 
successful  enterprise  was  universally  as- 
signed to  the  person  who  took  the  aus- 
pices, and  not  to  the  leader  of  the  enter- 
prise itself;  hence,  the  phrase  arose,  to 
carry  on  a  war  "under  the  auspices"  of 
the  Emperor  or  some  other  high  authority. 

AUSTEN,  JANE,  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  Stevenson,  Hampshire,  of  which 
parish  her  father  was  the  rector,  Dec. 
16,  1775.  She  was  the  youngest  of  seven 
children,  among  whom  she  had  but  one 
sister,,  and  of  her  brothers  two  ultimately 
rose  to  the  rank  of  Admiral  in  the  navy. 
Jane  learned  French  and  Italian,  and  had 
a  good  acquaintance  with  English  liter- 
ature, her  favorite  authors  being  Rich- 
ardson, Johnson,  Cowper,  Crabbe,  and 
later,  Scott.  In  1801  she  went  with  her 
family  to  Bath,  and  after  her  father's 
death  in  1805,  removed  to  Southampton, 


AXJSTERLITZ 


346 


AUSTIN 


and,  finally,  in  1809,  to  Shawton,  near 
Winchester,  She  had  written  stories 
from  her  childhood,  but  it  was  here 
she  first  gave  anything  to  the  world. 
Four  stories  were  published  anonymously 
during  her  lifetime:  "Sense  and  Sensibil- 
ity" (1811);  "Pride  and  Prejudice" 
(1813);  "Mansfield  Park"  (1814),  and 
"Emma"  (1816).  The  first  two  were 
written  before  the  gifted  authoress  was 
more  than  two-and-twenty  years  old. 
Early  in  1816,  her  health  began  to  give 
way.  In  May,  1817,  she  went  for  medical 
advice  to  Winchester,  and  there  she  died, 
July  18,  1817.  She  was  buried  there  in 
the  Cathedral.  "Northanger  Abbey"  and 
"Persuasion"  were  published  in  1818, 
when  the  authorship  of  the  whole  six  was 
first  acknowledged.  Jane  Austen's  novels 
are  the  earliest  example  of  the  so-called 
domestic  novel  in  England.  The  finest 
critics,  with  singular  unanimity,  have 
praised  the  delicacy  of  her  touch,  and  her 
faultless  work  has  called  forth  the  most 
unqualified  admiration  from  Southey, 
Coleridge,  Sydney  Smith,  and  Lord 
Macaulay. 

AXJSTERLITZ,  a  small  town  of 
Moravia,  on  the  Littawa,  13  miles  S,  E. 
of  Briinn.  In  the  vicinity,  on  Dec.  2, 
1805,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  that 
bears  its  name,  between  the  French  army 
of  65,000  men,  commanded  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  combined  Russian  and  Austrian 
armies,  numbering  89,000,  under  their 
respective  Emperors ;  in  which  the  former 
achieved  a  signal  victory.  The  battle 
was  followed  by  an  armistice,  the  terms 
of  which  were  dictated  by  Napoleon;  and 
immediately  after,  on  Dec.  26,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Pressburg,  which  disastrously 
affected  Austria. 

AUSTIN,  a  city  of  Minnesota,  the 
county-seat  of  Mower  co.  It  is  on  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  and 
the  Chicago  Great  Western  railroads, 
and  on  the  Red  Cedar  river.  The  city  is 
the  seat  of  the  Southern  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity and  has  parks,  a  Carnegie  li- 
brary, a  county  court  house,  and  other 
important  public  buildings.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  fertile  agricultural  community 
and  has  industries,  including  meat  pack- 
ing, flour  mills,  foundry,  cement  works, 
roller  mills,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  6,960; 
(1920)  10,118. 

AUSTIN,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Texas,  and  county-seat  of  Travis  co.; 
on  the  Colorado  river  and  the  Houston 
and  Texas  Central,  the  International  and 
Great  Northern,  the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  and  the  Austin  and  North- 
western railroads;  230  miles  N.  W.  of 
Galveston.     It  derives  large  power  for 


manufacturing  from  the  river,  and  the 
principal  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  oil,  lumber,  iron„  flour,  tanned  leather, 
etc.  Besides  the  State  Capitol,  the  city 
contains  the  main  buildings  of  the  State 
University,  State  asylums,  the  State  Con- 
federate Home,  and  the  State  Land 
Office.  The  Capitol,  which  cost  $3,000,- 
000,  is  in  a  square  of  10  acres,  in  which 
are  also  the  Supreme  Court  and  Treasury 
buildings.  The  river  is  here  spanned  by 
two  bridges,  and  the  recent  construction 
of  a  dam  in  it  has  given  the  city  a  large 
and  beautiful  stretch  of  water  known  as 
Lake  McDonald.  This  lake  has  become 
a  favorite  resort  for  fishing,  hunting,  and 
health-seeking  parties,  and  is  widely 
known  from  the  facts  that  two  inter- 
national regattas  have  been  rowed  on  it, 
and  that  Stanbury,  of  Australia,  here 
won  the  championship  of  the  world.  The 
city  was  originally  known  as  Water- 
loo; was  named  after  Stephen  F.  Austin, 
in  1837;  became  the  capital  of  the  Re- 
public of  Texas  in  1839;  the  capital  of 
the  State  in  1872.  Fop.  (1910^  29,860; 
(1920)   34,876. 

AUSTIN,  ALFRED,  an  English  poet, 
critic,  and  journalist,  born  at  Headingly, 
near  Leeds,  May  30,  1835.  He  graduated 
from  the  University  of  London  in  1853, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1857,  and  was 
editor  of  the  "National  Review,"  1883- 
1893.  He  was  appointed  poet  laureate 
of  England  in  1896.  He  is  the  author 
of  political  books,,  novels  and  many  vol- 
umes of  verse.  The  latter  include  "The 
Human  Tragedy"  (1862);  "The  Tower 
of  Babel,"  a  drama  (1874);  "Savona- 
rola," a  tragedy  (1881) ;  and  "Veronica's 
Garden,"  in  prose  and  verse  (1895); 
"Haunts  of  Ancient  Peace"  (1902);  "A 
Lesson  in  Harmony"  (1904).  Died  June 
2,  1913. 

AUSTIN,  MARY  HUNTER,  an  Amer- 
ican writer,  born  in  Carlinville,  111.,  in 
1868.  She  graduated  from  Blackburn 
University  in  1888.  In  1891  she  married 
Stafford  W,  Austin.  The  scenes  of  her 
novels  are  mostly  laid  in  California.  She 
wrote  "The  Land  of  Little  Rain"  (1903)  ; 
"The  Flock"  (1906);  "The  Basket 
Woman"  (1904);  "Love  and  the  Soul- 
Maker"  (1914);  "The  Ford"  (1917); 
etc.     She  also  wrote  several  plays. 

AUSTIN,  OSCAR  PHELPS,  an  Ameri- 
can statistician,  born  in  Newark,  111.  He 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools  and 
for  several  years  engaged  in  newspaper 
work.  He  was  chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor,  and  remained  in  this 
post  until  its  transfer  to  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign    and    Domestic    Commerce,    of 


■     CVipyriMht.  I,    I. 


AUSTIN 


347 


AUSTRALIA 


which  he  was  made  assistant  chief. 
From  1903  to  1914  he  was  professor  of 
commerce  and  statistics  at  George  Wash- 
ington University,  and  since  1914  stat- 
istician of  the  foreign  trade  department 
of  the  National  City  Bank.  He  was 
a  member  of  several  economic  societies. 
He  wrote  "Uncle  Sam's  Secrets,"  "Uncle 
Sam's  Soldiers,"  "Colonial  Systems  of 
the  World,"  "Commercial  Japan,"  "Com- 
mercial South  and  Central  America," 
"Great  Canals  of  the  World,"  "Manu- 
facturing Systems  of  the  World,"  "Eco- 
nomics of  World  Trade,"  "International 
Commerce,"  and  other  works. 

AUSTIN,    STEPHEN    FULLER,    an 

American  pioneer,  born  in  Austinville, 
Va.,  Nov.  31, 1793;  a  son  of  Moses  Austin, 
the  real  founder  of  the  State  of  Texas, 
who,  about  1820,  obtained  permission 
from  the  Mexican  Government  to  es- 
tablish an  American  colony  in  Texas,  but 
died  before  his  plans  were  accomplished. 
Stephen  took  up  the  work  unfinished  by 
his  father,  and  located  a  thrifty  colony 
on  the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Austin, 
in  1821.  Subsequently  he  was  a  com- 
missioner to  urge  the  admission  of  Texas 
into  the  Mexican  Union;  was  imprisoned 
there  for  several  months;  and  in  1835 
was  a  commissioner  to  the  United  States 
Government  to  secure  the  recognition  of 
Texas  as  an  independent  State.  He 
died  in  Columbia,  Tex,,  Dec.  25,  1836, 

AUSTRALASIA,  a  division  of  the  globe 
usually  regarded  as  comprehending  the 
islands  of  Australia,  Tasmania,  New 
Zealand,  New  Caledonia,  the  New  Heb- 
rides, the  Solomon  Islands,  New  Ireland, 
New  Britain,  the  Admiralty  Islands, 
New  Guinea,  and  the  Arru  Islands,  be- 
sides numerous  other  islands  and  island 
groups;  area,  3,470,000  square  miles; 
pop.  about  6,400,000.  It  forms  one  of 
three  portions  into  which  some  geograph- 
ers have  divided  Oceania,  the  other  two 
being  Malaysia  and  Polynesia. 

AUSTRALIA  (older  name.  New  Hol- 
land), the  largest  island  in  the  world,  a 
sea-girt  continent,  lying  between  the  In- 
dian and  Pacific  Oceans,  S.  E.  of  Asia. 
It  is  separated  from  New  Guinea  on  the 
N.  by  Torres  Strait,  from  Tasmania  on 
the  S.  by  Bass  Strait.  It  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn, and  consequently  belongs  partly 
to  the  South  Temperate,  partly  to  the 
Torrid  Zone.  The  Commonwealth  con- 
sists of  six  colonies  called  the  Original 
States  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  Western 
Australia,  and  Tasmania.  The  act  pro- 
viding for  a  Federal  Union  constituting 
the   Commonwealth   was   passed   by  the 


British  Parliament  in  1900.  On  Jan.  1, 
1911,  the  north  territory  was  transferred 
by  South  Australia  to  the  Common- 
wealth, and  on  the  same  date  a  portion  of 
New  South  Wales,  consisting  of  912 
square  miles,  was  vested  in  the  Common- 
wealth for  the  purpose  of  fonning  the 
Federal  Territory  containing  the  seat  of 
the  Commonwealth  Government.  This 
area  was  increased  in  1917  to  940  square 
miles. 

Area  and  Population. — Their  area  and 
population  in  1918  are  given  as  follows: 


New  South  Wales. 

Victoria 

Queensland 

South  Australia.  .  . 
Western  Australia . 


Sq.  M. 


310,700 
87,884 
668,497 
903,690 
975,920 


Pop. 


1,897,08-: 

1,416,982 

705,588 

439,272 

511,125 


The  population  of  the  smaller  divisions 
is  as  follows: 

Tasmania,  202,842;  Northern  Terri- 
tory, 3,269;  Federal  Territory,  2,404. 

The  estimated  total  population  in  1919 
was    5,140,543. 

Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South 
Wales,  Melbourne,  the  capital  of  Victoria, 
Adelaide,  the  capital  of  South  Australia, 
and  Brisbane,  the  capital  of  Queensland, 
are  the  chief  towns. 

Topography. — Although  there  are  nu- 
merous spacious  harbors  on  the  coasts, 
there  are  few  remarkable  indentations; 
the  principal  being  the  Gulf  of  Carnen- 
taria,  on  the  N.,  the  Great  Austra'lian 
Bight,  and  Spencer  Gulf,  on  the  S.  The 
chief  projections  are  Cape  York  Penin- 
sula and  Arnhem  Land  in  the  N.  Par- 
allel to  the  N.  E.  coast  runs  the  Great 
Barrier  Reef  for  1,000  miles. 

Geology. — The  interior,  so  far  as  ex- 
plored, is  lai'gely  composed  of  rocky 
tracts  and  barren  plains  with  little  or  no 
water.  The  whole  continent  forms  an 
immense  plateau,  highest  in  the  E.,  low 
in  the  center,  and  with  a  narrow  tract 
of  land  usually  intervening  between  the 
elevated  area  and  the  sea.  The  base  of 
the  table-land  is  granite,  which  forms 
the  surface  rock  in  a  gi'eat  part  of  the 
S.  W.,  and  is  common  in  the  higher 
grounds  along  the  E.  side.  Secondary 
(cretaceous)  and  tertiary  rocks  are 
largely  developed  in  the  interior.  Silu- 
rian rocks  occupy  a  large  area  in  South 
Australia,  on  both  sides  of  Spencer  Gulf. 
The  mountainous  region  in  the  S.  E.  and 
E.  is  mainly  composed  of  volcanic,  Silu- 
rian, carbonaceus,  and  carboniferous 
rocks  yielding  good  coal.  The  highest 
and  most  extensive  mountain  system  is 
a  belt  about  150  miles  wide,  skirting  the 
whole  eastern  and  southeastern  border 
of   the   continent,   and    often   called,    in 


AUSTRALIA 


348 


AUSTRALIA 


whole,  or  in  part,  the  Great  Dividing 
Range,  from  forming  the  great  water 
shed  of  Australia.  A  part  of  it,  called 
the  Australian  Alps,  in  the  S.  E.  contains 
the  highest  summits  in  Australia,  Mt. 
Kosciusko  (7,175  feet),  Mt.  Clark 
(7,256),  and  Mt.  Townshend  (7,353). 
West  of  the  Dividing  Range  are  ex- 
tensive plains  or  downs  admirably 
adapted  for  pastoral  purposes.  The 
deserts  and  scrubs,  which  occupy  large 
areas  of  the  interior,  are  a  characteristic 
feature  of  Australia. 

Water  Courses. — The  chief  river  is  the 
Murray,  which,  with  its  affluents,  the 
Murrumbidgee,  Lachlan,  and  Darling, 
drains  a  great  part  of  the  interior  W.  of 
the  Dividing  Range,  and  falls  into  the  sea 
on  the  S.  coast  (after  entering  Lake 
Alexandrina).  Its  greatest  tributary  is 
the  Darling,  which  may  even  be  regarded 
as  the  main  stream.  On  the  E.  coast  are 
the  Hunter,  Clarence,  Brisbane,  Fitzroy, 
and  Burdekin;  on  the  W.  the  Swan,  Mur- 
chison,  Gascoyne,  Ashburton,  and  De 
Grey;  on  the  N.  the  Fitzroy,  Victoria, 
Flinders,  and  Mitchell.  The  Australian 
rivers  are  of  little  service  in  facilitating 
internal  communication.  A  considerable 
river  of  the  interior  is  Cooper's  Creek,  or 
the  Barcoo,  which  falls  into  Lake  Eyre, 
one  of  a  group  of  lakes  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  continent  having  no  outlet,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, salt.  The  principal  of  these 
are  Lakes  Eyre,  Torrens,  and  Gairdner. 
Another  large  salt  lake  of  little  depth, 
Lake  Amadeus,  lies  a  little  W.  of  the 
center  of  Australia. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Australia  is 
generally  hot  and  dry,  but  very  healthy. 
In  the  tropical  portions  there  are  heavy 
rains,  and  in  most  of  the  coast  districts 
there  is  a  sufficiency  of  moisture,  but  in 
the  interior  the  heat  and  drought  are  ex- 
treme. Considerable  portions  now  de- 
voted to  pasturage  are  liable,  at  times, 
to  suffer  from  drought. 

Mineralogy. — Australia  is  a  region 
containing  a  vast  quantity  of  mineral 
wealth.  Foremost  come  its  rich  and  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  gold.  Australia  also 
possesses  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead,  zinc, 
antimony,  mercury,  plumbago,  etc.,  in 
abundance,  besides  coal  and  iron.  Various 
precious  stones  are  found,  as  the  garnet, 
ruby,  topaz,  sapphire,  and  even  the  dia- 
mond. Of  building  stone  there  are 
granite,  limestone,  marble,  and  sand- 
stone. 

Plant  Life. — The  Australian  flora  pre- 
sents peculiarities  which  mark  it  off  by 
itself  in  a  very  decided  manner.  Many 
of  its  most  striking  features  have  an  un- 
mistakable relation  to  the  general  dry- 
ness of  the  climate.  The  trees  and  bushes 
have,  for  the  most  part,  a  scanty  foliage, 


presenting  little  surface  for  evaporation, 
or  thick  leathery  leaves  well  fitted  to  re- 
tain moisture.     The  most  widely  spread 
types  of  Australian  vegetation  are  the 
various  kinds  of  gum  tree  {eucalyptus) , 
the  shea-oak   {casuarina),  the  acacia  or 
wattle,    the    grass   tree    (xanthorrhoea) , 
many  varieties  of  proteacese,  and  a  great 
number  of  ferns  and  tree  ferns.     Indi- 
vidual specimens  of  the  peppermint  (E. 
amygdalina)    have  been  found  to  meas- 
ure from  480  to  500  feet  in  height.     As 
timber  trees  the  most  valuable  members 
of  this  genus  are  the  E.  rostrata  (or  red 
gum),  E.  leucoxylon,  and  E.  marginata, 
the  timber  of  which  is  hard,  dense,  and 
almost  indestructible.     A  number  of  the 
gum  trees  have  deciduous  bark.  The  wat- 
tle or  acacia  includes  about  300  species, 
some  of  them  of  considerable  economic 
value,  yielding  good  timber  or  bark  for 
tanning.     The  most  beautiful  and  most 
useful  is  that  known  as  the  golden  wat- 
tle   {A.  dealbata),  which    in   spring   is 
adorned   with   rich   masses   of   fragrant 
yellow  blossoms.    Palms — of  which  there 
are  24  species,  all  except  the  cocoa-palm 
peculiar  to  Australia — are  confined  to  the 
N.  and  E.  coasts.    A  plant  which  covers 
large  areas   in  the   arid  regions  is  the 
spinifex    or    porcupine    grass,    a    hard, 
coarse,     and     excessively     spiny    plant. 
Other  large  tracts  are  occupied  by  herbs 
or  bushes  of  a  more  valuable  kind,  frona 
their  affording  fodder.    Foremost  among 
those  stands  the  salt-bush  {atriplex  num- 
mularia,  order  chenopodiacese) .     Beauti- 
ful flowering  plants  are  numerous.    Aus- 
tralia also  possesses  great  numbers  of 
turf-forming  grasses,  such  as  the  kan- 
garoo    grass      {anthistiria      australis), 
which    survives    even    a  tolerably    pro- 
tracted drought.     The  native  fruit  trees 
are  few  and  unimportant,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  plants  yielding  roots 
used  as  food;  but  exotic  fruits  and  vege- 
tables may  now  be  had  in  the  different 
colonies  in  great  abundance  and  of  ex- 
cellent quality.    The  vine,  the  olive,  and 
mulberry  thrive  well,  and  quantities  of 
wine  are  now  produced.     The  cereals  of 
Europe  and  maize  are  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  large  tracts  of  country,  par- 
ticularly in   Queensland,  are  under  the 
sugar-cane. 

Animal  Ldfe. — The  Australian  fauna  is 
almost  unique  in  its  character.  Its  great 
feature  is  the  nearly  total  absence  oi 
all  the  forms  of  mammalia  which  abound 
in  the  rest  of  the  world,  their  place  being 
supplied  by  a  great  variety  of  marsupials 
— these  animals  being  nowhere  else 
found,  except  in  the  opossums  of  Amer- 
ica. There  are  110  kinds  of  marsupials 
(of  which  the  kangaroo,  wombat,  bandi- 
coot, and  phalangers  or  opossums,  are  the 


AUSTRALIA 


349 


AUSTRALIA 


best  known  varieties),  over  20  kinds  of 
bats,  a  wild  dog  (the  dingo) ,  and  a  num- 
ber of  rats  and  mice.  Two  extraordinary 
animals,  the  platypus,  or  water  mole  of 
the  colonist  {cyrnithorhynclms) ,  and  the 
porcupine  ant-eater  (echidna)  constitute 
the  lowest  order  of  mammals  {monotre- 
tnata) ,  and  are  confined  to  Australia. 
Their  young  are  produced  from  eggs. 
Australia  now  possesses  a  large  stock  of 
the  domestic  animals  of  England,  which 
thrive  there  remarkably  well.  The  breed 
of  horses  is  excellent.  Horned  cattle  and 
sheep  are  largely  bredo  the  first  attaining 
a  great  size,  while  the  sheep  improve  in 
fleece  and  their  flesh  in  flavor.  There 
are  upward  of  650  different  species  of 
birds,  the  largest  being  the  emu,  or  Aus- 
tralian ostrich,  and  a  species  of  casso- 
wary. Peculiar  to  the  country  are  the 
black  swan,  the  honey  sucker,  the  lyre 
bird,  the  brush  turkey,  and  other  mound 
building  birds,  the  bower  birds,  etc.  The 
parrot  tribe  preponderate  over  most 
other  groups  of  birds  in  the  continent. 
There-  are  many  reptiles,  the  largest 
being  the  alligator,  found  in  some  of  the 
northern  rivers.  There  are  upward  of 
60  different  species  of  snakes,  some  of 
which  are  very  venomous.  Lizards, 
frogs,  and  insects  are  also  numerous  in 
various  parts.  The  seas,  rivers,  and  la- 
goons abound  in  fish  of  many  varieties. 

Peoples. — The  natives  belong  to  the 
Australian  negro  stock,  and  are  some- 
times considered  the  lowest  as  regards 
intelligence  in  the  whole  human  family, 
though  this  is  doubtful.  They  are  be- 
lieved to  number  between  75,000  and 
100,000,  exclusive  of  those  in  the  unex- 
plored parts.  They  are  of  a  dark-brown 
or  black  color,  with  jet-black  curly,  but 
not  woolly,  hair,  of  medium  size,  but 
inferior  muscular  development.  They 
have  no  fixed  habitations;  in  the  summer 
they  live  almost  entirely  in  the  open  air, 
and  in  the  more  inclement  weather  they 
shelter  themselves  with  bark  erections  of 
the  rudest  construction.  They  have  no 
cultivation  and  no  domestic  animals. 
Their  food  consists  of  such  animals  as 
they  can  kill,  and  no  kind  of  living  crea- 
ture seems  to  be  rejected,  snakes,  lizards, 
frogs,  and  even  insects  being  eaten,  often 
half  raw.  They  speak  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent languages  or  dialects.  They  are 
occasionally  employed  by  the  settlers  in 
light  kinds  of  work  and  as  horse-break- 
ers. The  weapons  of  all  the  tribes  are 
generally  similar,  consisting  of  spears, 
shields,  boomerangs,  wooden  axes,  clubs, 
and  stone  hatchets.  Of  these  the  boom- 
erang is  the  most  singular,  being  an  in- 
vention confined  to  the  Australians. 

Government. — In  addition  to  the  cen- 
tral federated  government  (see  Austra- 


lian Commonwealth),  each  colony  has 
a  governor,  administration,  and  a  Legis- 
lature of  its  own.  The  governors  are 
appointed  by  the  King,  and  all  act: 
passed  by  the  Colonial  Legislatures  must 
receive  the  royal  assent.  Each  Legisla- 
ture consists  of  two  houses,  a  Legislative 
Council  and  a  Legislative  Assembly,  the 
lower  house  being  elected.  The  legisla- 
tive power  of  the  Commonwealth  is 
vested  in  a  Federal  Parliament  which 
consists  of  the  King,  represented  by  the 
governor-general,  a  Senate,  and  a  House 
of  Representatives.  The  Senate  consists 
of  six  senators  for  each  of  the  original 
states,  chosen  for  six  years.  The  House 
of  Representatives  consists  theoretically 
of  twice  as  many  members  as  there  are 
senators.  The  House  continues  for  three 
years  from  the  date  of  its  first  meeting, 
unless  sooner  dissolved.  Elections  are  on 
the  basis  of  universal  suffrage,  male  and 
female.  The  executive  power  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  governor-general,  who  is  as- 
sisted by  an  executive  council.  There  is 
no  established  Church  in  any  of  the  col- 
onies. The  denomination  which  numbers 
most  adherents  is  the  English  or  Angli- 
can Church,  next  to  which  come  the  Ro- 
man Catholics,  Presbyterians,  and  Meth- 
odists. Education  is  well  provided  for, 
instruction  in  the  primary  schools  being, 
in  some  cases,  free  and  compulsory,  and 
the  higher  education  being  more  and 
more  attended  to.  There  are  flourishing 
universities  in  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and 
Adelaide. 

Industries. — The  chief  agricultural 
product  is  wheat,  of  which  there  was  a 
total  acreage  in  1918  of  9,774,658,  with  a 
production  of  114,733,584  bushels.  Other 
important  crops  are  oats,  barley,  maize, 
hay,  potatoes,  sugar  cane,  and  fruit.  The 
total  acreage  of  all  crops  in  1918  was 
14,298,982,  and  the  total  value  of  produc- 
tion in  that  year  was  £57,967,307.  The 
production  of  wool  in  1917  and  1918 
amounted  to  573,864,083  pounds,  valued 
at  £37,062,000.  The  mineral  production 
in  1918  was  valued  at  £26,333,000,  of 
which  the  gold  produced  amounted  to 
£5,408,000,  silver  and  lead  £6,105,000, 
copper  £4,465,000,  tin  £1,432,000  and  coal 
£6,124,000. 

There  are  about  16,000  manufacturing 
establishments  employing  about  330,000 
hands.  The  value  of  the  output  in  1917 
was  £206,386,646. 

The  imports  in  1918-1919  were  valued 
at  £93,485,050.  The  exports  were  valued 
at  £106,805,895.  The  chief  imports  were 
textiles,  metal  manufactures,  wearing  ap- 
parel, drugs  and  chemicals,  and  paper. 
The  chief  exports  were  wool,  wheat, 
flour,  skins  and  hides.  For  more  de- 
tailed   information    in    relation    to    the 


AUSTRALIA 


350 


AUSTRALIA 


commerce  of  the  various  states,  see  the 
titles  of  these  states. 

History. — It  is  doubtful  when  Aus- 
tralia was  first  discovered  by  Europeans. 
Between  1531  and  1542  the  Portuguese 
published  the  existence  of  a  land  which 
they  called  Great  Java,  and  which  corre- 
sponded to  Australia,  and  probably  the 
first  discovery  of  the  country  was  made 
by  them  early  in  the  16th  century.  The 
first  authenticated  discovery  is  said  to 
have  been  made  in  1601,  by  a  Portuguese 
named  Manoel  Godinho  de  Eredia.  In 
1606,  Torres,  a  Spaniard,  passed  through 
the  strait  that  now  bears  his  name,  be- 
tween New  Guinea  and  Australia.  Be- 
tween this  period  and  1628,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  coast  line  of  Australia  had 
been  surveyed  by  various  Dutch  navi- 
gatoi's.  In  1664  the  continent  was  named 
New  Holland  by  the  Dutch  Government. 
In  1688  Dampier  coasted  along  part  of 
Australia,  and  about  1700  explored  a 
part  of  the  W.  and  N.  W.  coasts.  In 
1770  Cook  carefully  surveyed  the  E. 
coast,  named  a  number  of  localities,  and 
took  possession  of  the  country  for  Great 
Britain.  He  was  followed  by  Bligh  in 
1789,  who  carried  on  a  series  of  observa- 
tions on  the  N.  E.  coast,  adding  largely 
to  the  knowledge  already  obtained  of 
this  new  world.  Colonists  had  now  ar- 
rived on  the  soil,  and  a  penal  settlement 
was  formed  (1788)  at  Port  Jackson.  In 
this  way  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
future  colony  of  New  South  Wales.  The 
Moreton  Bay  district  (Queensland)  was 
settled  in  1825;  in  1835  the  Port  Philip 
district.  In  1851  the  latter  district  was 
erected  into  a  separate  colony  under  the 
name  of  Victoria.  Previous  to  this  time 
the  colonies  both  cf  Western  Australia 
and  of  South  Australia  had  been  founded 
—the  former  in  1829,  the  latter  in  1836. 
The  latest  of  the  colonies  is  Queensland, 
which  only  took  an  independent  existence 
in  1859.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  abund- 
ance took  place  in  1851,  and  caused  an 
immense  excitement  and  great  influx  of 
immigrants.  The  population  was  then 
only  about  350,000,  and  was  slowly  in- 
creasing; but  the  discovery  of  the  precious 
metal  started  the  country  on  that  career 
of  prosperity  which  has  since  been  almost 
uninterrupted.  Convicts  were  long  sent 
to  Australia  from  the  mother  country, 
but  transportation  to  New  South  Wales 
practically  ceased  in  1840,  and  the  last 
convict  vessel  to  West  Australia  arrived 
in  1868. 

Australia  in  the  World  War.  —  The 
declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  Eng- 
land against  Germany  reached  Australia 
by  cable  early  in  the  day  on  Aug.  5,  1914. 

Parliament  was  not  in  session,  but  the 
spirit  of  the  people  rose  at  once  to  the 


great  occasion  and  the  Prime  Minister, 
Hughes,  offered  the  government  at  home 
an  immediate  draft  of  20,000  men.  At 
the  first  call  a  much  greater  number  re- 
sponded and  nation-wide  training  was 
begun.  Before  any  troops  were  ready 
for  embarkation  the  national  spirit  had 
stimulated  the  enrollment  of  a  further 
contingent  of  10,000  men.  The  first  em- 
barkation for  Europe  by  way  of  Egypt 
and  the  Suez  Canal  the  following  end  of 
November  had  already  been  preceded  by 
naval  operations  against  the  enemy  in 
southwestern  waters. 

With  the  co-operation  of  the  New 
Zealand  troops,  the  first  contingent  of 
which  was  formed  about  the  same  time 
as  that  of  Australia,  the  German  wire- 
less chain  in  the  Pacific  had  been  de- 
stroyed and  Germany  deprived  of  all  her 
holdings  in  that  part  of  the  world.  In 
the  latter  part  of  August  German  Samoa 
was  taken,  and  by  the  end  of  September 
New  Pommern  (New  Britain).  During 
the  formation  of  the  first  contingent  in 
Australia  national  patriotism  rose  to  a 
fever  pitch,  a  spirit  which  was  after- 
ward splendidly  reflected  in  the  perform- 
ance of  her  sons  in  the  trench  and  field. 
Much  of  their  fighting  was  to  be  done  in 
connection  with  the  New  Zealanders,  the 
combined  forces  being  known  under  the 
popular  name  of  Anzacs,  i.  e.,  Australia- 
New  Zealand  Army  Corps.  The  nation 
stood  behind  its  troops.  From  the  day 
of  the  announcement  of  war  contribu- 
tions came  pouring  in.  Several  million 
dollars  were  at  once  donated,  besides 
large  contributions  of  horses  and  gen- 
eral supplies  by  rich  Australians — of 
whom  there  is  a  large  contingent.  A 
most  remarkable  feature  of  the  national 
situation  was  that  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
hour  so  carried  away  a  large  number 
of  German  residents  in  the  country  that 
they  at  once  became  naturalized  and 
pledged  their  support  to  their  adopted 
country.  A  change  of  ministry  in  the 
month  following  the  outbreak  of  war 
did  not  in  any  way  affect  the  general  sit- 
uation. The  Laborites,  who  succeeded 
the  Liberals,  continued  the  forwarding  of 
war  preparations  with  equal  enthusiasm, 
although  the  two  parties  continued  to 
oppose  one  another  in  Parliament  with 
unabated  vigor. 

Following  the  first  contingent,  more 
than  20,000  men  which  the  nation  sent 
to  Europe  in  November  (1914),  a  second 
expeditionary  force  of  25,000  was  em- 
barked a  month  later.  Meantime  a  third 
force  of  20,000  men  had  been  called  for, 
and  was  being  rapidly  recruited.  A  popu- 
lar call  for  all  able-bodied  men  to  enlist 
for  the  firing-line  and  for  all  others  to 
join  rifle  clubs  was  being  responded  to 


AUSTBALIA 


351 


AUSTRALIAN  ALPS 


enthusiastically.     Public   speakers   were 
stirring  up  the  people  everywhere. 

In  the  spring  of  1915  the  Australian 
troops  first  made  themselves  a  name  in 
the  history  of  the  war  by  taking  part  in 
the  attempt  to  force  the  passage  of  the 
Dardanelles  in  the  latter  part  of  April. 
Landing  on  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula  "they 
carried  the  fortified  heights  in  the  face 
of  a  raking  Turkish  fire,  the  positions 
won  at  that  time  being  held  through- 
out the  campaign,  which  was  chai-acter- 
ized  by  consistent  courage  and  resource- 
fulness." 

This  action  received  high  praise  from 
the  British  command.  It  was  soon  an- 
nounced that  Australia  would  be  able  to 
send  100,000  more  men  across  seas.  In 
less  than  a  year  up  to  July,  1915,  the 
Commonwealth  had  furnished  approxi- 
mately 100,000  troops.  Australia  was 
also  foremost  from  the  first  in  Belgium 
relief,  Melbourne,  in  April  and  May  of 
1915,  contributing  £80,000  as  the  proceeds 
of  two  entertainments,  while  Sydney  and 
its  province  raised  nearly  £500,000. 

It  also  came  at  once  to  the  front  in  the 
furnishing  of  munitions  to  the  general 
cause,  being  able  to  announce,  as  early  as 
June  following  the  outbreak  of  war,  its 
readiness  to  begin  to  co-operate.  Offers 
had  indeed  been  made  of  ammunition  for 
eighteen-pounders  to  Great  Britain  as 
early  as  the  previous  September.  In  Feb- 
ruary of  the  following  year,  1916,  the 
question  of  conscription  became  impor- 
tant. Premier  William  M.  Hughes  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Canadian 
Privy  Council  and  came  to  Canada  and 
conducted  a  vigorous  campaign  in  its 
favor  as  afterward  in  England.  The 
Labor  party  in  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  and  Victoria,  however,  was 
opposed,  and  after  a  sharp  struggle  the 
more  radical  elements  failed  and  the 
measure  was  defeated  by  popular  vote  on 
Oct.  28.  Australia  had  by  this  time  320,- 
000  enlisted  men  in  the  ranks.  Before  the 
•close  of  the  war  more  than  362,000  vol- 
unteers had  been  sent  to  the  firing-line. 
They  entered  the  war  on  the  British 
front  in  April,  1916,  and  soon  acquired  a 
name  for  a  dauntless  courage  which  in- 
spired the  older  troops.  In  the  battle  of 
Messines  Ridge  following  the  defeat  of 
the  Germans  at  Ypres  in  June  they  took 
a  prominent  and  notable  part  in  the  of- 
fensive of  combined  English,  Irish,  and 
New  Zealand  troops  which  "within  a  few 
ininutes  captured  the  entire  first  line  po- 
sitions on  a  ten-mile  front."  In  the  great 
battle  of  Arras,  May,  1916,  they  distin- 
guished themselves  by  capturing  Bulle- 
court  (May  13-17)  after  heavy  fight- 
ing. They  were  also  conspicuous  in  the 
Allied  drives,  notably,  besides  those  men- 


tioned, at  Mouquet  Farm  and  Pozieres. 
In  the  advance  of  the  Germans  on  the 
salient  which  threatened  Amiens  in  the 
spring  of  1918  the  five  Australian  di- 
visions played  an  important  part.  At 
two  important  points,  Derlancourt  and 
Morlancourt,  before  their  line  could  bo 
properly  organized  and  before  their  guns 
had  all  arrived,  they  were  persistently? 
attacked  by  the  Germans  and  yet  al- 
ways succeeded  in  driving  them  back 
with  heavy  loss.  The  Australian  forces 
engaged  in  those  important  campaigns 
were  old  and  well-tried  troops  who  were 
of  notable  value  all  through  the  engage- 
ment which  resulted  in  the  repulse  of  the 
Germans. 

In  the  first  four  years  of  the  war 
Australia  raised  six  war  loans.  From 
August,  1914,  to  June  30,  1918.  her  war 
expenditure  amounted  to  184,598,097 
pounds  sterling,  of  which  £159,895,938 
was  from  loans,  and  the  balance  revenue. 
The  sum  advanced  by  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment  amounted   to   £47,500,000. 

In  addition  a  Wheat  Commission  was 
organized  under  Premier  Hughes  with 
a  regular  service  to  England  that  con- 
tributed large  supplies  during  the  term 
of  its  operation.  On  the  sea  the  Austra- 
lians took  a  glorious  part  in  the  en- 
gagement off  Dogger  Bank — the  prin- 
cipal naval  event  of  the  war — under  Ad- 
miral Beatty  Jan.  24,  1915,  and  later  in 
the  Battle  of  Jutland  Bank.  Out  of  a 
total  population  of  six  million  people  the 
Australia-New  Zealand  Army  Corps,  up 
to  January,  1918,  had  contributed  more 
than  448,000  men,  of  the  very  best  ma- 
terial of  which  the  Allied  fighters  were 
composed. 

The  conditions  following  the  conclusion 
of  peace  in  1919-1920  were  the  same  as 
prevailed  in  other  countries  of  the  world. 
There  were  labor  troubles,  and  for  a 
period  in  1919  the  industry  of  the  coun- 
try was  practically  tied  up  as  a  result 
of  strikes.  Alleged  attempts  of  the  Bol- 
shevists to  spread  propaganda  in  1919 
resulted  in  serious  disturbances.  Aus- 
tralia was  strongly  represented  at  the 
peace  negotiations  in  Paris,  and  the 
Commonwealth  was  given  mandatory 
powers  over  island  territories  formerly 
the  property  of  Germany.  These  include 
New  Guinea  (formerly  German  New 
Guinea),  Bismarck  Archipelago,  and  the 
Solomon  Islands. 

AUSTRALIAN  ALPS,  a  range  of  moun- 
tains in  the  S.  E.  of  Australia,  formerly 
part  of  the  Great  Dividing  Range, 
stretching  from  the  neighborhood  of  Mel- 
bourne, about  37°  40'  S.,  145"  30'  E..  to 
the  S.  E.  of  New  South  Wales,  about 
3^  S.,  149°  E.,  over  a  length  of  about 
400  mile^,  with  a  width  of  about  100  to 


AUSTRALIAN  COMMONWEALTH   352 


AUSTRIA 


150  miles.  The  highest  peaks  are  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  highest  of  all,  ac- 
cording to  Lendenfeld,  is  the  peak  called 
by  him  Mt.  Townshend  (7,353  feet),  be- 
longing to  a  group  which  he  calls  the 
Kosciusko  group,  the  latter  name  hav- 
ing been  previously  applied  to  another 
peak  (called  Mueller's  Peak  by  Lenden- 
feld), a  few  miles  to  the  N.  which  was 
long  believed  to  be  the  highest.  The 
peaks  next  in  height  belong  to  the  Bo- 
gong  group  in  Victoria,  and  the  W.  of 
the  Mitta  Mitta,  the  highest  of  which  is 
Mt.  Bogong  (6,508  feet).  They  do  not 
reach  the  snow  line,  though  snow  lies 
in  the  higher  valleys  all  the  summer. 
Volcanic  rocks  cover  the  tableland  to  the 
S.  of  Mt.  Bogong. 

AUSTRALIAN     COMMONWEALTH, 

a  political  union  of  all  the  Australian 
colonies,  the  agitation  for  which  began 
in  1852.  The  first  convention  for  this 
purpose  was  held  at  Hobart  in  January, 
1886.  The  colonies  represented  were 
Victoria,  Queensland,  Tasmania,  West- 
ern Australia,  and  Fiji.  This  effort  was 
abortive,  but  another  conference  took 
place  in  1891,  at  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  which 
was  attended  by  delegates  from  each 
of  the  colonies.  A  plan  of  Federal  gov- 
ernment was  proposed,  which  resembled 
in  many  of  its  features  that  of  the 
United  States.  A  draft  bill  to  constitute 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  was 
adopted  by  the  convention,  and  it  was 
agreed  to  submit  it  to  the  approval  of 
the  individual  Legislatures  of  the  sev- 
eral colonies.  This  bill  met  with  suc- 
cess in  the  lower  branch  of  but  one  co- 
lonial Legislature — ^that  of  Victoria.  In 
January,  1895,  there  was  a  conference  of 
premiers  of  five  colonies  at  Hobart,  and 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  New  South 
Wales  passed  a  Federal  enabling  act  in 
November  of  that  year.  The  first  prac- 
tical step  was  taken  in  1898.  A  conven- 
tion of  representatives  of  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  Tasmania,  South  Aus- 
tralia, and  Western  Australia  succeeded 
in  drafting  a  constitution,  which  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  popular  vote  of  each  of 
those  colonies  in  June.  By  the  terms  of 
the  plebiscite,  an  affirmative  vote  of  sub- 
stantially one-third  of  the  electors  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  of  one-fifth  of  the  elec- 
tors of  each  of  the  other  colonies,  was  re- 
quired to  adopt  this  constitution.  The 
returns  of  the  election  in  June  were 
fatal  to  the  scheme. 

On  Feb.  2,  1899,  a  unanimous  agree- 
ment was  reached  by  the  colonial  pre- 
miers in  conference  at  Melbourne,  re- 
garding the  unsettled  questions  referred 
to  them  by  the  colonial  Legislatures, 
thus  insuring  the  success  of  the  federa- 
tion project 


The  new  Commonwealth  came  into  ex- 
istence on  Jan.  1,  1901,  and  the  Earl  of 
Hopetoun  was  appointed  first  Governor- 
General.  Melbourne  was  designated  as 
the  temporary  capital  until  a  site  for 
a  Federal  district  could  be  selected. 
Measures  passed  for  restricting  immi- 
gration greatly  retarded  the  growth  of 
the  Commonwealth.  A  protective  tariff 
bill  was  passed  in  1902.  A  notable  fea- 
ture of  the  political  development  of  the 
first  years  of  the  twentieth  century  was 
the  growth  of  the  Labor  party,  which 
stood  practically  for  a  modified  social- 
ism and  especially  for  the  principle  of 
the  so-called  "White  Australia."  The 
Commonwealth  has  grown  steadily  and 
its  loyalty  to  the  Empire  has  remained 
undiminished.  Conclusive  proof  of  this 
was  given  by  the  prompt  and  unsolicited 
entry  of  Australia  in  the  war.  See  Aus- 
tralia, section  Australia  in  the  World 
War. 

AUSTRASIA  (the  East  Kingdom),  the 
name  given,  under  the  Merovingians,  to 
the  eastern  possessions  of  the  Franks, 
embracing  Lorraine,  iBelgium,  and  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

AUSTRIA,  REPUBLIC  OF,  the  terri- 
tory which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
former  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  and 
known  as  the  Archduchy  of  Austria,  occu- 
pying both  sides  of  the  valley  of  the 
Danube,  between  the  Salzach  and  Inn  on 
the  W.,  which  form  the  boundary  with 
Bavaria  to  the  S.  of  the  Danube,  and  the 
March  and  Leitha  on  the  E.,  which  form 
together  the  greater  part  of  the  boundary 
with  Hungary;  divided  into  the  crown- 
lands  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  the 
boundary  between  which,  S.  of  the  Dan- 
ube, is  partly  formed  by  the  lower  Enns; 
chief  towns,  Vienna  in  Lower,  Linz,  in 
Upper,  Austria.  The  surface  for  the 
most  part  is  mountainous  or  hilly,  but 
sinking  down  to  plains  on  both  sides  of 
the  Danube  in  the  E.,  the  Marchfeld  on 
the  N.  of  that  river,  between  Vienna  and 
the  March,  being  remarkably  level. 

The  only  special  agricultural  product 
that  need  be  mentioned  is  wine,  some 
choice  kinds  being  produced  on  the  sunny 
slopes  of  the  Wienerwald.  The  most  im- 
portant mineral  product  is  the  salt  of  the 
Salzkammergut,  the  center  of  which  is 
Ischl.  As  regards  other  minerals,  the 
chief  mining  districts  are  Wels  in  Upper, 
St.  Polten  in  Lower,  Austria,  and  the 
principal  products,  lignite  in  Upper,  and 
coal,  iron  ore,  lignite,  and  graphite  in 
Lower,  Austria.  The  principal  manufac- 
turing centers  in  Lower  Austria  prior 
to  the  war  were  Vienna  (miscellaneous), 
Wiener-Neustadt  (cottons,  etc.),  and,  in 
the  W.,  Waidhofen  (iron) ;  in  Upper 
Austria,  Steyr   (iron),  and  Linz    (wool- 


AT7STBIA-HUNGABY 


353 


AXJSTBIA-HUNGARY 


ens, etc.)-  Originally  a  margravate,  Aus- 
tria was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  1156, 
and  the  title  of  archduke  (borne  solely 
by  members  of  the  Hapsburg  family) 
was  first  formally  conferred  by  imperial 
letters  patent  in  1453,  though  it  had  pre- 
viously been  assumed  by  some  of  the 
Dukes  of  Austria.  See  also  Austria- 
Hungary. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  a  former  em- 
pire of  Europe,  composed  of  a  Cisleithan 
portion  officially  known  as  Austria,  and 
a  Transleithan  portion  known  as  Hun- 
gary, each  having  its  own  constitution, 
a  limited  monarchy  and  each  formerly 
possessing  a  separate  Parliament,  but 
uniting  under  a  common  sovereign  in  the 
establishment  of  a  common  army,  navy, 
financial,  diplomatic,  postal,  and  tele- 
graphic services. 

Supreme  Legislature. — Legislation  in 
regard  to  common  affairs  was  accom- 
plished by  a  supreme  body  known  as 
the  Delegations.  Of  these  there  were 
two,  each  composed  of  60  members,  rep- 
resenting the  legislative  bodies  of  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary,  the  upper  houses  re- 
turning 20  and  the  lower  houses  40 
delegates.  The  members  of  the  Delega- 
tions were  appointed  for  one  year,  sum- 
moned annually  by  the  Emperor,  alter- 
nately at  Vienna  and  at  Budapest.  Sub- 
ject to  the  Delegations  were  the  four 
executive  departments  for  Common  Af- 
fairs, Foreign  Affairs,  War,  and  Finance. 
The  agreement  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, termed  the  Ausgleich,  embraced  the 
regulation  of  their  fiscal  and  commer- 
cial affairs,  of  the  quota  paid  by  them  to 
the  common  expenses  of  the  empire,  and 
the  privileges  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Bank. 

Empire  of  Austria, — Austria  (capital 
Vienna)  had  an  area  of  115,903  square 
miles;  pop.  before  the  World  War 
28,571,934;  was  governed  by  an  Em- 
peror and  by  the  Reichsrath,  or  Council 
of  the  Empire,  consisting  of  an  Upper 
House  (Herrenhaus),  and  a  Lower 
House  (Abgeordnetenhaus).  The  Reichs- 
rath had  its  own  ministers  and  govern- 
ment, and  exercised  full  parliamentary 
functions  on  all  matters  within  its  com- 
petence— from  which,  however,  foreign 
affairs  and  war  were  excluded.  The 
Upper  House  was  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  imperial  family  who  were 
of  age,  hereditary  nobles,  of  archbishops 
and  bishops,  and  of  life  members  nom- 
inated by  the  Emperor  for  distinguished 
services  in  science  or  art,  or  to  the 
Church  or  State.  The  Lower  House  con- 
tained about  350  members,  who  were  the 
popular  representatives  of  the  16  prov- 
inces which  comprised  the  empire.  They 
were  elected  for  six  years  by  four  groups: 


thelarge landed  proprietors;  the  chambers 
of  commerce;  the  inhabitants  of  towns, 
who  paid  50  florins  in  direct  taxation,  or 
who  had  a  vote  for  the  Provincial  Diet; 
and  the  inhabitants  of  country  districts 
similai'ly  qualified.  In  these  four  gi'oups 
there  were  comprised  about  2,000.000  vot- 
ers. Purely  provincial  matters  were  ad- 
ministered by  16  Provincial  Diets,  while 
local  matters  were  dealt  with  by  com- 
munal councils. 

Religion  and  Education. — The  chief  re- 
ligious bodies  in  Austria,  where  religious 
liberty  is  the  ruling  principle,  are  Roman 
Catholics,  Old  Catholics,  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  Evangelicals,  Armenians  and 
Jews.  In  Hungary  much  the  same  divi- 
sions exist.  See  Hungary,  Jugoslavia, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Bohemia,  Bosnia, 
World  War,  etc. 

At  the  close  of  the  Balkan  wars,  in 
1913,  Serbia  was  left  in  a  far  stronger 
condition  than  she  had  ever  been  in 
before.  She  had  demonstrated  her  mar- 
tial valor  and  had,  in  consequence,  re- 
ceived large  accessions  of  territory.  Her 
growth  was  extremely  displeasing  to 
Austria,  which  did  not  relish  the  idea 
of  having  so  strong  a  neighbor,  capable 
perhaps  of  barring  her  way  across  the 
Balkans  to  Saloniki.  Before  and  dur- 
ing the  warj  she  had  attempted  to 
thwart  Serbia's  legitimate  national 
aspirations,  and  after  the  conflict  had 
ended  in  Serbia's  favor,  she  had  done 
all  she  could  through  diplomacy  to 
rob  her  of  the  fruits  of  victory. 
Later  she  had  tried  to  make  a  secret 
arrangement  with  Italy  to  attack  Serbia 
on  the  ground  that  her  Adriatic  interests 
were  threatened  by  the  latter,  but  Italy 
had  rejected  the  overture. 

Austria's  seizure  a  few  years  previ- 
ously of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  was  an- 
other source  of  the  friction  between  the 
two  nations.  The  two  provinces  were 
largely  Serbian  in  population  and  almost 
wholly  so  in  sympathy.  Their  national 
aspirations  sought  to  assert  themselves 
against  the  alien  domination  of  Austria, 
and  the  repressive  measures  adopted  by 
the  latter  fostered  plots  and  conspir- 
acies. Austria,  in  casting  about  for  a 
pretext  for  aggression  against  Serbia, 
accused  the  latter  of  fostering  this  spirit 
of  revolt,  secretly  if  not  openly.  This 
Serbia  denied.  The  bad  blood  between 
the  two  nations  was  patent  to  the  world, 
and  it  was  assumed  that  it  was  only  a 
matter  of  time  before  some  act  would 
be  seized  upon  as  a  pretext  for  open 
hostilities. 

The  occasion  was  furnished  on  June 
28,  1914,  when  the  Austrian  Archduke 
Franz  Ferdinand,  heir  to  the  Austx'ian 
throne,  was  assassinated,  together  with 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


354 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


his  wife,  by  a  student  named  Prinzip,  at 
Sarajevo,  Bosnia,  while  he  was  making  a 
tour  of  the  province.  The  assassin  was 
at  once  apprehended  and  held  for  trial. 
The  tragedy  created  a  very  bitter  feel- 
ing in  Austria,  which  claimed  that  the 
plot  had  been  hatched  in  Belgrade,  with 
the  connivance  of  Serbian  officials. 
Serbia  denied  this,  but  promised  a  rigor- 
ous inquiry  into  the  matter. 

A  plausible  pretext  for  war  had  now 
been  found,  and  Austria  set  to  work  at 
once  to  make  it  unavoidable.  On  July  23, 
1914,  the  Austrian  Minister  at  Belgrade 
presented  to  the  Serbian  Government  a 
note  from  Austria  so  offensively  couched 
that  it  startled  the  world.  Compliance 
with  its  terms  would  have  made  Serbia 
simply  the  vassal  of  Austria.  It  was 
practically  an  ultimatum  and  demanded 
an  answer  in  two  days.  At  the  end  of 
that  time,  Serbia  replied  in  a  note  of 
studied  moderation,  accepting  all  the 
terms  but  two.  These  would  have  prac- 
tically stripped  her  of  sovereignty.  Even 
these  two  Serbia  offered  to  submit  to  ar- 
bitration. 

The  diplomatic  exchanges  between  the 
nations  that  accompanied  and  followed 
the  Austrian  note  and  the  Serbian  reply 
are  fully  treated  elsewhere.  (See  World 
War.)  Austria  could  not  be  dissuaded 
from  her  predetermined  course  and  on 
July  28,  1914,  declared  war  on  Serbia. 

Military  operations  began  at  once  and 
Belgrade  was  bombarded,  while  an  inva- 
sion was  attempted  of  Serbia  over  the 
Bosnian  border.  This  was  checked  al- 
most at  its  inception,  but  by  the  end  of 
October  an  invasion  in  force  was  made 
with  300,000  men.  The  Serbians,  out- 
numbered, fell  back  to  the  hills,  where 
battle  was  joined  Dec.  6  and  resulted 
in  a  crushing  Austrian  defeat.  The  in- 
vaders fled  in  utter  rout,  and  by  Dec.  15 
the  Austrians  had  been  driven  across 
the  border  and  Belgrade  had  been  re- 
gained. 

Against  the  Russians  the  Austrians 
were  equally  unsuccessful.  On  Sept. 
1,  the  Russians  began  the  great  bat- 
tle which  resulted  in  a  victory  for  them, 
and  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Lemberg, 
capital  of  Galicia,  with  a  vast  number 
of  prisoners  and  material  of  war.  The 
Austrians  were  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
'  in  the  great  fortress  of  Przemysl,  which 
was  later  invested  by  the  Russians,  who 
compelled  its  capitulation  March  22, 
1915,  involving  the  surrender  of  130,000 
men  and  4,000  officers. 

Seventy  thousand  more  were  captured 
by  the  Russians  in  a  tremendous  attack 
upon  the  Carpathian  passes  in  April, 
and  there  was  every  prospect  that  they 
would  be   able  to  force  the   passes  and 


pour  into  Hungary.  But  at  this  junc- 
ture the  tide  of  battle  turned.  The  Rus- 
sian Government  had  failed  to  keep  the 
army  of  Grand  Duke  Nicholas  supplied 
with  arms  and  ammunition,  and  they 
were  powerless  to  check  the  drive  di- 
rected against  them  on  May  2  by  Ger- 
man forces,  who  in  a  few  weeks  had 
driven  them  out  of  the  Carpathians  and 
far  into  Volhynia.  This  drive,  however, 
which  eventually  won  Warsaw,  Ivango- 
rod,  Brest-Litovsk,  Kovel,  Grodno,  and 
Vilna,  was  purely  a  German  one  in  its 
inception  and  execution,  although  Aus- 
trian forces  co-operated  under  German 
officers.  The  operations  persisted  through 
the  summer  and  early  fall,  but  by  OcL 
1  the  German  advance  had  been  com- 
pletely halted. 

The  campaign  of  early  1916  was 
marked  by  the  defeat  of  Serbia  and  the 
taking  possession  of  that  gallant  little 
country  by  the  Austrians  and  Germans, 
after  the  Serbians,  overwhelmed  by 
numbers,  had  made  a  most  desperate  re- 
sistance. Montenegro  also  was  con- 
quered, its  principal  stronghold,  Mt. 
Lovcen,  falling  into  Austrian  hands  on 
Jan.  11. 

In  the  meantime,  Italy  had  entered  the 
war,  and  had  gained  some  initial  ad- 
vantages on  the  Carso  Plateau.  The 
Austrians  concentrated  heavy  forces  on 
that  front,  and  on  May  14  defeated  the 
Italian  General  Cadorna  on  a  line  ex- 
tending from  Val  Giudicaria  to  the  sea. 
The  strategic  plan  of  the  Austrians  was 
to  capture  the  Italian  forces  on  the 
Isonzo,  with  the  hope  of  forcing  Italy 
out  of  the  war  and  permitting  the  Aus- 
trians to  attack  France  on  the  Franco- 
Italian  frontier.  The  plan,  however, 
failed,  although  Austria  made  decided 
gains  in  the  Tyrol  and  the  Trentino. 
By  June  25  the  Italian  army  was  strong 
enough  to  take  the  initiative,  and  re- 
gained considerable  of  their  lost  ground. 
A  still  more  formidable  offensive  was 
launched  by  them  on  Aug.  6  with  Gorizia 
as  the  objective.  The  city  was  captured 
on  the  9th.  By  Aug.  17  the  Italians  had 
taken  many  guns  and  15,000  prisoners. 

During  this  period,  a  remarkable  Rus- 
sian offensive  had  been  in  full  swing  on 
Austria's  eastern  front.  The  supreme 
command  of  the  Russian  armies  had  been 
assumed  nominally  by  the  Czar,  although 
General  Alexieff,  assisted  by  Ivanoff  and 
Brusiloff,  was  really  at  the  head  of  op- 
erations. The  successes  attained  were 
among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  war, 
both  in  the  territory  gained  and  the  num- 
ber of  prisoners  taken.  Lutsk  was  cap- 
tured June  6,  and  Dubno  on  the  8th.  On 
June  17,  the  Russians  captured  the  im- 
portant city  of  Czernowitz,  and  by  the 


AT7STBIA-HUNGART 


355 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


23d  had  overrun  the  whole  of  Bukowina. 
Kolomea  was  taken  June  29.  On  July  8 
the  Russians  captured  Delatyn,  and  cut 
the  railroad  that  ran  through  one  of 
the  passes  of  the  Carpathians.  During 
these  operations,  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  prisoners  were  being  taken 
every  day,  and  by  the  time  the  campaign 
came  to  an  end,  about  the  first  of  Sep- 
tember, the  Russians  had  occupied  7,000 
square  miles  of  territory  and  taken  400,- 
000  prisoners.  A  most  damaging  blow 
had  been  dealt  to  the  Austrian  morale, 
which  was  not  made  up  by  the  conquest 
of  Rumania,  which  was  carried  through 
by  Germans,  Bulgarians,  and  Turks  with 
but  little  Austrian  assistance. 

In  February  of  1917,  the  Austrians 
attacked  the  Italians  in  the  vicinity  of 
Gorizia  and  on  the  Carso  Plateau,  in  an 
endeavor  to  regain  the  initiative.  But 
the  effort  came  to  nothing  and  the  op- 
posing armies  remained  quiescent  until 
the  middle  of  May,  when  the  Italians 
started  a  terrific  offensive,  that  was 
maintained  continuously  for  eighteen 
days.  The  operations  were  carried  on 
at  a  point  on  the  Isonzo  between  Tol- 
mino  and  Gorizia,  and  Vodice  Ridge  and 
Mt.  Cucco  were  speedily  captured,  with 
other  important  strategic  points.  The 
arrival  of  heavy  reinforcements  held  the 
drive  in  check  for  a  while,  but  it  was 
resumed  on  Aug.  19.  A  marked  suc- 
cess was  gained  in  the  capture  of  Monte 
Santo  and  more  than  forty  Villages, 
while  the  Austrian  lines  were  penetrated 
to  a  depth  of  7  miles  on  an  11-mile  front. 

On  the  eastern  front,  another  offen- 
sive was  launched  by  the  Russians  on 
July  1,  1917,  with  Lemberg  as  an  ob- 
jective. The  Russians  reached  points 
within  40  miles  of  that  city,  and  then 
were  stopped.  The  Russian  army  was  by 
this  time  honeycombed  with  mutiny  and 
a  prey  to  Bolshevist  influences.  By  July 
21  it  was  in  full  retreat,  whole  regiments 
and  brigades  throwing  away  their  arms 
and  refusing  to  fight.  The  collapse  of 
Russia  had  begun,  and  the  pursuit  of  the 
retreating  troops  by  the  Austrians  and 
Germans  was  unhindered  by  any  seri- 
ous resistance.  Stanislau,  Tarnopol,  and 
Czemowitz  were  recaptured  in  quick  suc- 
cession, as  the  Russians  fled  toward  their 
own  frontiers.  There  was  no  longer 
aggressive  action  to  be  feared  from  that 
quarter,  and  Austria  was  free  to  throw 
the  bulk  of  her  forces  against  the  Italian 
front. 

That  concentration,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Germans,  was  instrumental 
in  gaining  a  momentous  victory  over  the 
Italians.  But  the  greatest  contributing 
element  to  this  victory  was  the  skillful 
use  of  subtle  propaganda  among  a  cer- 

24 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


tain  corps  of  the  army  that  had  weak- 
ened its  morale.  On  Oct.  24,  a  ter- 
rific attack  was  begun  by  the  combined 
German  and  Austrian  armies,  headed  by 
picked  divisions  of  German  shock  troops. 
The  violence  of  the  onset  broke  the  Ital- 
ian lines,  and  what  was  almost  a  panic 
followed.  The  offensive  carried  every- 
thing before  it.  In  a  week  the  Teutons 
had  captured  23,000  guns  and  250,000 
men.  The  first  stand  of  the  Italians  was 
at  the  Tagliamento,  where  they  endeav- 
ored to  hold  back  the  invaders,  but  were 
forced  three  days  later  to  continue  their 
retreat  to  Livenza.  Their  resistance  was 
stiffening,  however,  and  when  they 
reached  the  Piave  they  were  at  last 
able  to  halt  their  pursuers.  The  Austro- 
Germans,  however,  still  achieved  further 
important  strategical  successes  in  the 
mountain  region,  and  pushed  their  lines 
forward  until  they  were  within  8  miles 
of  the  Venetian  plain.  Here,  however, 
they  were  compelled  to  pause.  Another 
attempt  to  overwhelm  the  Italians,  be- 
fore snow  should  come  to  their  aid  in 
blocking  the  mountain  passes,  was  mada 
on  Dec.  3,  and  resulted  in  six  days 
of  severe  fighting,  in  which  the  invaders 
made  some  real  but  not  vital  gains.  The 
offensive  then  came  practically  to  a  halt. 
Venice  had  not  been  captured,  but  im- 
portant positions  had  been  gained  that 
seemed  to  promise  easy  access  to  the 
Venetian  plain  as  soon  as  the  coming  of 
spring  should  permit  the  resumption  of 
operations  on  a  vast  scale. 

The  danger  was  perceived  and  to  some 
ejctent  rectified  by  the  Allies  during  the 
winter.  Veteran  forces  of  British  and 
French  troops  had  been  hurried  to  the 
relief  of  the  Italians,  not  only  to  rein- 
force their  numbers,  but  to  strengthen 
their  morale,  which  had  been  shaken  by 
the  disaster  they  had  suffered.  While 
the  latter  were  reorganizing  and  rehabil- 
itating their  forces,  the  French  and  Brit- 
ish, under  the  direction  of  General 
Fayolle  and  General  Plumer  respectively, 
carried  out  brilliant  local  actions  in  the 
mountains  and  on  the  Piave  that  greatly 
improved  the  Allied  positions.  Vigor- 
ous attacks  in  late  December  and  Jan- 
uary wiped  out  Austrian  salients  on 
Monte  Tomba  and  on  the  Piave,  and 
closed  the  gates  through  which  the  next 
Austro-German  movement  was  expected. 

Conditions  in  the  polyglot  Empire  of 
the  Hapsburgs  were  very  bad  in  the 
spring  of  1918.  The  food  situation  es- 
pecially was  menacing,  and  repeated  cuts 
were  made  in  the  already  meager  rations 
doled  out  to  the  people.  The  promised 
supply  of  cereals  from  the  Ukraine  did 
not  materialize,  except  to  a  very  limited 
degrree.     Political  conditions   were  cha- 


AUSTRIA-HUNGABY 


356 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


otic,  owing  to  the  inability  of  the  Gov- 
ernment to  satisfy  the  claims  of  the  va- 
rious racial  elements  that  made  up  the 
Empire.  There  was  a  vast  war  weari- 
ness, and  all  that  the  majority  of  the 
population  sorely  wanted  was  peace  and 
bread. 

Peace  was  sought  by  Count  Czernm  in 
a  conciliatory  and  moderate  speech  that 
he  delivered  to  the  Vienna  City  Council, 
which  was  in  effect  a  reply  to  an  address 
of  President  Wilson  on  war  aims.  He 
defended  the  treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk, 
which  had  been  scathingly  denounced  by 
the  American  President,  and  declared 
himself  to  be  in  agreement  with  many 
of  the  latter's  principles.  A  maladroit 
reference  to  peace  discussions,  which,  he 
said,  had  occurred  between  France  and 
Austria,  on  the  initiative  of  the  French 
Premier,  Clemenceau,  gave  rise  to  one 
of  the  most  sensational  diplomatic  inci- 
dents of  the  war.  The  charge  was  hotly 
denied  by  Clemenceau,  who  declared  that 
the  first  step  had  been  taken  by  Austria, 
and  who,  in  the  discussion  that  arose, 
produced  a  letter  written  by  Emperor 
Charles  himself  to  a  relative  by  mar- 
riage, Prince  Sixtus  of  Bourbon,  in 
which  he  referred  to  "France's  just  claim 
regarding  Alsace-Lorraine."  The  pub- 
lication of  the  letter  produced  great  ten- 
sion between  Berlin  and  Vienna  and 
Charles  was  forced  to  make  humiliating 
explanations  before  the  breach  between 
the  governments  was  closed. 

Matters  were  made  still  worse  by  a 
great   military    disaster    on    the    Italian 
front.    The  German  drive  in  Picardy  had 
been  halted,  and  the  dimmed  prestige  and 
morale  of  the  Central  Powers  required  a 
victory    in   other    fields.      The    Austrian 
commanders  were  so  confident  that  this 
would  be  achieved,  that  they  had  medals 
struck  in  advance,  commemorating  their 
imagined   triumphal   entry   into   Venice. 
They  had  an  army  of  over  1,000,000  men, 
and   they  fully  expected   to   repeat  the 
victory    of     Caporetto    over    the     sup- 
posedly disheartened  Italian  army.     On 
June  15,  they  made  an  attack  on  a  front 
of  97  miles,  reaching  from  the  Asiago 
Plateau  to  the  sea.     Their  superiority  in 
numbers    gained   them   some    initial    ad- 
vantages,   and    by    the    18th    they    had 
extended   their    line   over   the    Montello 
Plateau  to  Casa  Serena.     On  the  19th, 
however,  the  Italians  assumed  the  initia- 
tive, and  before  long  they  were  driving 
the   invaders   back   in   headlong   retreat 
that  soon  became  a  rout.     The  elements 
were    against    the    Austrians    also,    as 
heavy   tempests   had   swelled   the   Piave 
at    their    back,    and    swept    away    the 
bridges  over  which  they  sought  to  make 
their  escape.    The  carnage  v^n^  ghastly. 


Men  were  drowned  by  thousands,  while 
a  storm  of  shot  and  shell  harried  the 
fugitives.  The  Austrian  losses  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners  exceeded  100,000, 
and  enormous  quantities  of  guns,  ammu- 
nition, and  supplies  were  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  victors.  The  battle  prac- 
tically closed  the  campaign  for  that 
spring  and  summer.  It  was  the  most 
terrible  disaster  that  had  befallen  the 
Austrian  arms  up  to  that  time  in  the 
war. 

For  the  rest  of  the  summer  and  early 
fall  the  opposing  armies  faced  each 
other,  recuperating  from  their  efforts 
and  reorganizing  their  forces  for  the 
last  decisive  battle.  In  the  interim,  Aus- 
tria, dismayed  by  her  own  situation,  and 
the  repeated  defeats  being  inflicted  upon 
the  Germans,  who  were  being  steadily 
driven  back  in  France  and  Belgium,  was 
making  frantic  efforts  to  secure  peace 
terms  before  she  was  utterly  overcome  in 
the  field.  The  story  of  her  "peace  offen- 
sive" has  been  fully  described  in  an- 
other part  of  this  work. 

Her  efforts,  however,  were  fruitless, 
and  the  issue  had  to  be  decided  by 
the  arbitrament  of  arms.  On  Oct.  24, 
the  Italians  attacked  in  the  Piave  and 
Monte  Grappa  regions.  For  scarcely  24 
hours,  the  Austrians  resisted,  and  then 
their  lines  gave  way  everywhere.  Soon 
all  pretense  of  fighting  vanished,  and 
the  retreat  became  a  debacle.  Whole 
regiments  and  brigades  were  captured. 
By  Nov.  3  the  Italians  had  captured 
5,000  guns  and  over  300,000  pris- 
oners in  one  of  the  most  overwhelming 
victories  of  modern  times.  On  that  date 
the  Austrian  commander  applied  for  an 
armistice,  which  was  granted,  the  terms 
going  into  effect  on  the  following  day. 
On  Nov.  11,  Emperor  Charles,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  the  Kaiser,  abdi- 
cated and  removed  to  the  castle  of  Eck- 
hartsau,  from  which  he  afterward  went 
into  exile  in  Switzerland. 

Disintegration  set  in  immediately. 
The  Empire  fell  apart  like  a  house  of 
cards.  There  had  never  been  a  real  bond 
of  national  feeling  to  hold  together  the 
conglomerate  races  that  composed  it.  On 
Nov.  15  the  Republic  of  Czecho-Slovakia 
was  established,  with  Prague  as  its 
capital.  It  embraced  the  former  Aus- 
trian crownlands  of  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
and  Moravia,  together  with  part  of 
Hungary  The  area  was  four  times  that 
of  Belgium.  Its  economic  resources  were 
great,  as  before  the  war  it  had  furnished 
60  per  cent,  of  Austrian  iron  and  83  per 
cent,  of  the  coal  of  the  Empire.  Thomas 
G.  Masaryk  was  chosen  as  its  first  Pres- 
ident, Nov.  19,  and  a  loan  of  $7,000,000 
was  negotiated  with  the  United  States. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


357 


AUTOCRACY 


Jugoslavia  also  sprang  into  existence 
at  the  dissolution  of  the  parent  state.  It 
was  a  confederation  of  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina, Croatia,  Slovenia,  and  Dalmatia 
of  the  former  Austrian  territory  with 
Montenegro  and  Serbia,  the  latter  to  be 
the  leading  member.  On  Dec.  1  the 
office  of  ruler  was  offered  to  Prince  Alex- 
ander of  Serbia  and  accepted  by  him. 
The  new  government  was  recognized  by 
the  United  States  Feb.  7,  1919. 

Hungary  also  broke  its  partnership 
with  Austria,  and  the  Hungarian  Peo- 
ple's Republic  was  proclaimed  Nov. 
16,  1918,  with  Karolyi  as  Provisional 
President.  The  Cabinet  that  was  formed, 
however,  proved  unable  to  cope  with  the 
terrible  conditions  that  were  the  after- 
math of  the  war  and  resigned  in  Jan- 
uary, Karolyi  himself  soon  afterward 
following  its  example.  The  Communist 
elements  gained  control,  and  a  reign  of 
terror  was  inaugurated  under  the  Bela 
Kun  regime.     See  Hungary. 

Little  else  than  Vienna  was  left  to 
Austria  proper  after  it  had  thus  been 
stripped  of  its  richest  provinces.  On 
Nov.  13,  two  days  after  the  Emperor's 
abdication,  the  National  Assembly  de- 
manded the  creation  of  a  republic 
that  should  bear  the  name  of  German 
Austria,  and  arrangements  were  made 
for  the  election  of  a  National  Constituent 
Assembly  on  the  basis  of  universal  suf- 
frage. That  election  took  place  on  Feb. 
16,  1919,  and  the  new  body  proceeded  to 
frame  a  constitution.  A  desire  prevailed 
to  unite  with  Germany,  but  this  was 
later  forbidden  by  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence. 

The  framing  of  the  peace  treaty  with 
Germany  took  so  much  time  that  it  was 
June  2,  1919,  before  the  Austrian  terms 
were  handed  to  the  Austrian  delegates 
at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  a  suburb  of 
Paris.  The  treaty  followed  closely  the 
lines  of  the  German  treaty.  Austria  was 
compelled  to  recognize  the  new  states  of 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Jugoslavia,  and  Hun- 
gary, and  to  cede  large  portions  of  her 
remaining  territory  to  Italy  and  Poland. 
Of  her  former  population  of  about  50,- 
000,000,  she  lost  43,000,000,  and  her 
former  area  of  240,000  square  miles  was 
reduced  proportionately.  She  renounced 
her  extra-European  rights,  accepted  the 
League  of  Nations  covenant  and  agreed 
to  demobilize  her  aerial  forces.  Other 
economic  and  political  concessions  were 
demanded  by  the  Treaty,  which  bore 
heavily  on  the  vanquished  state.  As  in 
the  case  of  Germany,  the  Austrians  pro- 
tested vigorously  against  what  they 
called  the  harshness  of  the  Allied  terms, 
but  after  several  months  of  correspond- 
ence  and   counter-proposals    the   treaty 


was  signed  Sept.  10, 1919.  An  additional 
proviso  made  by  the  Allies  was  that  the 
new  state  must  abandon  the  title  of 
"German  Austria"  and  adopt  that  of 
"The  Republic  of  Austria." 

The  economic  condition  of  Austria 
after  the  war  was  worse  than  that  of 
any  other  of  the  vanquished  Powers, 
During  the  winter  of  1919-1920,  the  in- 
habitants of  Vienna  were  on  the  actual 
brink  of  starvation.  Help  was  afforded 
by  the  nations  of  Europe  and  especially 
by  the  United  States,  and  the  people 
were  tided  through  until  the  harvests 
of  1920  helped  to  bring  about  a  restora- 
tion to  more  normal  conditions.  See 
Relief,  War. 

AUTHORS,  BRITISH  SOCIETY  OF, 

an  association  of  authors  formed  in  Lon- 
don in  1883,  for  social  and  business  pur- 
poses; has  a  governing  committee  of  30 
members;  maintains  an  attractive  club- 
room  and  publishes  a  periodical  called 
"The  Author." 

AUTHORS'  CLUB,  an  American  or» 
ganization  founded  in  New  York  City  ia 
1882,  and  incorporated  in  1887.  It  is 
governed  by  an  executive  committee 
without  a  president.  Any  person  who 
is  the  author  of  a  published  book  proper 
to  literature,  or  of  creditable  literary 
work  equivalent  to  such  a  book,  is  eli- 
gible to  membership. 

AUTHORS'  LEAGUE  OF  AMER- 
ICA, an  organization  of  authors  formed 
to  protect  their  interests  and  those  of 
others  engaged  in  the  production  of 
books  and  works  of  art,  especially  with 
reference  to  copyright.  The  league  gives 
business  advice  to  its  members  and  pro- 
vides confidential  information  in  regard 
to  publishers,  managers,  and  others  en- 
gaged in  the  sale  of  copyright  material. 
Allied  to  the  League  is  the  Authors' 
League  Fund,  which  has  the  object  of 
furnishing  assistance  to  authors  and 
others  in  temporary  financial  difficulties. 
The  league  holds  annual  meetings  at 
which  questions  affecting  writers  and 
publishers  are  discussed. 

AUTOCHTHONES'  (a-tok'tho-nez),  the 
Greek  name  for  the  original  inhabitants 
of  a  country,  not  settlers,  considered  as 
having  sprung  from  the  soil  itself.  The 
Athenians  were  fond  of  being  so  called; 
the  ancients  counted  among  autochthon- 
ous races  also  the  Arcadians,  Latins, 
Gauls,  and  Scythians.  The  Latin  equiv- 
alent term  was  aborigines. 

AUTOCRACY,  a  word  signifying  that 
form  of  government  in  which  the  sover- 
eign unites  in  himself  the  legislative  and 
the  executive  powers  of  the  State,  and 
thus  rules  uncontrolled.     Such  a  sover- 


AUTO  DA  FE 


358 


AUTUMN 


eign   is,  therefore,  called  an  autocrat. 

Nearly  all  Eastern  governments  are  of 
this  form.  Among  European  rulers,  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  alone  bore  the  title 
of  Autocrat,  the  name  indicating  his 
freedom  from  constitutional  restraint  of 
every  kind.  In  point  of  fact,  the  peculiar 
feature  of  an  autocracy  is  the  absence  of 
regular  and  constitutional  limits;  it  is 
a  strong  form  of  personal  rule. 

AUTO  DA  FE  (a'to  da  fa),  or  AUTO 
DE  F:^  ["Act  of  Faith,"  from  Latin  actus, 
act,  and  fides,  faith],  was,  in  certain 
Catholic  countries,  a  solemn  day  for- 
merly held  apart  by  the  Inquisition  for 
the  punishment  of  heretics,  and  the  ab- 
solution of  accused  persons  found  inno- 
cent. Thousands  of  persons  perished  in 
this  manner  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  their 
colonies.  It  was  instituted  in  Spain  in 
1556,  and  the  first  instance  occurred  in 
1560,  at  Valladolid. 

AUTOORAVURE,  a  process  of  photo- 
engraving, patented  by  J.  R.  Sawyer,  of 
London,  in  1884.  If  an  ordinary  auto- 
type carbon  print  be  placed  on  silvered 
copper  instead  of  on  paper,  the  slight 
relief  which  the  picture  possesses  is 
enough  to  admit  of  an  electrotype  being 
taken  from  it.  The  raised  parts  of  the 
print  become  the  depressed  parts  in  the 
electrotype.  The  latter  can,  therefore, 
be  used  for  taking  impressions  from  in 
the  same  way  as  an  engraved  copper- 
plate. 

AUTOLYCUS  (aw-tol'e-kus) ,  a  son  of 
Mercury,  by  Chione,  a  daughter  of  Dae- 
dalion,  and  one  of  the  Argonauts.  His 
exploits  as  a  thief  have  been  greatly  cele- 
brated. 

AUTOMATIC  GUN.  See  Machine 
Gun. 

AUTOMATIC  PISTOL,  an  arm  adopted 
by  the  German  Government  for  use  in 
the  army.  It  is  charged  with  10  cart- 
ridges at  a  time,  may  be  reloaded  with 
great  speed,  and  is  said  to  possess  many 
advantages  over  the  revolver.  The  charg- 
ing is  done  automatically.  The  magazine 
is  in  the  center  of  the  weapon.  A  fea- 
ture of  the  new  weapon  is  a  combina- 
tion, which  enables  the  pistol  to  be 
transformed,  instantly,  into  a  musket. 
This  is  done  by  using  the  case  as  a  butt. 
The  bullet  of  hardened  lead  weighs  five 
and  a  half  grams.  The  caliber  is  7.03 
mm.  The  initial  velocity  of  the  projec- 
tile is  425  meters.  The  sight  is  grad- 
uated to  500  meters,  and  the  extreme 
range  is  about  1,000  meters. 

AUTOMATISM,  a  word  derived  from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  self-move- 
ment, and  usually  applied  to  machinery 


constructed  to  represent  human  or  an- 
imal actions;  automatic,  used  of  an  ap- 
paratus, implies  that  it  does  its  work 
with  little  or  no  guidance  or  interference 
from  man,  as  in  a  telegraphic  automatic 
transmitter.  The  construction  of  autom- 
ata has  occupied  the  attention  of  man- 
kind from  very  early  ages.  Archytas  of 
Tarentum  is  reported,  as  long  ago  as 
400  B.  c,  to  have  made  a  pigeon  that 
could  fly. 

AUTOMOBILES.  See  Motor  Vehici.r. 

AUTONOMY,  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  citizens  of  a  state  manage 
their  own  legislation  and  governnwent; 
and  this  evidently  may,  with  certain  re- 
strictions, be  the  case  also  within  limited 
bodies  of  the  same  people,  such  as  par- 
ishes, corporations,  religious  sects.  These 
districts  or  communities  may  be  auton- 
omous, if  not  absolutely,  yet  within  cer« 
tain  defined  limits.  They  may  be  said  to 
enjoy  a  partial,  limited,  or  local  auton- 
omy. Autonomy  is  often  used  to  desig- 
nate the  characteristic  of  the  political 
condition  of  ancient  Greece,  where  every 
city  or  town  community  claimed  the  right 
of  independent  sovereign  action.  Recently 
the  word  is  more  specifically  used  of 
territories  or  provinces,  which,  while  sub' 
ject  in  some  matter  to  a  higher  sover- 
eignty, are  autonomous  in  other  respects. 
The  self-government  enjoyed  by  the 
British  colonies  may  be  described  as  a 
modified  form  of  autonomy. 

AUTOPLASTY,  a  mode  of  surgical 
treatment  which  consists  in  replacing  a 
diseased  part  by  means  of  healthy  tissue 
from  another  part  of  the  same  body.  The 
most  familiar  instance  is  the  rhinoplastic 
or  taliacotian  operation,  for  supplying  a 
new  nose  from  the  skin  of  the  forehead. 
It  is  more  popularly  known  as  skin- 
grafting. 

AUTOPSY,  eye-witnessing,  a  direct  ob- 
servation; generally  applied  to  a  post 
mortem  examination,  or  the  dissection  of 
a  dead  body. 

AUTOTYPE^  a  method  of  phototyp- 
ing.  Tissue,  bemg  prepared  with  a  liquid 
composed  of  gelatine,  sugar,  and  bi- 
chromate of  potash,  is  then  used  for  tak- 
ing a  collodion  negative  in  the  ordinary 
way.  It  is  next  applied  under  water  with 
the  face  down  to  a  plate  of  glass,  metal, 
or  other  paper,  coated  with  gelatine  and 
chrome  alum.  Means  are  then  taken  to 
remove  the  parts  not  hardened  by  light, 
and,  finally,  by  another  elaborate  process, 
the  plate  is  made  ready  for  the  printing- 
press. 

AUTUMN,  the  season  of  the  year 
which  follows  summer  and  precedes  win- 
ter.    Astronomically,  it  is  considered  to 


AUTUN 


359 


AVALON 


extend  from  the  autumnal  equinox, 
Sept.  23,  in  which  the  sun  enters  Libra, 
to  the  winter  solstice,  Dec.  22,  in  which 
he  enters  Capricorn.  Popularly,  it  is  be- 
lieved to  embrace  the  months  of  Septem- 
ber, October,  and  November. 

AUTUN  (o-tun'),  a  city  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Sa8ne-et-Loire,  on  the 
Arroux,  43  miles  S.  W.  of  Dijon,  on  the 
railroad  to  Nevers.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated.  The  Church  of  St.  Martin, 
built  by  Queen  Brunehaut,  and  contain- 
ing her  tomb,  furnishes  a  variety  of 
architectural  styles.  Autun  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  French  cities,  and  was  made 
a  Roman  colony  by  Augustus,  from  whom 
it  derived  its  old  name  of  Augustodu- 
num.  It  still  presents  many  fine  Roman 
remains.  Talleyrand  was  Bishop  of 
Autun  at  the  commencement  of  the 
French  Revolution;  another  bishop  was 
Abbe  Roquette,  whom  Moliere  immortal- 
ized.   Pop.  about  16,000. 

AUVERGNE  (6-varn),  a  former  prov- 
ince of  central  France,  now  merged  into 
the  departments  of  Cantal  and  Puy-de- 
Dome,  and  an  arrondissement  of  Haute- 
Loire.  The  Auvergne  Mountains,  sep- 
arating the  basins  of  the  AUier,  Cher, 
and  Creuse  from  those  of  the  Lot  and 
Dordogne,  contain  the  highest  points  of 
central  France:  Mt.  Dore,  6,188  feet; 
Cantal,  6,093  feet;  and  Puy-de-D6me, 
4,806  feet. 

AUVERGNE,  COUNTS  AND  DAU- 
PHINS OF,  a  title  which  was,  about 
the  middle  of  the  8th  century,  conferred 
on  Blandin,  who  served  the  Duke  Waif  re 
in  his  opposition  to  Pepin  le  Bref, 
founder  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 
The  name  figures  through  a  great  part 
of  early  French  history. 

AUXEREE  (oz-ar'),  the  chief  town  of 
the  French  department  of  Yonne,  on  the 
Yonne  river,  109  miles  S.  E.  of  Paris, 
in  a  rich  district  abounding  in  vineyards. 
It  presents  an  imposing  aspect  from  a 
distance,  the  most  prominent  feature  be- 
ing the  noble  Gothic  cathedral,  which 
dates  from  1215,  Auxerre  was  a  flourish- 
ing town  before  the  Roman  invasion  of 
Gaul.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Huns  in 
451,  and  in  486  was  wrested  by  Clovis 
from  the  Romans.  The  county  of  Aux- 
errois  came  finally  in  1477  to  the  king- 
dom of  France.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  wine  (a  light  Burgundy),  can- 
dies, chemicals  and  hosiery.  Pop.  about 
25,000. 

AVA,  ARVA,  YAVA,  or  KAVA  {piper 
methysticum) ,  a  plant  of  the  natural  or- 
der piperaceas,  possessing  narcotic  prop- 
erties.   Until  recently,  it  was  ranked  ir 


the  genus  piper  (pepper).  It  is  a 
shrubby  plant,  with  heart-shaped  acum- 
inate leaves,  and  very  short,  solitary, 
axillary  spikes  of  flowers.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  many  of  the  South  Sea  islands, 
where  the  inhabitants  intoxicate  them- 
selves with  a  fermented  liquor  prepared 
from  the  upper  portion  of  the  root  and 
the  base  of  the  stem.  The  narcotic  prop- 
erty is  ascribed  to  an  acrid  resin  kawine, 
which  is  present  in  the  root.  The  intoxi- 
cation is  not  like  that  produced  by  ar- 
dent spirits,  but  rather  a  stupefaction 
like  that  caused  by  opium.  The  habitual 
use  of  ava  causes  a  whitish  scurf  on  the 
skin,  which,  among  the  heathen  Tahiti- 
ans,  was  reckoned  a  badge  of  nobility, 
the  common  people  not  having  the  means 
of  indulgence  re'^uisite  to  produce  it. 
Ava  is,  like  cocaine,  a  local  ansesthetic. 

AVALANCHES,  masses  of  snow  or  ice 
that  slide  or  roll  down  the  declivities 
of  high  mountains,  and  often  occasion 
great  devastation.  They  have  various 
names,  according  to  their  nature.  Drift 
or  powder  avalanches  consist  of  snow, 
which,  loose  and  dry  from  strong  frost, 
once  set  in  motion  by  the  wind,  accumu- 
lates in  its  descent,  and  comes  suddenly 
into  the  valley  in  an  overwhelming  dust- 
cloud.  Avalanches  of  this  kind  occur 
chiefly  in  winter,  and  are  dangerous  on 
account  of  their  suddenness,  suffocating 
men  and  animals,  and  overturning 
houses  by  the  compression  of  the  air 
which  they  cause.  Another  kind  of  ava- 
lanche resembles  a  landslip.  When  the 
snow  begins  to  melt  in  spring,  the  soil 
beneath  becomes  loose  and  slippery;  and 
the  snow  slides  down  the  declivity  by  its 
oviTi  weight,  carrying  with  it  soil,  trees, 
and  rocks.  Ice  avalanches  are  those 
that  are  seen  and  heard  in  summer 
thundering  down  the  steeps — e.  g ,  of 
the  Jungfrau.  They  consist  of  masses 
of  ice  that  detach  themselves  from  the 
glaciers  in  the  upper  regions.  They  are 
most  common  in  July,  August  and  Sep- 
tember. Nine  great  Alpine  avalanches, 
which  cost  447  lives,  are  on  record  be- 
tween 1518  and  1879,  the  most  destruc- 
tive being  one  of  1827,  which  swept  away 
half  the  village  of  Biel,  in  the  upper 
Valais,  with  88  inhabitants. 

AVALON,  a  peninsula  forming  the 
E.  part  of  Newfoundland,  in  which  St. 
John's,  the  capital,  is  situated. 

AVALON,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania 
in  Allegheny  co.,  about  6  miles  W.  of 
Pittsburgh.  It  is  on  the  Ohio  river,  and 
the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago 
railroad.  It  is  a  suburb  of  Pittsburgh 
and  is  entirely  residential.  Pop.  (1910) 
4,317;   (1920)   5,277. 


AVANTURINE 


360 


AVEKNXJS 


AVANTURINE,  or  AVENTURINE,  a 
variety  of  quartz  containing  glittering 
spangles  of  mica  through  it;  also  a  sort 
of  artificial  gem  of  similar  appearance. 

AVARS,  a  people,  probably  of  Turan- 
ian origin,  who  at  an  early  period  may 
have  migrated  from  the  region  E.  of  the 
Tobol  in  Siberia  to  that  about  the  Don, 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Volga.  A  part 
advanced  to  the  Danube  in  555  A.  D.,  and 
settled  in  Dacia.  They  served  in  Justin- 
ian's army,  aided  the  Lombards  in  de- 
stroying the  kingdom  of  the  Gepidse,  and 
in  the  6th  century  conquered  under  their 
khan,  Bajan,  the  region  of  Pannonia. 
They  then  won  Dalmatia,  pressed  into 
Thuringia  and  Italy  against  the  Franks 
and  Lombards,  and  subdued  the  Slavs 
dwelling  on  the  Danube,  as  well  as  the 
Bulgarians  on  the  Black  Sea.  But  they 
were  intimately  limited  to  Pannonia, 
where  they  were  overcome  by  Charle- 
magne, and  nearly  extirpated  by  the 
Slavs  of  Moravia.  After  827  they  dis- 
appear from  history.  Traces  of  their 
fortified  settlements  are  found,  and 
known  as  Avarian  rings. 

AVATAR,  more  properly  AVATARA,  in 
Hindu  mythology,  an  incarnation  of 
the  Deity.  Of  the  innumerable  avatars 
the  chief  are  the  10  incarnations  of 
Vishnu,  who  appeared  successively  as  a 
fish,  a  tortoise,  a  boar. 

AVATCHA,  a  volcano  and  bay  in 
Kamtchatka.  The  volcano,  which  is  9,000 
feet  high,  was  last  active  in  1855.  The 
town  of  Petropavlovsk  lies  in  the  bay. 

AVEBITRY,  a  village  of  England,  in 
Wiltshire,  occupying  the  site  of  a  so- 
called  Druidical  temple,  which  originally 
consisted  of  a  large  outer  circle  of  100 
stones,  from  15  to  17  feet  in  height, 
and  about  40  feet  in  circumference,  sur- 
rounded by  a  broad  ditch  and  lofty  ram- 
part, and  inclosing  two  smaller  circles. 
Few  traces  now  remain  of  the  structure. 
On  the  neighboring  grounds  are  numer- 
ous barrows  or  tumuli,  one  of  which, 
called  Silbury  Hill,  rises  to  the  height 
of  130  feet,  with  a  circumference  of 
2,027  feet  at  the  base,  covering  an  area 
of  more  than  five  acres. 

AVELLANEDA  Y  ARTEAGA,  GER- 
TRUDIS  GOMEZ  DE,  a  distinguished 
Spanish  poet,  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  Puerto  Principe,  Cuba,  March 
23,  1814;  under  the  pseudonym  Per- 
EGRINA  contributed  to  Andalusian  jour- 
nals many  "Lyric  Poems"  (1851-1854), 
and  afterward  wrote  a  series  of  spirited 
novels:  "Two  Women,"  "The  Baroness 
de  Joux,"  and  others.  She  gained  still 
higher  distinction  with  the  tragedies 
"Alfonso  Munio,"  the  hero  of  which  was 


her  own  ancestor,  and  "The  Prince  of 
Viana."  Her  latest  compositions  in. 
elude  the  Biblical  dramas  "Saul"  and 
"Balthasar."  In  the  later  years  of  her 
life  she  composed  16  plays  which  still 
have  a  place  on  the  Spanish  stage.  She 
died  in  Madrid,  Feb.  2,  1873. 

AVE  MARIA  ("Hail,  Mary"),  the 
first  two  words  of  the  angel  Gabriel's 
salutation  (Luke  i:  28),  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  very  common  Latin  prayer 
to  the  Virgin  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Its  lay  use  was  sanctioned  at 
the  end  of  the  12th  century,  and  a  papal 
edict  of  1326  ordains  the  repetition  of 
the  prayer  thrice  each  morning,  noon, 
and  evening,  the  hour  being  indicated 
by  sound  of  bells  called  the  Ave  Maria 
or  Angelus  Domini.  The  prayers  are 
counted  upon  the  small  beads  of  the 
rosary,  as  the  pater  nosters  are  upon  the 
large  ones. 

AVENA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  graminacese,  or  grasses.  The 
A.  fatiia,  or  wild;  the  A.  strigosa,  or 
bristle  pointed;  the  A.  pratenis,  or  nar- 
rowed-leaved  perennial;  the  A.  planicul- 
mus,  or  flat-stemmed;  the  A.  pubesceris, 
or  downy;  and  the  A.  fiavescens,  or  yellow 
oat,  are  species  included  in  this  genus. 
The  first  of  this  species  is  akin  to  the  A. 
saliva,  or  cultivated  oat.  It  is  a  cereal 
suitable  for  cold  climates,  not  reaching 
proper  maturity  in  the  south.  It  attains 
perfection  in  Scotland,  and  is  largely 
grown  there.  A.  nuda  is  the  naked  or 
hill  oat,  or  peel  corn,  formerly  cultivated 
and  used  extensively  by  the  poorer 
classes  in  the  N.  of  England,  Wales  and 
Scotland. 

AVERELL,  WILLIAM  WOODS,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  (Cam- 
eron, N.  Y.,  Nov.  5,  1832;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1855;  served  on  the  frontier  and  in 
several  Indian  campaigns  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed Colonel  of  the  3d  Pennsylvania 
Cavalry,  and  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  cavalry  defenses  of  Washington. 
During  the  war  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  cavalry  rider  and  commander,  and 
at  its  close  was  brevetted  Major-General 
of  volunteers.  He  resigned  from  the 
regular  army  while  holding  the  rank  of 
captain,  in  1865.  He  was  United  States 
Consul-General  at  Montreal  in  1866-1869. 
He  died  at  Bath,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3,  1900. 

AVERNUS,  or  AVERNO,  a  lake  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Naples,  about  2%  miles 
N.  W.  of  Puzzuoli,  and  near  the  coast  of 
Baiae,  the  waters  of  which  were  so  un- 
wholesome and  putrid  that  no  birds  ever 
visited  its  banks.     The  ancients  made  it 


AVEBBHOA 


361 


AVICENNIA 


the  entrance  of  hell,  by  which  Ulysses 
and  iEneas  descended  into  the  lower  re- 
gions. In  the  time  of  Vergil,  a  com- 
munication between  it  and  the  neighbor- 
ing Lucrine  Lake  was  made  by  Agrippa ; 
but  in  1538,  the  latter  was  filled  by  a 
volcanic  eruption,  when  Monte  Nuovo 
rose  in  its  place,  rendering  the  Averno 
again  a  separate  lake.  On  its  banks,  in- 
stead of  pestilential  marshes,  are  now 
beautiful  gardens  and  vineyards.  Here 
was  placed  the  grave  of  Hecate,  and  the 
grotto  of  the  Cumaean  sibyl  is  still  to 
be  seen  here. 

AVERRHOA  (av-er-ho'a),  a  genus  of 
plants,  order  oxalidacese.  It  consists  of 
two  species,  both  of  which  form  small 
trees  in  the  East  Indies.  They  are  re- 
markable for  their  leaves,  which  are  pin- 
nated, possessing,  in  a  slight  degree,  the 
kind  of  irritability  found  in  the  sensi- 
tive plant;  and  for  their  fleshy  oval 
fruits  with  five  thick  longitudinal  wings. 
In  the  carambola  (A.  aciambola) ,  the 
leaves  are  smooth,  the  flowers  of  a 
violet  purple,  and  the  fruit  about  the  size 
of  a  goose's  egg;  it  is  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  and  is  said  to  be  agreeably  acid 
in  the  East  Indies.  The  other  species, 
called  the  blimbing  (A.  blimbi) ,  has 
downy  leaves  and  fruit  resembling  the 
small  cucumber.  The  latter  is  intensely 
acid  and  cannot  be  eaten  raw.  It  is 
pickled  and  candied,  or  a  syrup  is  ob- 
tained from  it  by  boiling  with  sugar, 
and  its  juice  is  found  an  excellent  agent 
for  rempving  iron  mold  or  other  spots 
from  linen.  To  the  Malays  it  answers 
the  same  purposes  as  the  citron,  the 
gooseberry,  the  caper  and  the  cucumber 
of  Europe. 

AVERROES  (av-er-6'az),  or  AVERR- 
HOES  (corrupted  from  Ebn  or  Ibn 
RosHD  or  Rushd),  an  Arabian  philoso- 
pher and  physician,  born  1120.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  chief  magistracy 
of  Cordoba,  capital  of  the  Moorish  do- 
minions in  Spain;  was  afterward  nomi- 
nated chief  judge  in  Morocco,  and,  hav- 
ing there  appointed  deputies  to  his  office, 
he  returned  to  Spain.  The  liberality  of 
his  opinions,  however,  caused  him  to  be 
persecuted  by  the  more  orthodox  Mos- 
lems, and  he  was  imprisoned;  but,  after 
doing  penance  and  making  recantation, 
he  was  liberated.  Averroes  greatly  ad- 
mired Aristotle,  and  his  commentaries  on 
the  writings  of  that  philosopher  procured 
for  him  the  title  of  "The  Commentator." 
Of  the  personal  character  of  Averroes 
almost  nothing  is  known.  Like  every 
Mohammedan,  he  cultivated  jurispru- 
dence; and,  like  every  distinguished 
Arabian,  he  was  devoted  to  poetry.  He 
died  at  Morocco  in  1198. 


AVERY,  SAMUEL,  an  American  ed- 
ucator, born  in  Lamoille,  111.,  in  1865. 
He  graduated  from  Doane  College  in 
1887.  He  took  special  courses  in  science 
at  the  University  of  Nebraska,  and 
studied  also  at  Heidelberg  University, 
iieceiving  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  in  1896. 
He  was  adjunct  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  University  of  Nebraska  from  1896 
to  1899,  professor  of  chemistry  and 
chemist  at  the  Agricultural  Experimen- 
tal Station  at  the  University  of  Idaho 
from  1899  to  1901,  then  returned  to  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  and  in  1905  was 
appointed  chief  professor  of  chemistry 
at  that  institution.  During  1908  to  1909 
he  was  appointed  acting  chancellor,  and 
in  the  latter  year  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  scientific  societies,  the  author 
of  several  reports  on  chemical  subjects, 
a  popular  lecturer  on  educational  topics, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  International 
Conciliation  Commission  with  Sweden  in 
1914  and  1915. 

AVESTA.    See  Zend  Avesta. 

AVEYRON  (a-va-ron),  a  department 
occupying  the  S.  extremity  of  the  cen- 
tral plateau  of  France,  traversed  by 
mountains  belonging  to  the  Cevennes 
and  the  Cantal  ranges;  principal  rivers: 
Aveyron,  Lot  and  Tarn,  the  Lot  alone 
being  navigable.  The  climate  is  cold, 
and  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state, 
but  considerable  attention  is  paid  to 
sheep  breeding.  It  is  noted  for  its 
Roquefort  cheese.  It  has  coal,  iron,  and 
copper  mines,  besides  other  minerals. 
Area,  3,340  square  miles;  capital,  Rhodez. 
Pop.  about  370,000. 

AVIARY,  a  building  or  inclosure  for 
keeping,  breeding  and  rearing  birds. 
Aviaries  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  are 
highly  prized  in  China.  In  England 
they  were  in  use  at  least  as  early  as 
1577,  when  William  Harrison  refers  to 
"our  costlie  and  curious  aviaries."  An 
aviary  may  be  simply  a  kind  of  very 
large  cage;  but  the  term  usually  has  a 
wider  scope  than  this. 

AVICENNIA,  or  WHITE  MAN- 
GROVE, a  genus  of  verbenaceas,  consists 
of  trees  or  large  shrubs  resembling  man- 
groves, and,  like  them,  growing  in  tidal 
estuaries  and  salt  marshes.  Their  creep- 
ing roots,  often  standing  six  feet  above 
the  mud  in  crowded  pyramidal  masses^ 
and  the  naked  asparagus-like  suckers 
which  they  throw  up,  have  a  singular  ap- 
pearance. The  bark  of  A.  tomentosa, 
the  white  mangrove  of  Brazil,  is  much 
used  for  tanning.  A  green,  resinous  sub- 
stance exuding  from  A.  resinifera  is 
eaten    by    the     New    Zealanders.     The 


AVIENUS 


362 


AVON 


genus  is  named  in  memory  of  the  Ara- 
bian physician  Avicenna. 

AVIENUS,  RUFUS  FESTUS  (av-e- 
en'us),  a  Latin  descriptive  poet,  who 
flourished  about  the  end  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  and  wrote  "Descriptio 
Orbis  Terras,"  a  general  description  of 
the  earth;  "Ora  Maritima,"  an  account 
of  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  etc. 

AVIGNON  ( a  v-en-yon' )  ( ancient 
Avenio),  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Vaucluse,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhone,  76  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Mar- 
seilles, on  the  railway  to  Paris.  Avignon 
was  for  a  long  time  the  residence  of  the 
Popes.  It  is  situated  in  a  fine  plain, 
and  is  surrounded  by  high  walls,  flanked 
with  numerous  towers.  The  ancient 
palace  of  the  Popes  stands  on  the  de- 
clivity of  a  rock.  It  is  a  Gothic  build- 
ing of  different  periods,  and  of  vast  ex- 
tent, and  now  serves  as  a  prison,  mili- 
tary depot,  and  barracks.  The  Cathedral 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  des  Dons  is  very 
ancient,  as  is  also  the  spire  of  the 
Church  of  the  Cordeliers.  The  latter 
church  contained  the  tomb  of  Laura,  im- 
mortalized by  Petrarch.  Avignon  ex- 
isted before  the  Roman  invasion,  and 
afterward  became  a  Roman  colony.  In 
1309,  Clement  V.  transferred  thither  the 
abode  of  the  Popes,  who  continued  to  re- 
side here  till  1377,  when  they  returned  to 
Rome;  but  two  schismatical  Popes,  or 
Popes  elected  by  the  French  cardinals, 
resided  in  Avignon  till  1409.  Avignon 
and  its  territory  remained  the  property 
of  the  Holy  See  until  1797,  when  it  was 
incorporated  with  France.  Pop.  about 
50,000. 

AVILA  (a've-la),  a  town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Avila,  a  mod- 
em division  of  Old  Castile.  It  is  the  see 
of  the  bishop  suffragan  of  Santiago,  with 
a  fine  cathedral,  and  was  once  one  of 
the  richest  towns  of  Spain.  Principal 
employment  in  the  town,  spinning;  in 
the  province,  breeding  sheep  and  cattle. 
Pop.    (province)    about    200,000. 

AVITTJS,  MARCUS  MiECILIUS,  an 
Emperor  of  the  West.  He  was  of  a 
Gaulish  family  in  Auvergne,  and  gained 
the  favor  of  Constantius,  the  colleague 
of  Honorius,  and  of  Theodoric,  King  of 
the  Visigoths.  He  served  with  distinc- 
tion under  -^tius,  became  Prefect  of 
Gaul,  and  concluded  a  favorable  treaty 
with  the  Goths.  He  afterward  retired 
into  private  life  until  the  invasion  of  At- 
tila,  when  he  induced  the  Goths  to  join 
the  Romans  against  the  common  enemy. 
Avitus  was  proclaimed  Emperor  in  455, 
took  for  his  colleague  Marcianus,  and 
died  the  year  following. 


AVLONA,  or  VALONA,  the  chief  sea- 
port in  Albania,  in  the  province  of  Janina, 
on  an  eminence  near  the  Gulf  of  Avlona, 
an  inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  protected  by  the 
island  of  Sasseno,  the  ancient  Saso.  The 
independence  of  Albania  was  proclaimed 
here  in  1912.  Pop.  about  6,000.  See 
Albania. 

AVOCA,  or  OVOCA,  a  beautiful  valley 
and  river  of  Ireland,  near  Glendalough, 
in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  and  celebrated 
as  being  the  scene  which  gave  rise  to 
one  of  the  finest  of  Moore's  "Irish  Melo- 
dies." 

AVOCADO,  a  West  Indian  fruit, 
called  also  avocado  pear,  alligator  pear, 
subaltern's  butter  tree,  avigato,  and  sa- 
bacca.  It  belongs  to  the  order  lauracese 
(laurels),  and  is  the  persea  gratissima.  It 
is  found  in  tropical  America.  The  fruit 
is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  large 
pear.  A  considerable  part  of  it  is  be- 
lieved to  consist  of  a  fixed  oil.  It  is 
highly  esteemed.  The  fruit  itself  is  very 
insipid,  on  which  account  it  is  generally 
eaten  with  the  juice  of  lemons  and  sugar 
to  give  it  poignancy. 

AVOCET,  or  AVOSET,  the  English 
name  of  a  genus  of  birds,  with  their  feet 
so  webbed  that  they  might  seem  to  belong 
to  the  natatores  (swimmers),  but  which, 
by  the  other  parts  of  their  structure, 
are  placed  in  the  family  scolopacidss 
(snipes),  and  the  sub-family  totaninse 
(tattlers).  Their  great  peculiarity  is  a 
long,  feeble  bill,  curved  upward,  with 
which  they  explore  the  sand  for  prey. 
Recurvirostra  avocetta  is  a  British  bird. 
It  was  formerly  abundant  in  the  fenny 
districts,  but  is  now  rare.  R.  americaiut 
differs  from  it  by  having  a  red  cap;  and 
there  are  a  few  other  foreign  species. 

AVOGADRO'S  LAW,  in  physics,  as- 
serts that  equal  volumes  of  different 
gases  at  the  same  pressure  and  temper- 
ature contain  an  equal  number  of  mole- 
cules. 

AVOIRDUPOIS,  a  system  of  weights 
used  for  all  goods  except  precious  metals, 
gems,  and  medicines,  and  in  which  a 
pound  contains  16  ounces,  or  7,000  grains, 
while  a  pound  troy  contains  12  ounces, 
or  5,760  grains.  A  hundredweight  con- 
tains 112  pounds  avoirdupois. 

AVON,  the  name  of  several  English 
and  Scottish  rivers,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  that  Avon  which  rises  in  North- 
amptonshire, and  flows  into  the  Severn 
at  Tewkesbury,  after  a  course  of  100 
miles.  On  its  banks  is  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  the  birthplace  and  abode  of 
Shakespeare,  who  has  hence  been  styled 
the  Bard  of  Avon. 


AVONDALE 


363 


AXIS 


AVONDALE,  a  parish  of  Scotland,  in 
the  county  Lanark,  At  the  battle  of 
Drumclog,  fought  near  this  place  June 
1,  1679,  Grahame  of  Claverhouse,  the 
famous  Viscount  Dundee,  was  defeated 
by  the  forces  of  the  Scottish  Covenant. 
A  graphic  description  of  this  battle  is 
found  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "Old  Mor- 
tality." 

AWE,  LOCH,  a  lake  of  Scotland,  in 
Argyleshire,  18  miles  N.  W.  of  Inverary. 
It  is  23  miles  long,  by  3  broad.  On  one 
of  its  many  islands  stand  the  magnificent 
ruins  of  Kilchurn  Castle,  for  centuries 
the  baronial  fortress  of  the  Campbells, 
Earls  of  Breadalbane.  This  lake  re- 
ceives the  river  Urchan;  and  at  its  N. 
W.  extremity  rises  the  great  mountain  of 
Ben  Cruachan,  3,670  feet  in  height. 

AX,  or  AXE,  an  instrument  for  cutting 
or  chopping  timber  or  smaller  pieces  of 
wood.  As  a  rule,  it  is  used  with  both 
hands,  while  a  hatchet,  which  is  smaller, 
is  intended  for  one. 

AXIL,  in  botany,  the  angle  between 
the  upper  side  of  a  leaf  and  the  stem 
or  branch  from  which  it  grows.  Buds 
usually  grow  out  from  the  stem  in  axils 
of  leaves,  and  this  position  is  naturally 
termed  axillary.  In  anatomical  termi- 
nology, the  axilla  is  the  armpit. 

AXIM,  an  important  station  and  port 
on  the  African  Gold  Coast,  a  little  to  the 
E.  of  the  mouth  of  th_e  Ancobrah  river. 

AXINITE,  a  triclinic  mineral,  called 
also  yanolit  and  thumite.  The  crystals 
are  broad  with  their  edges  sharp.  It  is 
found,  both  in  its  normal  state  and  al- 
tered, in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States. 

AXIOM,  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  de- 
cision or  assumption,  is  commonly  used 
to  signify  a  general  proposition  which 
the  understanding  recognizes  as  true,  as 
soon  as  the  import  of  the  words  convey- 
ing it  is  apprehended.  Such  a  proposi- 
tion is,  therefore,  known  directly,  and 
does  not  need  to  be  deduced  from  any 
other.  Mathematicians  used  the  word 
axiom  to  denote  those  propositions  which 
they  must  assume  as  known  from  some 
other  source  than  deductive  reasoning, 
and  employ  in  proving  all  the  other 
truths  of  the  science.  The  rigor  of 
method  requires  that  no  more  be  as- 
sumed than  are  absolutely  necessary. 
Every  self-evident  proposition,  therefore, 
is  not  an  axiom  in  this  sense,  though,  of 
course,  it  is  desirable  that  every  axiom 
be  self-evident;  thus,  Euclid  rests  the 
whole  of  geometry  on  15  assumptions, 
but  he  proves  propositions  that  are  at 
least   as  self-evident   as   some   that   he 


takes  for  granted.  Euclid's  assumptions 
are  divided  into  three  postulates,  or  de- 
mands, and  12  common  notions ;  the  term 
axiom  is  of  later  introduction.  The  dis- 
tinction between  axioms  and  postulates 
is  usually  stated  in  this  way:  an  axiom 
is  "a  theorem  granted  without  demon- 
stration;" a  postulate  is  "a  problem 
granted  without  construction" — as,  to 
draw  a  straight  line  between  two  given 
points. 

AXIS,  a  straight  line,  real  or  imagi- 
nary, passing  through  a  body,  and  around 
which  that  body  revolves,  or  at  least  may 
revolve;  also,  the  imaginary  line  con- 
necting the  poles  of  a  planet,  and  around 
which  the  planet  rotates. 

In  geometry,  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
through  a  plane  figure,  and  about  which 
the  plane  figure  is  supposed  to  revolve, 
with  the  result  of  defining  the  limits  of 
a  solid. 

In  astronomy  the  axis  of  the  earth  or 
the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  earth,  is  that 
diameter  about  which  it  revolves.  It  is 
the  one  which  has  for  its  extremities  the 
North  and  South  Poles.  The  term  is 
similarly  used  of  the  sun,  the  moon,  and 
the  planets.  The  axis  of  the  celestial 
sphere  is  the  imaginary  line  around 
which  the  heavens  appear  to  revolve.  The 
axis  of  an  orbit  is  the  major  axis  of 
the  orbit  of  a  planet,  the  line  joining  the 
aphelion  and  perihelion  points.  The 
minor  axis  is  the  line  perpendicular  to 
the  former,  and  passing  through  the 
center  of  the  ellipse. 

In  mechanics,  the  axis  of  suspension 
of  a  pendulum  is  the  point  from  which  it 
is  suspended,  and,  consequently,  around 
which  it  turns. 

In  optics,  the  axis  of  a  lens  is  a  line 
passing  through  the  center  of  its  curved, 
and  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  surface. 

In  architecture,  a  spiral  axis  is  the 
axis  of  a  spirally  twisted  column.  The 
axis  of  an  Ionic  capital  is  a  line  passing 
perpendicularly  through  the  middle  of 
the  eye  of  the  volute. 

In  geology  an  axis  is  an  imaginary 
line  on  the  opposite  sides  of  -^hich  the 
strata  dip  in  different  directions.  If  the 
angle  formed  at  their  point  of  junction  be 
a  salient  one,  they  form  an  anticlinal 
axis,  or  anticlinal;  but,  if  it  is  a  re- 
entering one,  then  they  constitute  a 
synclinal  axis,  or  synclinal. 

In  botany,  the  axis  is  that  part  of  a 
plant  around  which  the  organs  are  ssmi- 
metrically  arranged.  The  ascending  axis 
means  the  stem.  The  descending  axis  is 
the  root,  Recessory  axes  are  axes  in 
addition  to  the  main  one,  found  in  the 
stems  of  calycanthus,  chiraonanthus,  and 
some  other  plants.     The  appendages  of 


AXIS 


364 


AYR 


the  axis  are  scales,  leaves,  bracts,  flowers, 
sexes,  and  fruit.  The  axis  of  in- 
florescence is  a  peduncle  which  proceeds 
in  a  nearly  straight  line  from  the  base 
to  the  apex  of  the  inflorescence. 

In  anatomy,  the  axis  of  the  body  is  the 
vertebral  column,  around  which  the  other 
portions  of  the  frame  are  arranged. 

AXIS,  a  species  of  deer,  the  cervus 
axis,  found  in  India.  It  is  spotted  like 
the  fallow  deer,  from  which,  however, 
the  adult  males,  at  least,  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  their  possessing  round 
horns  without  a  terminal  palm.  There 
are  several  varieties,  if,  indeed,  they  are 
not  distinct  species.  All  are  called  by 
Anglo-Indian  sportsmen  hog   deer. 

AXMINSTER,  a  market  town  of 
England,  in  the  county  Devon,  on  the 
Axe,  at  one  time  celebrated  for  its  woolen 
cloth  and  carpet  manufactures,  and  giv- 
ing name  to  an  expensive  variety  of 
carpet  having  a  thick,  soft  pile,  and  also 
to  a  cheaper  variety.    Pop.  about  3,000. 

AXOLOTL  (amblystovta  onaculatum), 
a  curious  Mexican  amphibian,  not  unlike 
a  newt,  from  8  to  10  inches  in  length, 
with  gills  formed  of  three  long,  ramified 
or  branch-like  processes  floating  on  each 
side  of  the  neck.  It  reproduces  by  lay- 
ing eggs.  The  axolotl  is  esteemed  a 
luxury  by  the  Mexicans.  There  are  a 
number  of  spyecies  of  amblystoma  in 
North  America. 

AXUM,  a  town  in  Tigre,  a  division  of 
Abyssinia,  once  the  capital  of  an  im- 
portant kingdom,  and  at  one  time  the 
great  depot  of  the  ivory  trade  in  the 
Red  Sea. 

AYACUCHO  (a-ya-ko'cho),  formerly 
Huamanga  or  Guamanga,  a  town  in  the 
Peruvian  department  of  the  same  name, 
220  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Lima.  Founded  by 
Pizarro  in  1539,  it  is  now  a  handsome 
and  thriving  town.  Here,  on  Dec.  9, 
1824,  the  combined  forces  of  Peru  and 
Columbia — the  latter  then  comprising 
Ecuador,  New  Granada,,  and  Venezuela — 
totally  defeated  the  last  Spanish  army 
that  ever  set  foot  on  the  continent.  Pop. 
(ibout  300,000;  town,  about  10,000. 

AYE-AYE,  an  animal  of  Madagascar, 
so  called  from  its  cry,  now  referred  to  the 
lemur  family.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
hare,  has  large,  flat  ears  and  a  bushy 
tail;  large  eyes;  long,  sprawling  fingers, 
the  third  so  slender  as  to  appear 
shriveled ;  color,  musk-brown,  mixed  with 
black  and  gray  ash;  feeds  on  grubs, 
fruits,  etc.;  habits,  nocturnal. 

AYEEN,  or  AKBERY,  a  very  valuable 
statistical  description  of  the  Mogul  Em- 


pire as  it  was  in  the  reign  of  Akbar.  It 
was  compiled  by  Abul  Fazi,  the  Vizier 
of  the  Emperor  Akbar.  There  is  an 
English  translation   of  it  by  Gladwin. 

AYESHAH  (I-esh'a),  also  AYSHA  or 
AISHA,  the  favorite  wife  of  Mohammed, 
and  daughter  of  Abu-Bekr,  was  born  at 
Medina  about  610  A.  D.,  and  was  only 
nine  years  of  age  when  the  Prophet 
married  her.  She  was  the  only  one  of 
Mohammed's  wives  who  accompanied 
him  in  his  campaigns.  Although  Ayeshah 
bore  no  children  to  Mohammed,  she  was 
tenderly  beloved  by  him.  She  was  ac- 
cused of  adultery,  but  Mohammed  pro- 
duced a  revelation  from  Heaven  (now  in 
the  Koran)  to  the  effect  that  she  was 
innocent.  Mohammed  expired  in  her 
arms  (632).  She  now  successfully  ex- 
ercised her  influence  to  pi'event  Ali,  the 
Prophet's  son-in-law,  from  becoming 
caliph,  and  secured  the  succession  for  her 
father,  Abu-Bekr.  Again,  on  Othman's 
death,  she  headed  a  force  to  resist  the 
accession  of  Ali,  but  the  troops  under 
her  were  in  656  defeated  by  Ali,  and 
she  was  taken  prisoner.  She  died  at 
Medina  (677  A.  D.),  highly  venerated  by 
all  true  Mussulmans,  and  named  the 
Prophetess  and  the  Mother  of  Believers. 

AYLESFOBD,  a  town  and  parish  of 
England,  in  the  county  of  Kent,  3  miles 
from  Maidstone.  In  its  vicinity  is  the 
remarkable  monument  called  Kit's  Coty 
House,  a  kind  of  Druidical  cromlech  of 
which  the  origin  is  obscure,  and  much 
contested  among  antiquaries. 

AYOUBITES,    or    AYYUBITES,    the 

Saracenic  dynasty  founded  by  Saladin, 
which  in  Egypt  supplanted  the  Fatimite 
caliphs,  about  1171  A.  D.  Several  of  the 
descendants  of  Saladin,  known  as  Ayou- 
bites,  afterward  ruled  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
Armenia  and  Arabia  Felix.  In  the  13th 
century  their  power  was  destroyed  by 
the  Mamelukes. 

AYR  (ar),  a  town  of  Scotland,  a 
royal  and  parliamentary  borough  and 
capital  of  Ayrshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Ayr,  near  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  It 
was  the  site  of  a  Roman  station.  William 
the  Lion  built  a  castle  here  in  1197  and 
constituted  it  a  royal  borough  in  1202; 
and  the  Parliament  which  confirmed 
Robert  Bruce's  title  to  the  crown  sat  in 
Ayr.  Two  bridges  connect  Ayr  proper 
with  the  suburbs  of  Newton  and  Wallace- 
town.  One  of  the  bridges,  opened  in 
1879,  occupies  the  place  of  the  "new 
brig"  of  Burns'  "Brigs  of  Ayr,"  the  "auld 
brig"  (built  1252)  being  still  serviceable 
for  foot  traffic.  Carpets  and  lace  curtains 
are  manufactured.  There  is  a  consider- 
able shipping  trade,  especially  in  coals. 


AYRES 


365 


AZEGLIO 


The  house  in  which  Burns  was  born  is 
within  1%  miles  of  the  town,  and  a 
monument  to  him  stands  on  a  height 
between  the  kirk  and  the  bridge  over  the 
Doon.    Pop.  about  35,000. 

AYRES,  BROWN,  an  American  ed- 
ucator, born  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  in  1856. 
He  was  educated  at  private  schools, 
studied  engineering  at  the  Washington 
and  Lee  University  and  at  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology,  and  also  took 
post-graduate  courses  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  He  was  professor  of  physics 
at  the  College  of  Technology  of  Tulane 
University  from  1880  to  1904,  and  was 
dean  of  the  college  from  1894  to  1900. 
From  1900  to  1904  he  was  vice-chairman 
of  the  faculty,  and  from  1901  to  1904  was 
dean  of  the  academic  college.  He  was 
acting  president  of  Tulane  University 
in  1904  and  in  the  same  year  was  made 
president  of  the  University  of  Tennessee. 
He  was  a  member  of  several  engineering 
societies  and  in  1910  was  president  of 
the  National  Association  of  State  Uni- 
versities. 

AYRSHIRE,  a  county  of  Scotland,  in 
the  southwestern  division.  It  has  an 
area  of  1,132  square  miles.  The  county 
for  the  most  part  is  hilly.  It^  has  im- 
portant deposits  of  minerals,  including 
coal,  limestone,  and  freestone.  Agri- 
culture is  highly  developed  and  cattle 
raising  has  reached  an  advanced  state. 
The  leading  manufactures  are  iron,  tex- 
tiles, and  lace.  There  are  also  important 
fisheries  and  shipyards.  The  capital  is 
Ayr.  Other  important  towns  are  Kil- 
marnock, Ardrossan,  and  Dundonald. 
Fop.   about   275,000. 

A  Y  T  O  U  N,  WILLIAM  EDMOND- 
STOXJNE,  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1813;  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  became  a  writer 
to  the  signet  in  1835,  and  passed  as  ad- 
vocate in  1840.  He  issued  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1832,  by  1836  was  a  contributor 
to  "Blackwood's  Magazine,"  and  he 
published  the  "Life  and  Times  of  Richard 
I."  in  1845.  In  1848  he  published  a  col- 
lection of  ballads  entitled  "Lays  of  the 
Scottish  Cavaliers,"  which  has  proved 
the  most  popular  of  all  his  works.  He 
also  published  the  "Bon  Gaultier  Ballads" 
(parodies  and  other  humorous  pieces,  in 
conjunction  with  Theodore  Martin), 
1855;  in  1856  the  poem  "Bothwell,"  and 
in  subsequent  years  by  "Norman  Sin- 
clair," "The  Glenmutchkin  Railway,"  and 
other  stories.  In  1858  he  edited  a  critical 
and  annotated  collection  of  the  "Ballads 
of  Scotland."  A  translation  of  the  poems 
and  ballads  of  Goethe  was  executed  by 
him  in  conjunction  with  Theodore  Martin. 


In  1845  he  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
and  English  Literature  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  a  place  he  held  till  his 
death.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  sheriff 
of  Orkney  and  Shetland.  He  died  at 
Blackhills,  Elgin,  1865. 

AYUNTAMIENTO  (a-on-tam-yen'to) , 
the  name  given  in  Spain  to  the  councils 
or  governing  bodies  of  towns.  Sprung 
from  the  institutions  of  the  Romans,  and 
firmly  established  during  the  long  strug- 
gles with  the  Moors,  the  ayuntamientos 
acquired  great  influence  and  political 
power,  the  nobility  being  admitted  t(? 
them  without  their  class  privileges.  The 
aynntamiento,  with  the  alcalde  as  presi- 
dent, was  appointed  by  the  free  choice  of 
the  people.  The  government  could  pro- 
visionally annul  its  acts,  but  must  after- 
ward procure  the  ratification  of  the 
Cortes.  The  ayuntamientos  were  em- 
powered to  make  up  the  lists  of  electors 
and  jurors,  to  organize  the  national 
guards,  to  command  the  police  within 
their  own  bounds,  to  direct  the  apportion- 
ment and  raising  of  taxes,  etc.  The 
municipal  law  of  1870  deprived  them  of 
all  political  authority,  and  regulated 
them  as  administrative  bodies,  subject 
in  certain  respects  to  the  authorities  of 
the  provinces,  the  law  courts,  and  the 
Cortes. 

AZALEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  ericacese  (heathworts).  Sev- 
eral foreign  azaleas  are  cultivated  in 
gardens  and  greenhouses  on  account  of 
the  abundance  of  their  fine  flowers,  and, 
in  some  cases,  their  fragrant  smell.  There 
are  numerous  varieties  of  the  species, 
and  hybrids  may  be  formed  between 
azalea  and  the  nearly-allied  genus  rhodo- 
dendron. Azaleas  are  best  cultivated  in 
a  peaty  soil.  The  most  delici.te  species 
is  azalea  indica. 

AZEGLIO  (a-zal'yo).  MASSIMO 
TAPARELLI,  MARQUIS  D',  an  Italian 
author,  artist,  diplomatist,  and  states- 
man, born  at  Turin,  in  1801,  was  the  de- 
scendant of  an  ancient  and  noble  Pied- 
montese  family.  At  the  age  of  14  he 
was  excommunicated  for  an  assault  upon 
his  teacher,  who  was  an  ecclesiastic. 
In  1816  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Rome,  where  he  studied  painting  and 
music.  In  1830  he  married  the  daughter 
of  Manzoni,  the  great  novelist,  and  wrote 
several  romances.  The  earliest  of  these, 
"Ettore  Fieramosca,"  published  in  1833, 
found  great  favor.  His  next  romance, 
"Niccolo  de'  Lapi,"  published  eight  years 
afterward,  became  equally  popular,  and 
is  esteemed  by  Italian  critics  the  best 
historical  novel  in  any  language.  In 
1842  Azeglio  abandoned  his  favorite  pur- 


AZERBAIJAN- 


866 


AZORES 


suits,  and,  with  his  friends,  Balbo  and 
Gioberti,  he  made  a  tour  through  the 
provinces  of  Italy,  awakening  the  revo- 
lutionary spirit  which  troubled  the  last 
years  of  Gregory  XVI.  After  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848  he  supported  the  cause  of 
the  King  of  Piedmont,  and,  at  the  head 
of  the  Papal  troops^  fought  against  the 
Austrians  at  Vicenza,  where  he  was 
wounded.  In  1849,  Victor  Emmanuel  ap- 
pointed him  President  of  the  Cabinet  of 
Ministers,  which  office  he  resigned  in  1852 
to  his  political  adversary,  Count  Cavour. 
In  1859,  after  the  peace  of  Villafranca, 
he  undertook  a  confidential  mission  as 
Ambassador  Extraordinary  to  England; 
and  was  afterward  appointed  governor 
of  the  city  of  Milan.  He  died  Jan.  15, 
1866. 

AZERBAIJAN,  REPUBLIC  OF.  This 
new  state  of  Transcaucasia  had  its 
birth  in  circumstances  resulting  from 
the  World  War.  Its  frontiers  are  not 
yet  defined  with  precision,  but  it  has  an 
area  of  about  57,000  square  miles  in  east- 
ern Caucasia,  is  bounded  on  the  south 
and  east  by  Persia  and  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  on  the  north  and  west  by  Daghestan 
and  Georgia.  The  population  is  mixed, 
though  the  bulk  is  of  Iranian  stock 
with  a  mixture  of  Tartars  and  Turks. 
After  the  overthrow  of  the  Russian  Czar 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Soviet 
regime  the  people  of  Azerbaijan,  to- 
gether with  those  of  Georgia  and  Rus- 
sian Armenia,  broke  away  from  Russia 
and  formed  a  joinf  state,  April  22,  1918, 
which  they  styled  the  Federal  Republic 
of  Transcaucasia.  The  interests  of  the 
different  peoples,  however,  were  so  di- 
vergent that  the  experiment  came  to  an 
end  in  about  five  weeks.  Georgia  was 
swayed  by  German  influences,  the  people 
of  Azerbaijan  were  sympathetic  with 
the  Turks  who  were  their  co-religionists, 
while  Armenia  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  Allied  cause.  The  Transcaucasian 
Republic  therefore  dissolved  into  its  com- 
ponent parts,  May  26,  1918,  and  two 
days  later  Azerbaijan  declared  its  own 
independence. 

Baku,  the  great  oil  center  and  seaport 
of  Azerbaijan,  was  at  the  time  held  by 
the  Bolshevists,  who  in  the  early  spring 
had  captured  it  after  a  battle  in  which 
the  natives  lost  12,000  in  killed.  The 
new  government  which  had  established 
its  seat  at  Elizabetpol  appealed  for  aid 
to  the  Turks,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
the  latter  retook  Baku  and  drove  back 
a  Bolshevist  army  that  was  threatening 
Elizabetpol.  The  Azerbaijan  Govern- 
ment then  invited  General  Thomson,  the 
commander  of  British  troops  stationed  on 
Persian  territory,  to  occupy  Baku,  for  the 


sake  of  strengthening  its  defense.  The 
request  was  acceded  to,  and  British 
troops  took  possession  of  the  town  Nov. 
17,  1918.  At  the  end  of  1919  the  troops 
were  withdrawn.  The  independence  of 
Azerbaijan  was  acknowledged  by  the 
Allies  in  January,  1920. 

The  Azerbaijan  Parliament  consists 
of  120  members,  elected  by  universal  suf- 
frage. Representatives  of  the  various 
races  in  the  state,  Russians,  Armenians, 
Poles,  and  Jews,  are  included  jn  the 
membership.  The  members  of  the  Cab- 
inet are  responsible  to  Parliament.  The 
national  budget  for  1919  was  put  at 
665,000,000  rubles.  The  great  source  of 
revenue  for  state  purposes  is  the  petro- 
leum industry. 

AZIMUTH,  the  angular  distance  of  a 
celestial  object  from  the  N.  or  _S.  point 
of  the  horizon  (according  as  it  is  the  N. 
or  S.  pole  which  is  elevated),  when  the 
object  is  referred  to  the  horizon  by  a 
vertical  circle.  Or  the  angle  comprised 
between  two  vertical  planes,  one  passing 
through  the  elevated  pole,  the  other 
through  the  object.  It  is  generally 
reckoned  eastward  or  westward,  from  the 
N.  or  S.  point  for  180°  either  way;  but 
Herschel  prefers  always  reckoning  it 
from  the  points  of  the  horizon  most  re- 
mote from  the  elevated  pole  westward, 
so  as  to  agree  in  its  general  direction 
with  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the 
stars.  Of  course,  he  therefore  counts 
from  0°  to  360°.  Azimuths,  called  also 
vertical  circles,  are  great  circles  inter- 
secting each  other  in  the  zenith  and 
nadir,  and  cutting  the  horizon  at  right 
angles  in  all  the  points  thereof.  On 
these  are  reckoned  the  altitude  of  the 
stars,  and  of  the  sun  when  he  is  not  in 
the  meridian.  A  magnetical  azimuth  is 
an  arch  of  the  horizon,  contained  between 
the  sun's  azimuth  circle  and  the  mag- 
netical meridian;  or  it  is  the  apparent 
distance  of  the  sun  from  the  N.  or  S. 
point  of  the  compass. 

AZORES,  or  WESTERN  ISLANDS, 
a  Portuguese  archipelago,  in  the  mid- 
Atlantic,  between  36°  55'  and  39°  55'  N. 
lat.  and  between  25°  10'  and  31°  16'  W. 
long.  Stretching  over  a  distance  of  400 
miles,  their  nine  islands  are  divided  into 
three  distinct  groups — Sta.  Maria  and 
Sao  Miguel  in  the  S.  E.;  Terceira, 
Sao  Jorge,  Pico,  Graciosa,  and  Fayal  in 
the  middle;  and  Flores  and  Corvo  in 
the  N.  W.  Of  these,  Flores  lies  1,176 
miles  W.  of  Cape  Rocca  in  Portugal, 
1,484  S.  W.  of  Falmouth,  and  1,708 
E.  S.  E.  of  Halifax.  In  1431-1453  the 
Azores  were  taken  possession  of  by  the 
Portuguese.      They   were   at   that '  time 


AZOTE 


367 


AZTECS 


uninhabited;  but  that  they  had  been  vis- 
ited by  the  Carthaginians  is  proved  by 
Punic  coins  found  on  Corvo.  They  seem 
to  have  been  known  to  the  Arabian 
geographer  Edrisi  in  the  12th  century; 
and  they  are  marked  distinctly  on  a 
map  of  1351.  The  Portuguese  colo- 
nists called  the  whole  group  Azores,  from 
acor  or  azor,  a  hawk;  and  they  named 
two  individual  islands,  Corvo  and  Sao 
Jorge,  from  Corvi  Marini  and  San 
Zorze,  which,  according  to  a  map  of 
1375,  had  been  previously  seen  in  the 
Western  ocean.  In  1466  Alfonso  V. 
made  a  life  grant  of  the  island  of  Fayal 
to  his  aunt,  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy, 
and  from  this  circumstance  many  set- 
tlers migrated  thither  from  Flanders. 

The  total  area  of  the  group  is  919 
square  miles,  and  the  pop.  about  260,000. 
The  capital  is  Angra,  in  Terceira;  but 
Ponta  Delgada,  in  Sao  Miguel,  is  a  larger 
town.  The  Azores  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  with  the  exception  of  Corvo, 
Flores,  and  Graciosa,  are  still  liable  to 
eruptions  and  violent  earthquakes,  the 
worst  of  21  shocks  since  1444  having  been 
those  of  1591,  1638,  1719,  and  1841.  Hot 
mineral  springs  are  numerous;  and  the 
baths  of  Furnas,  in  Sao  Miguel,  are  much 
resorted  to  by  invalids.  The  islands  have 
a  considerable  trade  in  fruit  with  Portu- 
gal, England,  Brazil,  and  other  countries. 
The  greatest  want  of  the  group  is  a  good 
harbor.  The  Azores  are  regarded  as  a 
province,  not  a  colony,  of  Portugal,  and 
as  belonging  to  Europe. 

AZOTE,  a  name  formerly  given  to 
nitrogen;  hence  substances  containing 
nitrogen  and  forming  part  of  the  struc- 
ture of  plants  and  animals  are  known 
as  azotized  bodies.  Such  are  albumen, 
fibrine,  casein,  gelatine,  urea,  kreatine, 
etc. 

AZOTINE,  a  substance  procured  by 
decomposing  wool  by  the  action  of  steam 
at  150°  C.  under  a  pressure  of  five  at- 
mospheres; the  product,  afterward  dried 
by  evaporation,  contains  nitrogen  com- 
pletely soluble  in  water.  Azotine  is 
mixed  with  dried  blood  for  a  fertilizer. 

AZOV,  a  town  in  the  S.  of  Russia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Don,  7  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  inhabitants  depend 
mostly  on  fish-curing.  Pop.  about  30,000. 
Azov  was  built  9  miles  from  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Greek  colony  of  Tanais;  and 
when,  in  the  13th  century,  it  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Genoese,  they  al- 
tered its  name  to  Tana.  They  were  driven 
out  of  it  by  Timur  (Tamerlane)  in  1392. 
In  1471  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and 
in  1696  by  Peter  the  Great;  and  it  was 
finally  ceded  to  Rugsia  in  1774. 


AZOV,  SEA  OF,  named  after  the  town, 
is  a  large  gulf  of  the  Black  Sea.  formed 
by  the  Crimean  peninsula,  or  rather  an 
inland  lake  connected  with  the  Black 
Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Yenikale  or  Kertch 
(ancient  Bosporus  Cimmerius),  28  miles 
long,  and  barely  4  wide  at  the  narrowest. 
The  intricate  Siwash  or  Putrid  Sea, 
which  is  just  a  succession  of  swamps,  is 
cut  off  from  the  W.  portion  of  the  Sea  of 
Azov  by  the  long,  narrow  slip  of  low, 
sandy  land  called  the  Peninsula  of  Ara- 
bat.  The  ancient  name  of  the  Sea  of 
Azov  was  Palus  Maeotis  or  Miotic  marsh, 
from  the  Maeotoe  dwelling  on  its  shores; 
by  the  Turks  it  is  called  Balik-Denghis, 
or  fish  sea,  from  its  abundance  of  fish. 
The  water  is  almost  fresh.  The  whole 
sea  is  shallow,  from  3  to  52  feet  deep; 
and  measuring  235  by  110  miles,  it  occu- 
pies an  area  of  14,500  square  miles.  The 
largest  river  emptjdng  into  it  is  the  Don. 
During  the  Crimean  War,  an  expedition, 
having  on  board  16,500  English,  French, 
and  Turks,  was  sent  to  the  sea  in  May, 
1855,  which  bombarded  the  ports,  and 
cut  off  supplies  intended  for  Sebastopol, 

AZPEITIA  (ath-plt'ya),  a  town  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Guipuzcoa,,  in  a  fine 
valley  on  the  Urola,  18  miles  S.  W.  of 
San  Sebastian.  A  mile  from  it  is  the 
famous  convent  of  Loyola,  now  converted 
into  a  museum  (1683).  It  comprises  a 
tower  of  the  Santa  Casa,  in  which  St. 
Ignatius  of  Loyola,  the  great  founder  of 
the  Jesuits,  was  born  in  1491.  Here 
every  year  in  July  a  great  festival  is 
held  in  his  honor,  to  which  pilgrims  flock 
from  all  quarters. 

AZRAEL,  the  name  given  to  the  angel 
of  death  by  the  Mohammedans. 

AZREK,  BAHR-EL,  or  the  BLUE 
RIVER,  the  principal  stream  of  Abys- 
sinia, which,  after  a  winding  course 
through  Abyssinia  and  Sennaar,  falls  in- 
to the  Nile  above  Gerri. 

AZTECS,  a  race  of  people  who  settled 
in  Mexico  early  in  the  14th  century,  ul- 
timately extended  their  dominion  over  a 
large  territory,  and  were  still  extending 
their  supremacy  at  the  time  of  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Spaniards,  by  whom  they 
were  speedily  subjugated.  Their  political 
organization,  termed  by  the  Spanish 
writers  an  absolute  monarchy,  appears 
to  have  consisted  of  a  military  chief  ex- 
ercising important,  but  not  unlimited, 
power  in  civil  affairs,  in  which  the  coun- 
cil of  chiefs  and  periodic  assemblies  of 
the  judges  had  also  a  voice.  Their  most 
celebrated  ruler  was  Montezuma,  who 
was  reigning  when  the  Spaniards  ar- 
rived. Slavery  and  polygamy  were  both 
legitimate,    but   the   children    of   slaves 


AZTECS 


368 


AZTECS 


were  regarded  as  free.  Although  igno- 
rant of  the  horse,  ox,  etc.,  they  had  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  agriculture,  maize 


cord  events  they  used  an  unsolved  hiero- 
glyphic writing,  and  their  lunar  cal- 
endars were  of  unusual  accuracy.  Two 
special   deities  claimed  their   reverence. 


AZTEC  ALTAR  PIECE   IN  THE  TEMPLE  AT 
PALENQUE 


HINTZILOPOCHTLI,  AZTEC  GOD  OF  WAR 


Hintzilopochtli,  the  god  of  war,  propi- 
and  the  agave  being  the  chief  produce,  tiated  with  human  sacrifices;  and  Quet- 
Silver,  lead,  tin,  and  copper  were  ob-  zalcoatl,  the  beneficent  god  of  light  and 
tained  from   mines,   and   gold  from   the     air,  with  whom  at  first  the  Aztecs  were 


AZTEC   PALACE  AT    MITLA,  MEXICO 

surface    of    river    beds,    but    iron    was  disposed     to     identify     Cortez.       Their 

unknown  to  them,  their  tools  being  of  temples,  with  large,  terraced,  pyramidal 

bronze    and    obsidian.      In    metal-work,  bases,  were  in  charge  of  an  exceedingly 

feather-work,  weaving  and  pottery  they  large  priesthood,  with  whom  lay  the  edu- 

possessed  a  high  degree  of  skill.    To  re-  cation  of  the  young.     As  a  civilization 


AZTJLINE 


369 


AZURITE 


of  apparently  independent  origin,  yet 
closely  resembling  in  many  features  the 
archaic  Oriental  civilizations,  the  Aztec 
civilization  is  of  the  first  interest. 
Some  of  the  Aztec  descendants  still  re- 
tain their  ancient  language, 

AZTJLINE,  or  AZURINE,  blue  dyes  be- 
longing to  the  coal-tar  class. 

AZUNI,  DOMENICO  ALBERTO  (az- 
6'ne),  an  Italian  jurist,  born  in  Sassari, 
Sardinia,  in  1749.  He  became  judge  of 
the  Tribunal  of  Commerce  at  Nice,  and 
in  1795  published  a  work  m  vi'hich  he 
endeavored  to  reduce  maritime  laws  to 
fixed  principles,  and  which  appeared  in 
French  in  1805,  under  the  title  of  "Droit 
Maritime  de  I'Europe."  Napoleon  ap- 
pointed  him   one   of   the   commissioners 


for  compiling  the  new  commercial  code. 
He  died  Jan.  23,  1827. 

AZURE,  the  heraldic  term  for  the 
color  blue,  represented  in  engraving  by 
horizontal  lines. 

AZTJRINE  (leuciscus  cssruleus),  a 
fresh  water  fish  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
roach,  chub  and  minnow;  called  also  blue 
roach. 

AZTJRITE,  a  mineral,  called  also 
lazulite;  also  a  brittle,  transparent,  or 
subtranslucent  mineral,  with  monoclinic 
crystals.  The  luster  is  vitreous,  or  verg- 
ing on  adamantine;  the  color  azure-blue, 
passing  into  Berlin  blue.  It  is  found 
in  England,  as  also  in  France,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  Siberia. 


B,  b,  the  second  letter  and  the  first  con- 
sonant in  the  English  alphabet,  as  it  is 
also  in  the  other  languages  of  the  Aryan 
family  spoken  in  Europe.  A  sound  and 
character  corresponding  to  the  English  b 
and  the  Greek  beta  is  the  second  letter 
and  the  first  consonant  in  Phoenician,  He- 
brew, Samaritan,  AramaiC;  Arabic,  and 
Koptic.  In  Ethiopic,  however,  beth 
stands  tenth  instead  of  second  in  order. 
Turning  next  to  some  of  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages of  Asia,  we  find  that  in  Arme- 
nian be  is  the  26th  of  the  38  letters; 
and  in  Sanskrit,  Mahratta,  etc.,  bu,  or 
ba,  is  generally  placed  23d  in  the  list  of 
consonants,  where  it  is  preceded  by  phu 
and  followed  by  hhu.  Returning  again 
to  the  Semitic,  beth,  the  name  given  to 
the  second  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet, is  really  Aramaean.  Like  the  corre- 
sponding word  in  Hebrew,  badth,  it  signi- 
fies a  house,  to  which  it  has  some  faint 
resemblance. 

B  is  a  flat  mute,  the  voice  not  being  so 
entirely  shut  off  in  pronouncing  it  as  it 
is  when  one  of  the  sharp  mutes,  p  or  /, 
is  uttered.  The  b  sound  is  produced  by 
compressing  the  lips,  a  vowel  being  added 
to  render  it  audible.  It  is  hence  called  a 
labial,  from  Latin  labiuvi:=a.  lip,  plural 
labia=^\il>s;  its  other  associates  in  the 
same  category  being  p,  f,  and  v,  with 
which  it  is  often  interchanged  in  the 
cognate  languages. 

B,  as  an  initial,  is  used — 

In  designating  university  degrees: 

For  Latin  Baccalaureus,  as  Artium 
Baccalaureus=zEQ.c\\Q\ov  of  Arts=B.  A. 

In  music:     For  bass. 

In  chemistry:     For  the  element  boron. 

B,  as  a  symbol,  is  used — 

In  numeration,  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  Ara- 
bic, and  even  occasionally  in  English, 
for  2.  But  B,  in  Greek,  js  the  diacritical 
mark  for_2,000.  In  Latin  B  stands  for 
300,  and  B  for  3,000. 

In  music:  As  the  seventh  note  of  the 
diatonic  scale.  It  answers  to  the  Italian 
and  French  si.    In  Germany  it  is=:B  flat. 


BAAL,  the  chief  male  divinity  among 
the  Phoenicians,  as  Ashtoreth  was  the 
leading  female  one.  The  Carthaginians, 
who  sprang  from  the  Phoenicians^  car- 
ried with  them  his  worship  to  their  new 
settlements,  as  is  proved,  among  other 
evidence,  by  the  names  of  some  of  their 
world-renowned  heroes:  thus  Hannibal, 
written  in  Punic  inscriptions,  Hannibaal, 
signifi.es  the  grace  of  Baal;  and  Hasdru- 
bal,  or  Asdrubal,  Azrubaal="Help  of 
Baal."  The  worship  of  Baal  early  ex- 
isted among  the  Canaanites  and  the  Mo- 
abiteSj  whence  it  spread  to  the  Israelites, 
becoming  at  last  for  a  time  completely 
dominant  among  the  10  tribes,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  even  among  the  two,  in 
consequence  of  the  ill-advised  marriage 
of  Ahab  with  Jezebel,  daughter  of 
Ethbaal  (the  name  means  "with  Baal"), 
King  of  Sidon.  A  number  of  places  in 
Palestine  and  the  neighboring  countries 
commence  with  Baal,  such  as  Baal-gad, 
Baal-meon,  etc.  This  divinity  seems  to 
have  symbolized  the  sun,  and  less  fre- 
quently the  planet  Jupiter.  He  was  wor- 
shipped under  diflFerent  forms,  or  in  dif- 
ferent relations:  thus  there  were  Baal- 
berith=the  Covenant  Baal,  or  lord; 
Baal-zebub=the  fly-lord;  Baal  Peor= 
the  Baal  of  Mt.  Peor,  or  Baal  of  the 
opening;  the  Moabitish  national  divinity. 
There  was  an  affinity  between  Baal  and 
Moloch.  The  Beltein  or  Beltane  fires,  lit 
in  early  summer  in  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
seem  to  be  a  survival  of  Baal's  worship. 

BAALBEK  (ancient  Heliopolis,  city  of 
the  sun),  a  place  in  Syria,  in  a  fertile 
valley  at  the  foot  of  Antilibanus,  40  miles 
from  Damascus,  famous  for  its  magnifi- 
cent ruins.  Of  these,  the  chief  is  the 
temple  of  the  Sun,  built  either  by  An- 
toninus Pius  or  by  Septimius  Severus. 
Some  of  the  blocks  used  in  its  construc- 
tion are  60  feet  long  by  12  thick;  and  its 
54  columns,  of  which  6  are  still  stand- 
ing, were  72  feet  high  and  22  in  cir- 
cumference. Near  it  is  a  temple  of 
Jupiter,  of  smaller  size,  though  still 
larger  than   the   Parthenon   at   Athens, 


370 


BAAL-ZEBTJB 


371 


BASER 


and  there  are  other  structures  of  an 
elaborately  ornate  type.  Originally  a 
center  of  the  sun-worship,  it  became  a 
Roman  colony  under  Julius  Csesar,  was 
garrisoned  by  Augustus,  and  acquired 
increasing  renown  under  Trajan  as  the 
seat  of  an  oracle.  Under  Constantine 
its  temples  became  churches,  but  after 
being  sacked  by  the  Arabs  in  748,  and 
more  completely  pillaged  by  Tamerlane 
in  1401,,  it  sank  into  hopeless  decay. 
The  work  of  destruction  was  completed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1759. 

BAAL-ZEBUB.  Evil  spirit;  Beelzebub. 

BABA,  a  Turkish  word,  signifying 
father,  originating,  like  our  word  papa, 
in  the  first  efforts  of  children  to  speak. 
In  Persia  and  Turkey  it  is  prefixed  as 
a  title  of  honor  to  the  names  of  ecclesi- 
astics of  distinction;  it  is  often  affixed 
in  courtesy,  also,  to  the  names  of  other 
persons,  as  Ali-Baba. 

BABA  BUD  AN  (ba-ba  bo-dan'),  a  spur 
of  the  West  Ghats,  Mysore,  India,  which 
strikes  E.  for  15  miles,  leaving  a  narrow 
opening  at  its  W.  end  for  the  passage  of 
the  Bhadra,  then  S.  in  an  unbroken  line 
for  20  miles,  inclosing  between  itself  and 
the  main  chain  of  the  Ghats  a  rich,  but 
unhealthy  valley.  To  this  spur  belong 
three  peaks  above  6,000  feet  high,  among 
these  Mulaina-giri,  6,317  feet,  the  high- 
est in  the  West  Ghats.  Coffee  was  first 
pknted  in  India  on  another  part  of 
this  spur  toward  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  by  a  Mohammedan  saint  named 
Baba  Biidan. 

BABBAGE,  CHARLES,  an  English 
mathematician,  born  near  Teignmouth, 
Devonshire,  Dec.  26,  1792;  was  Professor 
of  Mathematics  at  Cambridge  (1828- 
1839),  and  one  of  the  founders,  secre- 
taries, and  vice-presidents  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Society.  He  is  best  known  as 
the  inventor  of  a  calculating  machine. 
His  principal  work  was  "On  the  Econ- 
omy of  Machinery"  (1832),  which  was 
translated  into  several  languages.  He 
died  in  London,  Oct.  18,  1871. 

BABBITT,  IRVING,  an  American  ed- 
ucator, born  in  Dayton,  O.,  in  1865.  He 
graduated  from  Harvard  University  in 
1889  and  after  post-graduate  courses  at 
Harvard  he  studied  in  Paris  for  several 

^  years.  He  was  instructor  of  Romance 
languages  in  Williams  College  in  1894, 
and  later  successively  instructor,  assist- 
ant professor,  and  professor  of  French 
literature  in  Harvard  University.  He 
was  the  author  of  "Literature  and  the 
American  College"  (1908)  ;  "Masters  of 
Modern  French  Criticism"    (1912)  ;   etc, 

•  He  edited  the  works  of  several  French 

',         25— Vol.  I— Cyc 


writers  and  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines. 

BABBITT  METAL,  a  soft  metal  re- 
suiting  from  alloying  together  certain 
proportions  of  copper,  tin,  and  antimony, 
used  with  a  view  of  obviating,  as  far  as 
possible,  friction  in  the  bearings  of  jour- 
nals, cranks,  axles,  etc.  Invented  by 
Isaac  Babbitt. 

BABEL,  a  place  or  circumstances  in 
which  confusion  of  sounds — as,  for  in- 
stance, by  several  people  speaking  at 
once — is  the  predominating  characteris- 
tic. The  reference  is  to  the  confusion  of 
tongues  divinely  sent  in  consequence  of 
the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  (Gen. 
xi:  1-9).  The  magnificent  temple  of 
Belus,  asserted  to  have  been  originally 
this  tower,  is  said  to  have  had  lofty 
spires,  and  many  statues  of  gold,  one  of 
them  40  feet  high.  In  the  upper  part  of 
this  temple  was  the  tomb  of  the  founder, 
Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures), who  was  deified  after  death. 

BAB-EL-MANDEB  (i.  e.,  the  gate  of 
tears),  so  called  from  the  danger  arising 
to  small  vessels  from  strong  currents,  is 
the  name  of  the  strait  between  Arabia 
and  the  continent  of  Africa,  by  which  the 
Red  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  Within  the 
strait,  but  nearer  to  Arabia,  lies  the 
bare,  rocky  island  of  Perim,  since  1857 
occupied  by  the  British  as  a  fort;  its 
guns  command  the  entrance  to  the  Red 
Sea. 

BABER  (or  "The  Tiger") ,  the  histori- 
cal surname  of  Zehir-ed-din-Mohammed, 
the  conqueror  of  Hindustan  and  founder 
of  the  so-called  Mogul  dynasty.  Babei 
was  of  mixed  Turkish  and  Mongol  origin, 
being  descended  from  Timour  the  Great 
on  the  father's  side,  and  from  Genghis 
Khan  on  the  mother's.  Baber  was  born 
on  Feb.  14,  1483,  and  at  the  age  of  12, 
on  his  father's  death,  ascended  the  inse- 
cure throne  of  Ferghana  in  Turkestan; 
soon  ^fter  he  was  attacked  on  all  sides 
by  his  uncles  and  other  neighboring 
princes.  Accordingly,  at  the  age  of  15, 
Baber  seized  on  Samarcand,  the  capital 
of  Timour,  but,  while  thus  engaged,  a 
revolution  at  home  deprived  him  of  his 
sovereignty.  After  many  years  of  an  ad- 
venturQus  career,  he  raised  an  army, 
entered  Hindustan,  and  was  met  by  Ibra- 
him, the  ruling  Sultan  of  that  country. 
The  two  armies  fought  the  battle  at 
Paniput,  which  decided  the  fate  of  India, 
on  April  21,  1525.  Baber,  with  his  army 
of  12,000  men,  completely  overthrew  that 
of  Ibrahim,  numbering  100,000,  and  en- 
tered Delhi  in  triumph.  In  the  battle 
of  Sakri,  in  February,  1527,  Baber  ut- 


BABI 


372 


BABYLON 


terly  defeated  the  opposing  Hindu 
princes,  and  then  proclaimed  himself 
Padishah,  or  Emperor  of  Hindustan. 
After  a  rule  of  four  years,  he  died  near 
Agra,  Dec.  26,  1530. 

BABI  (ba-be'),  the  name  of  a  modern 
Persian  sect,  derived  from  the  title,  Bab- 
ed-Din  (gate  of  the  faith),  assumed  by 
its  founder,  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  a  na- 
tive of  Shiraz,  who,  in  1843,  after  a  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  undertook  to  form  a 
new  religion  from  a  mixture  of  Moham- 
medan, Christian,  Jewish,  and  Parsee 
elements.  The  sect  soon  became  numer- 
ous, and  were  not  molested  by  the  reign- 
ing Shah;  but  on  the  accession  of  Nasir- 
ed-Din  in  1848,  apprehending  persecu- 
tion, they  took  up  arms,  proclaiming  the 
advent  of  the  Bab  as  universal  sovereign. 
Several  Persian  armies  were  routed,  but 
finally  the  insurgents  were  reduced  by 
famine,  and  most  of  them  executed 
(1849-1850).  The  Bab  had  held  aloof 
from  the  revolt,  but  he  was  arrested  and 
put  to  death  in  1850.  His  successor  was 
recognized  in  the  youthful  son  of  the 
Governor  of  Teheran,  who  retired  to 
Bagdad.  An  attempt  of  three  believers 
to  assassinate  t>e  Shah,  in  1852,  led  to 
terrible  persecution  of  the  sect.  Babism 
has  nevertheless  gained  in  strength,  and 
is  at  present  widely  diffused  in  Persia. 
Their  doctrines  form  a  system  of  Pan- 
theism. Babism  enjoins  few  prayers, 
and  those  only  on  fixed  occasions;  en- 
courages hospitality  and  charity;  pro- 
hibits polygamy,  concubinage,  and  di- 
vorce; discourages  asceticism  and  mendi- 
cancy; and  directs  women  to  discard  the 
veil,  and  share  as  equals  in  the  inter- 
course of  social  life. 

BABIROtrSSA  (bab-i-ros'a),  a  species 
of  hog,  sometimes  called  the  horned  hog 
and  the  hog  deer,  from  the  fact  that  its 
upper  tusks,  which  are  of  great  length 
and  curved  in  form,  piercing  through  the 
upper  lip,  grow  upward  and  backward, 
like  the  horns  of  a  ruminant. 

BABISM.   See  BAbi. 

BABOO,  or  BABU,  a  Hindu  title  of 
respect  equivalent  to  sir  or  master,  usu- 
ally given  to  wealthy  and  educated 
native  gentlemen,  especially  of  the  mer- 
cantile class.  In  its  modern  use  it  is 
applied  chiefly  to  native  clerks  able  to 
write  English, 

BABOON,  a  common  name  applied  to 
a  divi-sion  of  Old  World  quadrumana 
(apes  and  monkeys),  comprehending  the 
genera  cynocephalvs  and  pajno.  They 
have  elongated  abrupt  muzzles  like  a 
dog,  strong  tusks,  or  canine  teeth,  usu- 
ally   short   tails,    cheek-pouchesj    small. 


deep  eyes,  with  large  eyebrows,  and 
naked  callosities  on  the  buttocks.  They 
live   on  fruits  and  roots,  eggs   and  in- 


BABOON 

sects.  They  include  the  chacma,  drill, 
common  baboon,  and  mandrill.  The 
chacma,  or  pig-tailed  baboon  (cynoceph- 
alus  porcarius)  is  found  in  consider- 
able numbers  in  parts  of  the  south  Afri- 
can colonies.  The  common  baboon  (C 
hahouin)  inhabits  a  large  part  of  Africa 
fai-ther  to  the  N.  It  is  of  a  brownish- 
yellow  color,  while  the  chacma  is  gray- 
ish black,  or  in  parts  black.  The  hama- 
dryas  (C  hamadryas)  of  Abyssinia  is 
characterized  by  long  hair,  forming  a 
sort  of  shoulder  cape.  The  black  baboon 
(C.  niger)  is  found  in  Celebes. 

BABSON,  ROGER  WARD,  an  Ameri- 
can statistician,  born  in  Gloucester^ 
Mass.,  in  1875.  After  graduating  from 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy in  1898,  he  established  a  statistical 
organization  at  Wellesley  Hills,  Mass., 
with  branch  offices  in  many  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  in  London,  for  fur- 
nishing statistical  information.  He  was 
a  well-known  lecturer  on  statistics  and 
economics,  and  acted  in  the  special  ca- 
pacity of  statistical  adviser  to  the  Gov- 
ernment during  the  World  War.  Ha 
wrote  much  on  money  and  investment, 
and  was  the  publisher  of  "Moody's 
Manual  of  Railroad  and  Corporation 
Securities." 

BABUYANES  (ba-bo'ya-nes) ,  or 
MADJICOSIMA  ISLANDS  a  number  of 
islands  lying  about  30  miles  N.  of  Luzon, 
and  generally  considered  the  most 
northern  of  the  Philippines.  They  are 
subject  to  the  Loo-Choo  Islands;  aggre- 
gate pop.  about  13,000. 

BABYLON,  the  capital  of  Babylonia, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  splendid  cities^  of 
the  ancient  world,  now  a  scene  of  ruin^ 


BABYLONIA 


373 


BABYLONIA 


and  earth-mounds  containing  them. 
Babylon  was  a  royal  city  1,600  years 
before  the  Christian  era;  but  the  old 
city  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  in 
683  B.  C.  A  new  city  was  built  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  nearly  a  century  later. 
This  was  in  the  form  of  a  square,,  each 
side  15  miles  long,  with  walls  of  such 
immense  height  and  thickness  as  to 
constitute  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  It  contained  splendid  edifices, 
large  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds,  es- 
pecially the  hanging  gardens,  a  sort  of 
lofty  terraced  structure.  After  the  city 
was  taken  by  Cyrus  in  538  B.  c,  and 
Babylonia  made  a  Persian  province,  it 
began  to  decline,  and  had  suffered 
severely  by  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  He  intended  to  restore  it,  but 
was  prevented  by  his  death,  which  took 
place  here  in  323  B.  c. 

Interesting  discoveries  have  been  made 
on  its  site  in  recent  times.  The  modern 
town  of  Hillah  is  near  the  ancient  city, 
and  the  plain  here  for  miles  around  is 
studded  with  vast  mounds  of  earth  and 
imposing  ruins.  The  German  Oriental 
Society  has  sent  a  number  of  expeditions 
to  explore  the  ruins  of  storied  Babylon, 
the  city  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  At  Easter, 
1899,  the  work  was  begun  on  the  mound 
that  covers  ancient  Babylon,  It  was  the 
beginning  of  bringing  to  life  the  so-called 
"City  of  Life,"  which  had  been  dead  to 
the  world  for  3,000  years  or  more. 
Herodotus,  who  visited  Babylon  in  the 
time  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  said  that  the  city 
was  surrounded  by  a  wall  50  royal  ells 
(84  feet)  wide,  and  200  ells  (336  feet) 
high,  and  that  on  top  of  this  wall,  on 
each  edge,  were  one-story  houses,  leaving 
a  space  between  the  roA^s  of  houses  on 
which  four  chariots  abreast  could  drive. 
As  soon  as  Dr.  Koldewey,  the  leader  of 
the  first  expedition,  made  his  first  attack 
on  the  mound,  he  struck  this  wall,  un- 
doubtedly the  one  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus. In  April,  1900,  Dr.  Koldewey 
discovered  a  canal,  built  of  Aramean 
brick,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  long 
sought  East  Canal.  A  temple  called 
Ernach,  of  the  goddess  Ninniach,  was 
laid  bare,  and  stones  found  inscribed 
from  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  As 
a  result  of  these  and  further  discoveries 
many  ancient  references  to  Babylon  have 
now  assumed  new  meaning. 

BABYLONIA  (now  Irak  Arabi),  an 
old  Asiatic  empire,  occupying  the  region 
watered  by  the  lower  course  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and  by  their 
combined  stream.  The  inhabitants, 
though  usually  designated  Babylonians, 
were  sometimes  called  Chaldeans.  At 
the   earliest   period  of   which  we   have 


record,  the  whole  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  was  inhabited  by  tribes 
of  Turanian  or  Tartar  origin.  Along 
with  these,  however,  there  early  existed 
an  intrusive  Semitic  element,  which 
gradually  increased  in  number  till  at  the 
time  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  (the 
latter  being  a  kindred  people)  became 
known  to  the  western  historians  they 
were  essentially  Semitic  peoples.  The 
great  city  of  Babylon,  or  Babel,  was  the 
capital  of  Babylonia,  which  was  called 
by  the  Hebrews  Shinar.  The  chief  cities, 
besides  Babylon,  were  Ur,  Calneh,  Erech, 
and  Sippara.  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
were  often  spoken  of  together  as 
Assyria. 

The  discovery  and  interpretation  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  have  enabled  the 
history  of  Babylonia  to  be  carried  back 
to  about  4000  B.  c.  The  country  was 
then  ruled  by  a  number  of  kings  or 
princes,  each  in  his  own  city.  About 
2700  B.  C,  Babylonia  came  under  the  rule 
of  a  single  monarch.  Latterly  it  had 
serious  wars  with  neighboring  nations, 
and  for  several  hundred  years  previous 
to  2000  B.  C.  Babylonia  was  subject  to 
the  neighboring  Elam.  It  then  regained 
its  independence,  and  for  1,000  years  it 
was  the  foremost  state  of  western  Asia 
in  power,  as  well  as  in  science,  art,  and 
civilization.  The  rise  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  brought  about  the  decline  of 
Babylonia,  which  latterly  was  under 
Assyrian  domination,  though  with  in- 
tervals of  independence.  Tiglath-Pileser 
11.  of  Assyria  (745-727)  made  himself 
master  of  Babylonia;  but  the  conquest 
of  the  country  had  to  be  repeated  by  his 
successor,  Sargon,  who  expelled  the  Baby- 
lonian King,  Merodach-Baladan,  and  all 
but  finally  subdued  the  country,  the  com- 
plete subjugation  being  effected  by 
Sennacherib.  After  some  60  years,  the 
second  or  later  Babylonian  empire  arose 
under  Nabopolassar,  who,  joining  the 
Medes  against  the  Assyrians,  freed  Baby- 
lon from  the  superiority  of  the  latter 
power,  625  B.  c.  The  new  empire  was 
at  its  height  of  power  and  glory  under 
Nabopolassar's  son^  Nebuchadnezzar 
(604-561),  who  subjected  Jerusalem, 
Tyre,  Phoenicia,  and  even  Egypt,  and 
carried  his  dominion  to  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  northward  to  the 
Armenian  Mountains.  The  capital,  Baby- 
lon, was  rebuilt  by  him,  and  then  formed 
one  of  the  greatest  and  most  magnificent 
cities  the  world  has  ever  seen.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Evil-Merodach,  but 
the  dynasty  soon  came  to  an  end,  the  last 
King  being  Nabonetus,  or  Nabonadius, 
who  came  to  the  throne  in  555  B.  c,  and 
made  his  son,  Belshazzar,  co-ruler  with 
him.     Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus,  the 


BABYLONIAK  CAPTIVITY 


374 


BACCIFEROUS 


Persian  monarch,  in  538,  and  the  second 
Babylonian  empire  came  to  an  end,  Baby- 
lonia being  incorporated  in  the  Persian 
empire.  Its  subsequent  history  was  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Assyria  {q.  v.). 

The  account  of  the  civilization,  arts, 
and  social  advancement  of  the  Assyrians 
already  given  in  the  article  Assyria,  may 
be  taken  as  generally  applying  also  to 
the  Babylonians. 

BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY,  a  term 
usually  applied  to  the  deportation  of  the 
two  tribes  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  to 
Babylon  by  Nabuchadnezzar,,  585  B.  C. 
The  duration  of  this  captivity  is  usually 
reckoned  70  years,  though,  strictly  speak- 
ing, it  lasted  only  56  years.  A  great 
part  of  the  10  tribes  of  Israel  had  been 
previously  taken  captive  to  Assyria. 

BACCARAT  (ba-ka-ra'),  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Meurthe- 
et-Moselle,  having  the  most  important 
plate  glass  works  in  France.  Pop.  of 
commune  about  7,500. 

BACCARAT,  or  BACCARA,  a  game 
played  with  the  ordinary  playing  cards. 
Any  number  of  players  may  participate, 
and  as  many  packs  of  cards  may  be  used 
as  necessary,  the  number  being  increased 
to  correspond  with  the  number  of  play- 
ers. One  member  of  the  party  is  se- 
lected to  act  as  banker.  He  deals  out 
the  cards  from  a  box,  after  they  have 
been  shuffled.  The  face  cards  each  count 
10,  and  the  others  according  to  the  num- 
bers of  their  spots.  After  the  bets  have 
been  made,  the  banker  deals  two  cards 
to  each  of  the  players,  including  himself, 
but  the  other  players  must  receive  their 
cards  before  the  banker  is  served.  The 
aim  of  the  players  is  to  make  the  num- 
bers 9,  19,  29,  or  as  nearly  those  as  pos- 
sible, as  8,  18,  and  28.  Any  player  is  at 
liberty  either  to  "stand"  or  to  be  "con- 
tent" with  the  two  cards  at  first  dealt, 
or  to  call  for  more,  at  the  risk  of  exceed- 
ing 29,  when  his  stake  is  forfeited  to  the 
dealer.  If,  after  the  first  distribution  of 
two  cards  to  each,  any  player  has  a  "nat- 
ural"— i  e.,  a  sum  making  9,  or  next  in 
value,  19 — he  declares  it  wins,  and  the 
banker  pays  all  who  hold  superior  hands 
to  his  own,  and  claims  from  those  hold- 
ing inferior  hands.  The  players  stake 
their  money  separately,  there  being,  in 
fact,  as  many  separate  games  in  progress 
as  there  are  players,  and  the  spectators 
may  wager  their  money  on  any  one  of 
them,  all  of  which  must  be  accepted  by 
the  banker.  Prior  to  the  banker  making 
a  start,  he  states  the  amount  of  the 
bank.  Anyone  sitting  down  at  the  table 
has  the  right  to  call  the  whole  of  the 
bank,  selecting  the  left  or  the  right  on 


which  to  pick  up  the  cards.  Previous 
to  the  banker  dealing  the  cards,  it  is  the 
duty  of  two  croupiers,,  one  on  the  right 
and  the  other  on  the  left,  to  count  up  the 
stakes  deposited  on  either  side,  and  then 
make  up  the  bank.  Thus  the  banker 
knows,  to  the  smallest  coin,  the  exact 
amount  of  his  liabilities. 

BACCHANALIA,       or       DIONYSIA, 

feasts  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  or  Dionysos, 
characterized  by  licentiousness  and  rev- 
elry, and  celebrated  in  ancient  Athens. 
The  Bacchantes  of  both  sexes  were 
clothed  in  fawn-skins,  crowned  with  ivy, 
and  bore  in  their  hands  thyrsi,  that  is, 
spears  entwined  with  ivy.  These  feasts 
passed  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans, 
who  abolished  them  in  b.  C.  186. 

BACCHANTE  (bak-an'te),  a  person 
taking  part  in  revels  in  honor  of  Bac- 
chus. 

BACCHIGLIONE  (bak-il-yo'-na),  a 
river  of  northern  Italy,  rises  in  the  Alps, 
passes  through  the  towns  of  Vicenza 
and  Padua,  and  enters  the  Adriatic  near 
Chioggia,  after  a  course  of  about  90 
miles. 

BACCHUS  (bak-us),  the  god  of  wine, 
son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Semele.  He 
first  taught  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
and  the  preparation  of  wine.  His  love 
was  shared  by  several;  but  Ariadne, 
whom  he  found  deserted  upon  Naxos, 
alone  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a 
wife,  and  became  a  sharer  of  his  immor- 
tality. In  art  he  is  usually  represented 
crowned  with  wine  leaves,  and  a  mantle 
is  hung  negligently  around  his  shoulders ; 
sometimes  a  fawn-skin  hangs  across  his 
breast.  He  is  often  accompanied  by  si- 
leni,  bacchantes,  satyrs,  etc» 

BACCHYLIDES  (bak-il'e-des) ,  a  Greek 
poet,  a  native  of  Julis,  a  town  on  the 
island  of  Cos.  He  was  a  cousin  of 
the  still  more  famous  lyric  poet  Simon- 
ides,  with  whom  he  remained  for  some 
time  at  the  court  of  Hiero  and  Sicily. 
He  traveled  also  in  the  Peloponnesus.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  rival  of  Pindar. 
He  flourished  about  470  B.  C.  In  1895  a 
well-preserved  text  of  his  poems  was  dis- 
covered and  published,  and  Bacchylides 
has  now  taken  a  permanent  place  as  a 
master  of  Greek  verse. 

BACCIFEROUS  (bak-sif'er-us),  a 
term  applied  to  those  trees  that  bear  ber- 
ries. They  are  of  four  kinds:  (1)  Such 
as  bear  a  caliculate,  or  naked  berry;  the 
flower  and  calix  both  falling  off  together, 
and  leaving  the  berry  bare;  as  the  sas- 
safras trees.  (2)  Such  as  have  a  naked 
monospermous  fruit;  that  is,  containing 
in  it  only  one  seed;  as  the  arbutes.   (3) 


BACH 


375 


BACKGAMMON 


Such  as  have  but  polyspermous  fruit; 
that  is,  containing  two  or  more  kernels 
or  seeds  within  it;  as  the  jesminum, 
ligustrum.  (.4)  Such  as  have  their  fruit 
composed  of  many  acini,  or  round,  soft 
balls,  set  close  together,  like  a  bunch  of 
grapes;  as  the  uva  marina. 

BACH,  JOHANN  SEBASTIAN,  a 
celebrated  musician,  born  at  Eisenach, 
upper  Saxony,  March  21,  1685.  When  he 
was  10  years  old  his  father,  who  was  a 
musician  at  Eisenach,  died,  and  Bach 
sought  the  protection  of  an  elder  brother, 
who,  dying  soon  after,  he  was  again  left 
destitute,  and,  to  earn  a  livelihood,  en- 
tered the  choir  of  St.  Michael's,  Lune- 
burg,  as  a  soprano  singer.  In  1703  he 
became  court  musician  at  Weimar,  the 
following  year  organist  at  Arnstadt,  and 
in  1708  court  organist  at  Weimar.  While 
holding  this  office  he  labored  to  make 
himself  master  of  every  branch  of  music. 
In  1717  he  was  made  Director  of  Con- 
certs, and  six  years  afterward  Director 
of  Music  and  Cantor  to  St.  Thoma.s' 
School,  Leipsic,  an  appointment  which 
he  held  to  his  death.  About  10  years 
later  the  distinctions  of  kapellmeister  to 
the  Duke  of  Weissenfels  and  court  com- 
poser to  the  King  of  Poland  were  con- 
ferred upon  him.  Bach,  who  had  a  son 
in  the  service  of  Frederick  the  Great,  re- 
ceived a  pressing  request  to  visit  Pots- 
dam, on  the  occasion  of  a  concert  there. 
He  went,  and  acquitted  himself  to  the 
satisfaction  of  that  monarch,  some  of 
whose  music  he  played  at  first  sight. 
Bach's  close  studies  affected  his  eyes,  and 
an  operation  left  him  totally  blind  and 
hastened  his  death,  in  Leipsic,  July  28, 
1750.  With  the  exception  of  Handel, 
Bach  had  no  rival  as  an  organist. 

BACHELLER,  IRVING,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Pierpont,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
26,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at  St.  Law- 
rence University  in  1879  and  became  a 
reporter  of  the  Brooklyn  "Times."  Sub- 
sequently he  established  a  newspaper 
syndicate.  His  novels  include  "The  Mas- 
ter of  Silence";  "The  Unbidden  Guest"; 
"Eben  Holden";  "The  Master"  (1908); 
"The  Light  in  the  Clearing"  (1916) ;  "A 
Man  for  the  Ages"   (1920). 

BACHELOR,  a  term  applied  anciently 
to  a  person  in  the  first  or  probationary 
stage  of  knighthood  who  had  not  yet 
raised  his  standard  in  the  field.  It  also 
denotes  a  person  who  has  taken  the  first 
degree  in  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences, 
or  in  divinity,  law,  or  medicine,  at  a  col- 
lege or  university;  or  a  man  of  any  age 
who  has  not  been  married.  A  knight 
bachelor  is  one  who  has  been  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  a  knight  without  being 


made  a  member  of  any  of  the  orders  of 
chivalry  such  as  the  Garter  or  the 
Thistle. 

BACHELOR'S  BUTTONS,  the  double 
flowering  buttercup  (ranunculus  acris) , 
with  white  or  yellow  blossoms,  common 
in  gardens. 

BACHIAN  (bach'an),  or  BAT  J  AN, 
one  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  immediately 
S.  of  the  equator,  S.  W.  of  Gilolo;  area, 
914  square  miles.  Pop.  about  15,000.  It 
is  ruled  by  a  native  Sultan  under  the 
Dutch. 

BACILLARIA,  a  genus  of  microscopic 
algae  belonging  to  the  class  diatomaceas, 
the  siliceous  remains  of  which  abound  in 
Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  more  recent 
geological  deposits. 

BACILLUS,  a  name  given  to  certain 
filiform  bacteria  present  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  in  malignant  pustule,  typhus, 
tuberculosis,  and  many  other  diseases. 
See  Bacteria. 

BACKGAMMON,  a  game  of  chance 
and  calculation.  It  is  played  by  two  per- 
sons, with  two  boxes,  and  two  dice,  upon 
a  quadrangular  table,  or  board,  on  which 
are  figured  24  points,  or  fleches,  of  two 
colors,  placed  alternately.  The  board  is 
divided  into  four  compartments,  two  in- 
ner and  two  outer  ones,  each  containing 
six  of  the  24  points  (alternate  colors). 
The  players  are  each  furnished  with  15 
men,  or  counters,  black  and  white.  These 
are  arranged  upon  the  board  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  To  play  into  the  left 
hand  table,  two  of  your  men  are  placed 
upon  the  ace-point  of  your  opponent's  in- 
ner table,  five  upon  the  sixth  point  in  his 
outer  table,  three  upon  the  cinque-point 
in  your  own  outer  table,  and  five  upon 
the  sixth  point  in  your  OAvn  inner  table. 
The  adversary's  men  are  to  be  placed  in 
corresponding  order,  in  a  position  dii'ect- 
ly  opposite.  The  game  consists  in  mov- 
ing your  men  from  point  to  point,  so  as 
to  bring  them  around  into  your  own 
inner  table  (i,  e.,  that  on  your  left  hand) , 
and  then  moving  or  bearing  them  off  the 
board.  The  player  who  first  clears  off 
his  men  wins.  The  moves  of  the  men  are 
determined  by  the  throws  of  the  dice, 
according  to  the  directions  for  playing. 
It  will  there  be  seen  that  the  most  ad- 
vantageous throw  at  the  outset  is  that 
of  aces,  as  it  blocks  the  bar,  or  sixth 
point  in  your  outer  table,  and  secures 
the  cinque-point  in  your  inner  table,  so 
that  your  adversary's  two  men  cannot 
move  if  he  throw  either  quarter,  cinque, 
or  size.  This  throw  is  frequently  con- 
tested by  inferior  players,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  game,  by  way  of  odds. 


BACK  BIVER 


376 


BACON 


As  the  grand  object  of  the  game  consists 
in  bringing  around  your  men  into  your 
own  inner  table,  all  throws  that  con- 
tribute toward  that  end,  and  prevent 
your  adversary  from  doing  the  same,  are 
advantageous,  and  vice  versa.  Each 
party  plays  into  one  of  the  tables  on  his 
own  side;  thus,  if  black  plays  into  his 
left  hand  table,  white  plays  into  his  right 
(i  e.,  that  which  is  exactly  opposite) 
and  vice  versa,  their  men  advancing  in 
contraposition  to  each  other.  For  right 
of  first  play  each  party  throws  a  single 
die;  he  who  throws  the  highest  number 
wins,  and  may,  if  he  chooses,  adopt  and 
play  the  joint  number  of  the  preliminary 
throw. 

BACK  RIVER,  a  name  for  the  Great 

Fish  River  of  northern  Canada,  discov- 
ered by  Capt.  Back  in  1834  and  by  him 
traced  down  to  its  mouth  under  great  dif- 
ficulties. 

BACKUS,  TRUMAN  JAY,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  in  Milan,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 
11,  1842;  was  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rochester  in  1864;  and  became 
President  of  the  Packer  Collegiate  Insti- 
tute in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  His  publications 
include  "Great  English  Writers,"  "Out- 
lines of  English  Literature,"  and  a  re- 
vised edition  of  Shaw's  "History  of  Eng- 
lish Literature."  He  died  March  24, 
1908. 

BACOLOR  (bak'o-lor),  a  town  in  the 
island  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands;  30 
miles  N.  W.  of  Manila;  was  the  capital 
of  the  Philippines  during  the  British  in- 
vasion in  1762,  when  the  Spaniards 
feared  a  bombardment  and  seizure  of 
Manila;  and  was  a  scene  of  military 
activity  in  the  American  operations 
against  the  Filipino  insurgents  in  1899. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

BACON,  a  word  applied  to  the  sides 
of  a  pig  which  have  been  cured  or  pre- 
served by  salting  with  salt  and  saltpeter 
and  afterward  drying  with  or  without 
wood  smoke.  The  nitrogenous,  or  flesh 
forming,  matter  in  bacon  is  small,  one 
pound  of  bacon  yielding  less  than  one 
ounce  of  dry,  muscular  substance,  while 
the  amount  of  carbon  compounds,  or  heat 
givers,  is  large,  exceeding  60  per  cent. 

BACON,  FRANCIS,  English  philoso- 
pher and  statesman,  born  Jan.  22,  1561; 
youngest  of  eight  children  of  Sir  Nich- 
olas Bacon,  Lord  Keeper.  His  mother, 
whom  he  resembled,  was  the  sister  of 
Lady  Burghley  and  a  woman  of  fine  edu- 
cation and  strong  character.  In  his 
twelfth  year  Francis  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  but  left  in  June, 
1576,  to  begin  the  study  of  law  at  Gray's 


Inn.  Three  months  later  he  went  to 
France  in  the  entourage  of  Sir  Amyas 
Paulet,  the  representative  of  the  English 
Government.     Here  he  laid  the  founda- 


FRANCIS   BACON 

tion  of  his  interest  in  matters  of  state. 
The  death  of  his  father  left  him  in  pov- 
erty, with  his  own  way  to  make.  In 
1582  he  was  again  at  Gray's  Inn.  He 
entered  Parliament  in  1584,  and  wrote 
a  letter  to  the  Queen  in  which  he  urged 
strong  repression  of  the  Catholic  party 
and  foresaw  the  conflict  with  Spain. 
His  chief  interest,  however,  was  in  the 
field  of  learning.  He  had  previously  ex- 
pressed dislike  for  the  university  course, 
dominated  by  scholastic  methods  that 
prevented  either  additions  to  knowledge 
or  fit  training  for  the  service  of  the 
state.  In  1592  he  wrote  the  famous 
letter  to  Burghley  in  which  he  said  that 
he  had  taken  all  learning  to  be  his  prov- 
ince and  laid  down  the  foundations  on 
which  all  his  later  work  was  to  be  based: 
"industrious  observation,  grounded  con- 
clusions, and  profitable  inventions  and 
discoveries,"  that  is,  a  method  of  re- 
search capable  of  immediate  application 
to  life  in  the  place  of  repetition  of  theo- 
ries traditional  for  centuries. 

In  1597  he  issued  a  slender  volume  of 
"Essays,"  which  he  described  as  "certain 
brief  notes  set  down  rather  significantly 
than  curiously."  Later  editions,  each 
time  with  considerable  additions,  ap- 
peared in  1612  and  in  1625.  The  ten 
essays  of  the  first  edition  are  written 
in  simple  and  concise  style,  and  are  ap- 
plications of  common  sense  to  everyday 
problems.  The  volume  of  1612,  with 
twenty-nine  additions,  is  on  loftier  sub- 
jects, such  as  Goodness,  Beauty,  Empire, 
Death,     the     Greatness    of     Kingdoms. 


BACON 


377 


BACON" 


These  essays  abound  in  evidences  of  his 
study  of  "the  architecture  of  fortune,"  a 
philosophy  of  success.  The  essays  of  the 
third  edition,  written  after  his  fall,  are 
more  philosophical  and  contain  his  ripest 
wisdom.  The  shrewdness,  the  concrete 
dealing  with  human  nature,  the  concise 
and  aphoristic  style,  the  concentrated 
wisdom  of  one  of  the  keenest  observers, 
have  combined  to  make  these  fifty-eight 
essays  one  of  the  great  achievements  of 
English  literature. 

Bacon's  rise  to  power  was  very  slow. 
Essex  had  been  long  interested  in  him, 
but  was  unable  to  get  his  protege  any 
high  position.  As  a  member  of  the  coun- 
sel for  the  Queen  he  was  a  participant 
in  the  trial  of  Essex  in  1601,  a  fact  for 
which  he  has  been  much  criticized.  In 
1605  his  "Advancement  of  Learning"  ap- 
peared. In  this  he  carried  out  in  detail 
some  of  the  youthful  ambitions  expressed 
in  his  letter  to  Burghley  and  anticipated 
most  of  the  philosophy  afterward  de- 
veloped in  many  writings.  The  book  is 
a  survey  of  learning  in  his  time,  filled 
with  acute  criticisms  of  the  university 
course,  estimating  the  accomplishment  in 
all  fields  of  learning,  pointing  out  what 
needed  to  be  done  and  the  method  to  be 
used,  and  treating  the  philosophy  of  suc- 
cess as  well  as  traditional  matters.  It 
shows  great  learning,  tremendous  vital- 
ity, and  contains  many  ideas  on  the 
method  of  research  and  the  function  of 
the  college  course  that  are  of  value  to- 
day. His  praise  of  learning,  found  in 
many  passages,  is  eloquent,  marked  by 
lofty  imagination  and  by  the  passion  of 
a  lover.  His  object  was  not  merely  to 
reach  the  attention  of  professional  stu- 
dents, but  to  touch  the  imagination  of 
men  of  all  sorts  and  conditions,  so  that 
they  might  look  upon  research  as  one 
of  the  loftiest  of  human  interests. 

Not  until  his  forty-sixth  year  did  for- 
tune smile  on  him.  In  1607  he  became 
Solicitor-General.  Ten  years  later  he 
was  Lord  Keeper;  in  1618  Lord  Chancel- 
lor; in  1621  Viscount  St.  Albans.  He 
worked  with  enormous  energy.  His 
worldly  success  and  the  tremendous  of- 
ficial burdens  that  accompanied  it  did 
not  put  an  end  to  his  activities  in  behalf 
of  learning.  In  1620  his  "Novum  Or- 
ganum,"  or  new  method,  appeared,  hav- 
ing been  prepared  for  by  numerous  writ- 
ings carried  on  through  busy  years.  His 
desire  was  to  lead  men  to  use  an  induc- 
X  tive  method  in  research.  He  pointed  out 
the  way  through  which  modern  science 
has  won  its  triumphs. 

At  the  very  pinnacle  of  his  fame,  he 
became  the  victim  of  the  rising  moral 
sense  of  the  time  and  of  the  popular 
dislike  of  the  corruption  of  the  court. 
He  was  accused  of  accepting  bribes,  was 


tried  and  convicted,  and  Parliament  im- 
posed on  him  a  sentence  of  imprison- 
ment, a  fine  of  £40,000,  and  expulsion 
from  all  public  office.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  his  judgments  had  been  in- 
fluenced by  the  gifts  that  were  a  conven- 
tion of  the  time.  He  recogrnized  the  jus- 
tice of  his  sentence,  but  maintained  that 
he  had  been  uncorrupted.  He  was  fond 
of  extravagance  and  display,  and  these 
qualities  together  with  his  long  study  of 
the  art  of  rising  seem  to  have  blunted 
his  moral  sense.  They  also  inspired 
envy,  and  it  should  be  added  that  the 
increasing  unpopularity  of  the  King  and 
of  his  favorite,  Buckingham,  hastened 
the  crisis. 

After  his  fall,  Bacon  turned  once  more 
to  his  studies.  His  "History  of  Henry 
VII."  (1622)  was  a  pioneer  in  modern 
philosophical  history.  Several  scientific 
works  were  completed;  he  revised  and 
expanded  his  "Essays";  and  carried  on 
a  series  of  scientific  researches.  He  died 
April  9,  1626.  The  enigma  of  his  char- 
acter; the  tragedy  of  his  fall,  almost  in 
a  day,  from  the  highest  worldly  fame  to 
disgrace;  the  enormous  energy  of  his 
mind  and  will;  his  mastery  of  English 
prose;  the  immense  stimulus  he  gave  to 
learning,  and  is  still  capable  of  giving — • 
all  these  indicate  the  extraordinary 
achievement  of  one  of  the  greatest  men 
of  a  great  period  in  human  history. 

BACON,  JOSEPHINE  DODGE  DAS- 
KAM,  American  authoress,  born  in  Stam- 
ford, Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876.  She  graduated 
from  Smith  College  in  1898  at  the  head 
of  her  class.  She  has  been  a  prolific 
writer  of  books  and  magazine  articles, 
and  is  especially  happy  in  her  studies 
of  juvenile  and  adolescent  types. 

BACON,  LEONABD,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb. 
19,  1802;  educated  at  Yale  and  Andover. 
In  1825  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  in  New  Haven. 
He  was  Professor  of  Didactic  Theology 
in  Yale  (1866-1871).  He  was  an  active 
opponent  of  slavery.  In  1847  he  joined 
with  Drs.  Storrs  and  Thompson  to  found 
the  New  York  "Independent."  He  pub- 
lished "Views  and  Reviews"  (1840); 
"Slavery  Discussed  in  Occasional  Es- 
says" (1846),  and  "Genesis  of  the  New 
England  Churches."  He  died  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  24,  1881. 

BACON,  ROBERT,  an  American 
financier  and  public  official,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1860.  He  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  1880  and  entered  the  bank- 
ing house  of  Lee,  Higginson  &  Co.  in 
Boston  in  1881.  In  1894  he  became  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  J.  P.  Morgan  & 
Co.,    New    York,    remaining   until    1903. 


BACON 


378 


BACTEBIA 


From  1905  to  1909  he  was  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State  and  for  three  months 
in  the  latter  year  was  Secretary  of  State, 
succeeding:  Elihu  Root.  He  was  ambas- 
sador to  France  from  1909  to  1912.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  was  a  major  in  the 
United  States  Reserves  and  served  with 
the  staff  of  General  Pershing.  He  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1916.    He  died  in  1919. 

BACON,  ROGER,  an  English  monk,  and 
one  of  the  most  profound  and  original 
thinkers  of  his  day,  was  born  about  1214, 
near  Hchester,  Somersetshire.  He  studied 
at  Oxford  and  Paris.  About  1250  he 
entered  the  order  of  Franciscans,  but  in- 
curring the  distrust  of  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors  was  sent  to  Paris  and  there 
confined  for  10  years  without  books  or 
writing  materials.  He  was  thus  punished 
because  o£  extraordinary  discoveries  in 
science  which  ignorant  minds  attributed 
to  magic.  This  opinion  was  countenanced 
by  the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  monks 
of  his  fraternity.  Having  been  set  at  lib- 
erty he  enjoyed  a  brief  space  of  quiet 
while  Clement  IV.  was  Pope;  but  in 
1278  he  was  again  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  remained  for  at  least  10  years. 
Of  the  close  of  his  life  little  is  known. 
His  most  important  work  is  his  "Opus 
Majus,"  where  he  discusses  the  relation 
of  philosophy  to  religion,  and  then  treats 
of  language,  metaphysics,  optics,  and  ex- 
perimental science.  He  was  undoubtedly 
the  earliest  philosophical  experimentalist 
in  Britain;  he  made  signal  advances  in 
optics;  was  an  excellent  chemist,  and  in- 
timately acquainted  with  geography  and 
astronomy,  as  appears  by  his  discovery 
of  the  errors  of  the  calendar  and  their 
causes.     He  died  in  Oxford,  in  1294. 

BACONIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  the  in- 
ductive philosophy  of  which  it  is  some- 
times said  that  Lord  Bacon  was  the 
founder.  This,  however,  is  an  exag- 
gerated statement.  What  Lord  Bacon 
did  for  this  mode  of  ratiocination  was  to 
elucidate  and  systematize  it  and  point  out 
its  great  value.  The  modern  triumphs 
of  modern  science  have  arisen  from  a 
resolute  adherence  on  the  part  of  its 
votaries  to  the  Baconian  method  of  in- 
quiry. 

BACON'S  REBELLION,  a  popular  up- 
rising of  the  Virginian  colonists,  headed 
by  Nathaniel  Bacon,  in  protest  against 
certain  government  abuses,  which  pre- 
vailed under  the  administration  of  Sir 
William  Berkeley.  Parliament  had 
passed  an  act  requiring  that  all  goods, 
destined  for  Virginia,  no  matter  what 
their  source,  should  first  be  sent  to  the 
mother-country  for  transfer  into  British 


ships.  The  inter-colonial  duties  were 
also  objectionable,  and  when,  in  1673,  the 
entire  revenues  of  the  colony  were 
turned  over  to  Lords  Culpeper  and 
Arlington,  indignation  was  rife.  But  the 
most  pressing  cause  of  complaint  was 
the  lack  of  official  protection  against 
Indian  ravages.  Bacon  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Council,  and  the  colonists, 
determined  to  take  Indian  matters  into 
their  own  hands,  chose  him  leader. 
Berkeley  proclaimed  him  a  rebel.  He 
attacked  and  captured  the  red-men's 
fort.  Made  a  prisoner  he  was  quickly 
released.  He  attacked  Jamestown,  forc- 
ing the  Governor  to  repeal  the  most 
obnoxious  statutes,  exacting  a  major- 
general's  commission  for  himself,  and 
acquittal  of  all  blame  for  the  rebellion.  ' 
Troops  were  sent  for  post-haste,  but 
they  refused  to  take  up  arms  against 
Bacon.  The  rebel,  on  repairing  to 
Jamestown,  found  the  Governor  fled. 
The  Indians  recommenced  their  aggres- 
sions. ^  He  knew  that  if  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  latter,  Berkeley  would 
take  Jamestown ;  nevertheless,  he  decided 
to  dispose  of  the  savages  first.  This 
he  did  effectively  at  Bloody  Run.  He 
then  marched  rapidly  to  Jamestown, 
besieged  it,  forced  the  Governor  to 
take  refuge  on  a  warship,  and  burned 
all  the  public  buildings.  After  partially 
revising  the  laws  with  great  benefit  to 
the  people,  he  died,  and  the  rebellion, 
left  leaderless,  came  to  an  end. 

BACTERIA,  organisms  that  comprise 
a  class  of  low  plants,  the  importance  of 
which  is  due  to  their  power  of  producing 
profound  changes  in  life.  The  terms 
bacteria,  germs,  microbes,  bacilli,  are 
popularly  used  to  denote  these  micro- 
scopic objects.  Bacillus  means  a  little 
rod.  The  term  is  properly  applicable  to 
only  such  microbes  as  are  rod-shaped. 
The  word  microbe  (from  the  Greek, 
mikros,  small,  and  bios,  life)  is  a  term 
which  was  coined  to  include  all  of  the 
microscopic  plants  commonly  included 
under  the  terms  bacteria  and  yeasts. 

Pla7its  or  Animals. — Bacteria  possess 
characteristics  of  plants  and  animals. 
They  resemble  animals  in  their  common 
power,  independent  motion,  and  in  their 
habit  of  living  upon  complex  bodies  for 
food.  But  in  general  form,  methods  of 
growth,  and  formation  of  threads  and 
spores  they  resemble  plants.  Though 
there  are  hundreds  of  different  species 
there  are  only  three  general  forms — 
spheres,  rods,  and  spirals,  reminding  of  * 
billiard  balls,  pencils,  and  corkscrews. 
There  is  some,  though  slight,  variation 
in  size.  All  are  extermely  minute  and 
never  visible   to   the   naked   eye.     The^ 


BACTERIA 


379 


BACTERIA 


range  in  size  from  1-lOOOOOth  to  l-3000th 
of  an  inch.  Some  species  have  the  power 
of  active  motion,  and  may  be  seen 
moving  rapidly  to  and  fro  in  the  liquid 
in  which  they  are  growing.  This  motion 
is  produced  by  flagella,  which  protrude 
from  the  body. 

Marvelous  Multiplication. — They  mul- 
tiply by  simple  division  or  fission.  Each 
individual  elongates  and  then  divides  in 
the  middle  into  similar  halves;  each 
of  which  then  repeats  the  process. 
With  some  species  the  individuals 
remain  attached  after  division,  forming 
long  chains;  others  produce  solid  groups 
of  fours,  eights,  or  sixteens.  Some 
species  that  have  been  carefully  watched 
under  the  microscope  have  been  found, 
under  favorable  conditions,  to  grow  so 
rapidly  as  to  divide  every  half  hour. 
At  this  rate  in  one  day  each  microbe 
would  produce  over  16„000,000  descend- 
ants. At  the  end  of  the  third  day  they 
would  number  millions  of  millions,  the 
bulk  and  weight  of  which  would  be 
enormous,  were  it  not  that  their  rate 
of  multiplication  is  checked  either  by 
lack  of  food  or  by  the  accumulation  of 
their  own  excreted  products,  which  are 
injurious  to  them. 

Harmful  Bacteria.  —  Bacteria  abound 
in  all  putrescent  or  fermenting  mixtures 
containing  organic  matter,  and  are  the 
cause  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction. 
Some  are  present  in,  and  the  cause  of, 
certain  of  the  zymotic  or  ferment 
diseases,  such  as  malignant  pustule, 
erysipelas,  tuberculosis,  etc.  Micrococci 
are  spheroidal  bacteria,  and  very  small, 
never  more  than  l-25000th  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  often  less.  If  they  are  kept 
out  of  surgical  wounds,  there  is  no  sup- 
puration. The  discovery  of  this  fact 
made  hundreds  of  operations  possible 
which  of  old  were  thought  to  be  out  of 
the  I'each  of  art — hence  the  wonderful 
success  of  antiseptic  surgery. 

Bacillus  Tuberculosis,  —  Very  great 
interest  attaches  to  the  bacillus  tuber- 
culosis, which  is  so  constantly  present 
that  it  is  used  as  a  means  of  differen- 
tiating the  inflammatory  diseases  of  the 
lungs  from  tuberculosis.  This  organism 
always  produces  the  disease  when 
Inoculated  into  animals.  Statistics  have 
been  published  showing  that  the  bacillus 
was  present  in  2,417  out  of  2,509  cases 
of  supposed  tuberculosis. 

Useful  Bacteria. — In  many  respects 
bacteria  are  man's  greatest  benefactors; 
for  upon  their  activities  is  founded  the 
continued  life  of  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms.  As  microbes  consume 
the  material  which  serves  them  as  food 
they  produce  chemical  changes  therein, 
resulting    in     simpler     products     called 


decomposition  or  cleavage  products. 
Sometimes,  however,  they  possess  the 
power  of  building  other  compounds  out 
of  fragments,  thus  building  up  as  well 
as  tearing  down.  There  are  various 
industries  based  upon  the  decomposition 
powers  of  bacteria — viz.,  the  maceration 
industries — in  the  separation  of  the 
valuable  fibers  from  the  useless  fibrous 
material  in  the  preparation  of  linen, 
jute,  hemp,  and  cocoanut  fiber;  also  in 
the  commercial  preparation  of  sponges, 
and  often  in  the  early  stages  of  leather 
preparation.  Some  50  years  ago  it  was 
found  that  the  mysterious  substance 
known  to  brewers  as  yeast  or  barm  was 
really  composed  of  a  vast  number  of 
minute  oval  particles  that  are  endowed 
with  the  powers  of  growth  and  multi- 
plication, and,  therefore,  undoubtedly 
living. 

Bacteria  in  the  Dairy. — In  the  ma- 
jority of  butter-making  countries  the 
cream  is  subjected  to  a  process  known 
as  ripening  or  souring  before  it  is 
churned;  the  cream  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  from  12  to  17  hours,  thus  giving  the 
bacteria  an  opportunity  to  grow  in  it. 
As  a  result  the  cream  becomes  some- 
what soured,  slightly  curdled.  Then 
the  cream  is  churned.  Not  only  does 
the  ripened  cream  churn  more  rapidly 
and  give  a  larger  yield  of  butter  than 
the  sweet  cream,  but  there  are  devel- 
oped the  peculiar  flavor  and  aroma 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  highest 
product.  The  dairymen  in  the  great 
butter  producing  countries  of  northern 
Europe  are  making  practical  use  of  this 
knowledge  and  are  utilizing  pure  cul- 
tures of  certain  bacteria  which  have 
been  found  to  be  advantageous  for  the 
purpose  of  cream  ripening  and  the 
production    of    agreeable    flavors. 

Nitrifying  Bacteria. — Everywhere  in 
fertile  soil  is  a  class  of  bacteria  which 
has  received  the  name  of  nitrif  jring  bac- 
teria. They  feed  on  the  soil  ingredients 
and  have  the  same  effect  on  the  simple 
nitrogen  cleavage  products  the  vinegar- 
producing  species  have  on  alcohol — viz., 
bringing  about  a  union  with  oxygen. 
Thus  these  nitrifying  organisms  form 
the  last  link  in  the  chain  that  binds  the 
animal  kingdom  to  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. For  the  nitrates  are  left  in  the 
soil,  and  may  now  be  seized  upon  by  the 
roots  of  plants  and  begin  once  moi-e 
the  journey  around  the  food  cycle.  In 
this  way  it  will  be  seen  that  while 
plants,  by  building  up  compounds,  form 
the  connecting  link  between  the  soil  and 
animal  life,  bacteria  in  the  other  half 
of  the  cycle,  by  reducing  them  again, 
give  us  the  connecting  link  between 
animal  life  and  the  soil.    The  food  cycle 


BACTERIOLOGY 


380 


BADEATT 


would  be  as  incomplete  without  the 
agency  of  bacterial  life  as  it  would  be 
without  the  agency  of  plant  life. 

Aids  to  Digestion. — The  attention  of 
investigators  has  been  directed  in  modern 
times  to  a  hitherto  unknown  class  of 
bacteria  which  have  a  share  in  th«  proc- 
ess of  digestion  in  the  stomach  of  man 
and  the  animals.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  the  mouth,  throat,  intestines 
and  other  organs  of  the  human  system 
were  inhabited  by  harmless  bacteria.  It 
was  announced  by  Vignal  that  certain 
other  microbes  found  habitually  in  the 
stomach  possess  properties  similar  to 
that  of  the  saliva  in  aiding  digestion. 
Numerous  specimens  were  obtained  and 
pure  cultures  made.  With  the  artifi- 
cially bred  microbes  a  lot  of  experiments 
were  tried.  At  least  two  kinds  of 
organism  were  distinguished.  One 
promoted  the  digestion  of  stai'ch  and 
an^.uer  that  of  meat  and  albuminous 
substances.  One  acted  most  efficiently 
when  it  was  slightly  acidulated.  The 
other  needed  to  be  a  little  alkaline.  A 
third  species  seemed  to  have  a  special 
fitness  for  promoting  the  action  of  bile 
on  fats. 

BACTERIOLOGY,  that  branch  of  biol- 
ogy which  treats  of  bacteria.  The  study 
of  these  microscopic  organisms  has 
developed  into  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant branches  of  modern  biological 
science. 

BACTRIA  (bac'tre-a),  a  province  of 
the  ancient  Persian  empire,  lying  N.  of 
the  Paropamisus  (Hindu  Kush)  Moun- 
tains, on  the  upper  Oxus.  A  northern 
branch  of  the  same  range  separated  it 
from  the  Sacaej,  and  it  had  Sogdiana  on 
the  N.  and  Ariana  on  the  S.  It  thus 
corresponded  pretty  nearly  with  the 
modern  Balkh.  Here  many  scholars  lo- 
cate the  original  home  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  family  of  nations.  Its 
capital,  Bactra,  or  Zariaspa,  was  also 
the  cradle  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 
It  maintained  its  independence  until  its 
subjugation  by  Cyrus  about  540  B.  c, 
when  it  became  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian 
empire.  It  was  included  in  the  conquests 
of  Alexander,  and  formed  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucidae  until  the  foun- 
dation, about  256  B.  c,  by  Diodotus,  of 
the  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactria,  which 
extended  to  the  Indus,  and  which,  after 
a  long  struggle,  was  overthrown  by  the 
Parthians. 

BACTRITES  (bak'trites,  or  bak-trl- 
tes),  a  genus  of  fossil  ammonitidse,  with 
a  straight  shell,  and  indented,  but  not 
ramified  septa.  The  genus  ranges  from 
the  lower  silurian  to  the  devonian. 


BACULITES  (bak-u-irtes),  a  genus  of 
fossil  ammonites,  characteristic  of  the 
chalk,  having  a  straight,  tapering  shell. 

BACUP,  a  municipal  borough  of  Eng- 
land, in  Lancashire,  20  miles  N.  of 
Manchester.  The  chief  manufacturing 
establishments  are  connected  with  cotton 
and  woolen  spinning  and  weaving  j 
there  are  also  iron  works,  Turkey-red 
dyeing  works,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
numerous  coal  pits  and  immense  stone 
quarries.     Pop.  about  22,500. 

BADAGRI,  or  BADAGRY,  a  British 
seaport  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  in  the 
extreme  S.  W.  corner  of  the  southern 
Nigeria,  Africa.  Early  in  its  history, 
it  was  a  noted  slave  mart  and  contained 
important   manufactories. 

BADAJOZ  (ba-da-hoth'),  the  fortified 
capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of  Bada- 
joz,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana, 
which  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of 
32  arches.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  captain- 
general  of  Estremadura  and  of  a  bishop 
and  has  an  interesting  cathedral.  Dur- 
ing the  Peninsular  War,  Badajoz  was 
besieged  by  Marshal  Soult,  and  taken 
in  March,  1811.  It  was  twice  attacked 
by  the  English,  on  May  5  and  29,  1811; 
was  besieged  by  Wellington  on  March 
16,  and  taken  April  6,  1812.  Pop, 
(1917),   province,   694,220;   city,   37,600. 

BADAKSHAN,  a  province  of  Afghan- 
istan. It  has  the  Oxus  on  the  N.  and  the 
Hindu  Kush  on  the  S.;  and  has  lofty 
mountains  and  fertile  valleys;  the  chief 
town  is  Faizabad.  The  inhabitants 
profess  Mohammedanism.  Pop.  about 
100,000. 

BADEATT,  ADAM  (ba-do'),  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  New  York 
City,  Dec.  29,  1831;  educated  at  private 
schools.  He  served  with  gallantry  in  the 
Union  army  during  the  Civil  War;  was 
on  the  staff  of  General  Sherman  in  1862- 
1863,  and  secretary  to  General  Grant  in 
1864-1869;  and  in  the  latter  year  was 
retired  with  the  rank  of  Captain  in  the 
regular  army  and  of  Brevet  Brigadier- 
General  of  Volunteers,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  Legation  in  London. 
He  was  Consul-General  in  London,  1870- 
1881,  but  obtained  leave  to  accompany 
General  Grant  in  his  world  tour  (1877- 
1878).  In  1882-1884  he  was  Consul- 
General  in  Havana.  His  publications 
include  "The  Vagabond"  (1859);  "Mili- 
tary History  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant"  (3 
vols.,  1867-1881)  ;  "Conspiracy;  A  Cuban 
Romance"  (1885)  ;  "Aristocracy  in  Eng- 
land" (1886);  and  "Grant  in  Peace" 
(1886).    He  died  March  19,  1895. 


BADEN 


381 


BADENWEILER 


BADEN  (bad'en),  one  of  the  more 
important  states  of  Germany,  situated  in 
the  S.  W.  of  Germany,  to  the  W.  of 
Wiirttemberg.  It  is  divided  into  four 
districts,  Constance,  Freiburg,  Karlsruhe, 
and  Mannheim;  has  an  area  of  5,823 
square  miles>  and  pop.  about  2,200,000. 

Topography. — It  is  mountainous,  being 
traversed  to  a  considerable  extent  by 
the  lofty  plateau  of  the  Schwarzwald, 
or  Black  Forest,  which  attains  its  highest 
point  in  the  Feldberg  (4,904  feet).  The 
whole  of  Baden,  except  a  small  portion 
in  the  S.  E.,  in  which  the  Danube  takes 
its  rise,  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine, 
which  bounds  it  on  the  S.  and  W.  Numer- 
ous tributaries  of  the  Rhine  intersect  it, 
the  chief  being  the  Neckar.  Lakes  are 
numerous,  and  include  a  considerable  part 
of  the  Lake  of  Constance.  The  principal 
minerals  worked  are  coal,  salt,  iron,  zinc, 
and  nickel.  The  number  of  mineral 
springs  is  remarkably  great,  and  of 
these  not  a  few  are  of  great  celebrity. 
The  vegetation  is  peculiarly  rich,  and 
there  are  magnificent  forests.  The 
cereals  Comprise  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and 
rye.  Potatoes,  hemp,  tobacco,  wine,  and 
sugar  beet  are  largely  produced.  Several 
of  the  wines,  both  white  and  red,  rank 
in  the  first  class.  Baden  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  fruits,  also.  The  manu- 
factures are  important.  Among  them  are 
textiles,  tobacco  and  cigars,  chemicals, 
machinery,  pottery  ware,  jewelry  (espe- 
cially at  Pforzheim) ,  wooden  clocks,  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  districts  of  the  Black 
Forest,  musical  boxes  and  other  musical 
toys.  The  capital  is  Karlsruhe,  about  5 
miles  from  the  Rhine;  the  other  chief 
towns  are  Mannheim,  Freiburg-im-Breis- 
gau,  with  a  Roman  Catholic  university; 
Pforzheim,  Constanz,  Baden-Baden,  and 
Heidelberg.  Baden-Baden  has  warm 
mineral  springs,  which  were  known  and 
used  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Heidel- 
berg has  a  university  (Protestant), 
founded  in  1386.  There  are  about 
1,500  miles  of  railways,  mostly  owned 
by  the  state. 

Histoi-y. — In  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  southern  Baden  belonged  to  the 
Roman  province  of  Rhaetia.  Under  the 
old  German  empire  it  was  a  margravate, 
which  in  1533  was  divided  into  Baden- 
Baden  and  Baden-Durlach,  but  reunited 
in  1771.  The  title  of  Grand-Duke  was 
conferred  by  Napoleon  in  1806,  and  in 
the  same  year  Baden  was  extended  to  its 
present  limits.  The  executive  power  was 
vested  in  the  Grand-Duke,  the  legislative 
in  a  House  of  Legislature,  consisting  of 
an  Upper  and  a  Lower  Chamber.  In 
November,  1918,  a  resolution  forced  the 
?ibdication  of  the  Grand-Duke  Frederick 
II.  who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 


1907.  Baden  was  declared  a  republic 
Nov.  13,  1918,  and  in  January,  1919,  the 
National  Assembly  adopted  a  new  con- 
stitution. 

BADEN-BADEN,  a  town  in  the  re- 
public of  Baden.  Pop.  about  25,000.  It 
is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  medicinal 
springs,  which  were  known  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  Its  gaming  tables,  the  most 
renowned  in  Europe,  were  closed  with  the 
rest  of  the  licensed  German  gaming 
houses  in  1872.  The  mineral  springs 
consist  of  thermal  saline  waters.  They 
contain  chloride  of  sodium,  with  sulphate 
of  lime,  carbonate  of  iron,  and  carbonic 
acid,  and  a  small  quantity  of  lithia,  and 
are  used  chiefly  as  hot  baths. 

BADEN-BEI-WIEN  (bad'en-bi-ven') ,  a 
frequented  watering  place  of  Lower  Aus- 
tria,  about  15  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Vienna. 
It  was  the  Aquae  Pannoniae,  or  Cethiae  of 
the  Romans,  and  is  still  famous  for  its 
warm  mineral  springs.  Near  by  is  the 
former  royal  hunting  lodge,  Meierling, 
where  Crown  Prince  Rudolf  met  a  tragic 
end  in  1889.    Pop.  about  20,000. 

BADEN-POWELL,       SIR      ROBERT 

STEPHENSON  SMYTH,  a  British  mili- 
tary officer  born  in  London,  Feb.  22, 1857; 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  School ; 
joined  the  13th  Hussars  in  1876;  was 
Adjutant  in  India,  Afghanistan,  and 
South  Africa;  Assistant  Military  Secre- 
tary on  the  staff  in  South  Africa  in  1887- 
1889 ;  took  part  in  the  operations  in  Zulu- 
land  in  1888;  Assistant  Military  Secre- 
tary in  Malta  in  1890-1893;  on  special 
sei-vice  in  Ashanti,  commanding  the 
native  levies,  1895,  for  which  he  was  bre- 
vetted  Lieutenant-Colonel,  chief  staflF  offi- 
cer in  the  Matabeleland  campaign,  for 
which  he  was  brevetted  Colonel;  and 
became  Lieutenant-Colonel,  commanding 
the  5th  Dragoon  Guards,  in  1897.  In  the 
war  in  South  Africa  in  1899-1900,  he 
signally  distinguished  himself  by  his 
grand  defense  of  Mafeking,  Cape  Colony. 
(See  Boer  War).  In  recognition  of  his 
services  the  Queen  appointed  him  a  Major- 
General.  He  established  the  BoY  Scouts 
(q.  V.)  in  1908,  becoming  a  Lieutenant- 
General  in  the  same  year.  General  Baden- 
Powell  has  published  several  works, 
including  "Reconnaissance  and  Scouting" 
(1890);  "Vedette"  (1890);  "Cavalry 
Instruction"  (1895);  "The  Downfall  of 
Prempeh"  (1896)  ;  "The  Matabele  Cam- 
paign" (1896)  ;  "Scouting  for  Boys" 
(1908) ;  "My  Adventures  as  a  Spy" 
(1915) ;  etc. 

BADENWEILER  (bad'en-vl'ler) ,  a 
watering  place  in  the  republic  of  Baden, 
near  Miilheim.  Its  mineral  springs  are 
now  rated  among  the  indififerent  waters, 


BADGE 


BAEYER 


and  it  is  of  interest  chiefly  for  the  ruins 
of  Roman  baths  that  were  discovered  in 
1847.  The  foundation  of  the  town  is  re- 
ferred to  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  the 
remains  of  the  vapor  baths,  of  which 
there  are  excellent  specimens,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  same  period. 

BADGE,  a  distinctive  device,  emblem, 
mark,  honorary  decoration,  or  special 
cognizance,  used  originally  to  identify  a 
knight   or   distinguish  his  followers. 

BADGER,  a  plantigrade,  carnivorous 
mammal,  allied  both  to  the  bears  and  to 
the  weasels,  of  a  clumsy  make,  with  short 
thick  legs,  and  long  claws  on  the  fore- 
feet. The  common  badger  {meles  vul- 
garis) is  as  large  as  a  middle-sized  dog, 


BADGER 

but  much  lower  on  the  legs,  with  a  flat- 
ter and  broader  body,  very  thick,  tough 
hide,  and  long,  coarse  hair.  It  inhabits 
the  N.  of  Europe  and  Asia,  burrows,  is 
indolent  and  sleepy,  feeds  by  night  on 
vegetables,  small  quadrupeds,  etc.  Its 
flesh  may  be  eaten,  and  its  hair  is  used 
for  artists'  brushes  in  painting.  The 
American  badger  belongs  to  a  separate 
genus. 

BADGER  DOG,  a  long-bodied,  short- 
legged  dog,  with  rather  large  pendulous 
ears,  usually  short-haired,  black,  and 
with  yellow  extremities;  often  called  by 
its  German  name,  dachshund. 

BADGHIS  (bad'gis),  a  region  N.  of 
Herat,  Afghanistan,  comprising  the 
country  between  the  Murghab  and  the 
Harirud  rivers,  as  far  N.  as  the  edge  of 
the  desert.  It  lies  just  to  the  S.  of  the 
boundary  line  between  Afghanistan  and 
the  Russian  territories,  as  defined  in  1887. 

BADINGUET  (bad-an-ga),  the  name 
of  the  person  in  whose  garments  Napo- 
leon II.  escaped  from  the  fortress  of  Ham 
in  1846;  afterward  a  nickname  for  Na- 
poleon III. 

BAD  LANDS,  tracts  of  land  in  the 
N.  W.  part  of  the  United  States,  The 
absence  of  vegetation  enables  the  rains 
to  wash  clean  the  old  lake  beds,  and  in 
many  instances  to  disclose  remarkable 
fossils  of  extinct  animals.  They  were 
first  called  Bad  Lands  {Tnauvaises  terres) 


by  the   French  explorers   in   the  region 
of  the  Black  Hills  in  South  Dakota. 

BADMINTON,  a  popular  game,  closely 
resembling  lawn  tennis,  played  with 
battledore  and  shuttlecock  on  a  rectan- 
gular portion  of  a  lawn.  The  ground  is 
divided  crosswise  by  a  strip  of  net,  not 
less  than  three  inches  wide,  suspended 
from  poles  at  a  height  of  five  feet.  As 
in  lawn  tennis,  the  ground  on  either  side 
of  the  net  is  divided  lengthwise  into 
right  and  left  courts.  The  first  player, 
standing  on  a  specified  part  of  his  right 
court,  must  strike  the  shuttlecock  so  as 
to  fall  across  the  net  into  the  back  sec- 
tion of  the  right  court  opposite.  The 
opponent  strikes  it  back,  then  it  is 
returned  by  the  first  player,  and  so  on 
till  the  first  player  misses  the  shuttle- 
cock. After  the  first  stroke,  it  suffices 
that  the  shuttlecock  be  sent  across  the 
net,  if  it  does  not  fly  beyond  the  bound- 
aries. 

BADRINATH  (-at'),  a  peak  of  the 
main  Himalaya  range,  in  Garhwal  dis- 
trict, Northwestern  Provinces,  India; 
23,210  feet  alx)ve  the  sea.  On  one  of  its 
shoulders,  at  an  elevation  of  10,400  feet, 
stands  a  celebrated  temple  of  Vishnu, 
which  some  years  attracts  as  many  as 
50,000  pilgrims. 

BAEDEKER  (ba'de-ker),  KARL,  a 
German  publisher,  born  in  1801;  origi- 
nator of  a  celebrated  series  of  guide- 
books for  travelers.     He  died  in  1859. 

BAEKELAND,    LEO    HENDRIK,    an 

American  chemist,  born  in  Ghent,  Bel- 
gium, in  1863.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Ghent  and  studied  electro- 
chemistry in  Germany.  After  being  a 
member  of  the  faculty  of  several  univer- 
sities in  Belgium,  he  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1889.  He  founded  a  company 
for  the  manufacture  of  photographic 
papers  which  he  had  invented,  the  best 
known  of  which  was  called  Velox.  From 
1889  he  was  engaged  in  research  me- 
chanical work  and  was  consulting  chem- 
ist for  many  important  industrial  con- 
cerns. He  invented  bakelite,  a  chemical 
substance  replacing  hard  rubber  and 
amber.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Naval 
Consulting  Board  from  1915  to  1920,  and 
also  was  a  member  of  many  chemical 
societies,  both  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad.  He  took  out  many  patents  in  ' 
the  United  States  and  abroad  on  subjects 
of  organic  chemistry,  electric  insulation, 
etc.,  and  contributed  much  to  chemical 
magazines  on  chemical  subjects. 

BAEYER,  ADOLF  VON  (ba'yer),  a 
German  chemist,  born  in  Berlin,  Oct.  31, 
1835;  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  at 


BAEZA 


383 


BAGDAD 


Strasburg  in  1872,  and  at  Munich,  in 
1875,  succeeding  Liebig  at  Munich,  He 
made  many  important  discoveries  in  or- 
ganic chemistry,  especially  cerulein,  eosin 
and  indol,  and  discovered  a  process  of 
making  artificial  indigo.  In  1905  he  was 
awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  chemistry. 
He  died  in  1917. 

BAEZA  (ba-a'tha),  a  town,  Spain,  in 
Andalusia,  22  miles  E.  N.  E.  from  Jaen. 
Pop.  about  17,500.  The  principal  edifices 
are  the  cathedral,  the  university  (now 
suppressed),  and  the  old  monastery  of 
St.  Philip  de  Neri. 

BAFFIN,  WILLIAM,  an  English 
navigator  and  discoverer,  believed  to 
have  been  bom  in  London  about  1584; 
but  the  earliest  known  fact  regarding  him 
is  that  he  sailed  in  1612  as  pilot  of  the 
"Patience"  from  Hull,  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  to  Greenland.  In  1613-1614  he 
served  in  the  Spitzbergen  whale  fishery, 
and  he  wrote  an  account  of  this  and  his 
previous  voyage.  In  1615  he  took  serv- 
ice with  a  company  as  pilot  of  the  "Dis- 
covery," in  search  of  a  northwest  passage 
and  made  a  careful  examination  of  Hud- 
son Strait.  His  recorded  latitudes  and 
notes  of  the  tides  are  in  remarkable 
agreement  with  those  of  a  later  date. 
In  the  following  year,  with  Capt.  Bylot, 
he  discovered,  charted,  and  named  Smith 
Sound,  and  several  others,  and  explored 
the  large  inlet  now  associated  with  his 
name.  Later  investigation  has  confirmed 
his  descriptions.  His  last  voyages,  1616- 
1621,  were  to  the  East.  At  the  siege  of 
Ormuz,  which  the  English  were  helping 
the  Shah  of  Persia  to  recover  from  the 
Portuguese,  he  was  killed,  Jan.  23,  1622. 
See  "Voyages  of  William  Baffin,  1612- 
1622,"  edited  by  C.  R.  Markham  (1880). 

BAFFIN  LAND,  a  Canadian  island, 
crossed  by  the  Arctic  Circle;  area,  about 
236,000  square  miles. 

BAFFIN  SEA  (erroneously  styled  a 
Bay) ,  a  large  expanse  of  water  in  North 
America,  between  Greenland  and  the 
lands  or  islands  N.  of  Hudson  Bay,  ex- 
tending from  68°  to  78°  N.,  and  55°  to 
80°  W.  It  communicates  with  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  by  Davis  Strait  on  the  S., 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Lancaster 
Sound  and  Jones  Sound  on  the  W.,  and 
with  the  Polar  Sea  by  Smith  Sound  and 
Robeson  Channel  on  the  N.  Depth,  200- 
1,050  fathoms.  The  tides  do  not  rise  more 
than  10  feet.  The  surface  of  the  sea  is 
covered  with  ice  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year.  The  coasts  are  moun- 
tainous, barren,  and  deeply  indented  with 
gulfs.  Whale  and  seal  fishing  is  followed. 
This  sea  was  discovered  by  the  English 
navigator,  Baffin,  in  1616. 


BAGAMOYO  (bag-a-moi'o),  a  town  oi 
former  German  East  Africa,  on  the  coast 
opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar;  pop 
about  25,000.  It  is  an  important  trading 
station  for  ivory,  iron,  copra,  gum  and 
caoutchouc.  Bagamoyo  is  a  point  of  de- 
parture for  caravans  into  the  interior. 
The  chief  imports  are  cottons,  iron  ware, 
nee,  oil,  spirits,  and  beer. 

_  BAGASSE  (ba-gas'),  the  sugar  cane  in 
its  dry,  crushed  state,  as  delivered  from 
the  mill,  and  after  the  main  portion  of 
its  juice  has  been  expressed;  used  as 
fuel  in  the  sugar  factory,  and  called  also 
cane  trash. 

BAGATELLE,  a  game  played  on  a 
long,  flat  board,  covered  with  cloth  like 
a  billiard-table,  with  spherical  balls  and 
a  cue,  or  mace.  At  the  end  of  the  board 
are  nine  cups,  or  sockets,  of  just  sufficient 
size  to  receive  the  balls.  These  sockets 
are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  regular 
octagon.  The  chief  aim  of  the  players 
is  to  put  the  balls  in  the  sockets  which 
are  numbered. 

BAGAUDiE  (bag'o-dl),  a  Gallic  tribe 
which  revolted  under  Carinus  and  was 
subdued  by  Maximian  in  286  A.  D. 

BAGBY,  GEORGE  WILLIAM,  an 
American  physician  and  humorist,  born 
in  Buckingham  co.,  Va.,  Aug.  13,  1828; 
wrote  under  the  pseudonym  "Mozis 
Addums."  He  was  editor  of  the  Lynch- 
burg "Express"  (1853),  and  "Southern 
Literary  Messenger"  (1859);  State 
Librarian  of  Virginia  (1870-1878),  and 
contributor  to  various  magazines.  He 
wrote  "John  M.  Daniel's  Latch-Key" 
(1868);  "What  I  Did  With  My  Fifty 
Millions"  (1875);  and  "  Meekins' 
Twinses"  (1877).  He  died  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  Nov.  29,  1883. 

BAGDAD  (bag-dad'),  or  BAGHDAD, 
capital  of  the  former  Turkish  vilayet 
of  the  same  name,  in  the  southern  part  of 
Mesopotamia  (Irak  Arabi).  The  greater 
part  of  it  lies  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  old  Bagdad,  the  residence  of  the 
caliphs  (now  in  ruins),  was  on  the  west- 
ern bank  of  the  river.  The  modern  city 
is  surrounded  with  a  brick  wall  about 
6  miles  in  circuit;  the  houses  are  mostly 
built  of  brick,  the  streets  unpaved,  and 
very  narrow.  The  palace  of  the  Governor 
is  spacious.  Manufactures :  leather,  silks, 
cottons,  woolens,  carpets,  etc.  Steamers 
ply  on  the  river  between  Bagdad  and 
Bassorah,  and  the  city  exports  wheat, 
dates,  galls,  gum,  mohair,  carpets,  etc., 
to  Europe.  Bagdad  is  inhabited  by 
Turks,  Arabs,  Persians,  Armenians,  Jews, 
etc.,  and  a  small  number  of  Europeans. 
The  Turks  compose  three-fourths  of  the 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY 


384 


BAHAMA  ISLANDS 


whole    population.     The    city   has    been  scription    of   the    Money    Market,'*    He 

frequently  visited  by  the  plague,  and,  in  died  in  London,  March  24,  1877. 
1831,    was    nearly    devastated    by    that 

calamity.     Bagdad  was  founded  in  762,  BAHAMA      BANK,       GREAT      and 

by  the  Caliph  Almansur,  and  raised  to  a  LITTLE,  shoals  among  the  West  India 


MOSQUE   OF   ABDUL  KADR  AT   BAGDAD 


high  degree  of  splendor,  in  the  9th 
century,  by  Haroun  Al  Raschid.  It  is 
the  scene  of  a  number  of  the  tales  of  the 
"Arabian  Nights."  In  the  13th  century 
it  was  stormed  by  Hulaku,  grandson  of 
Genghis-Khan,  who  caused  the  reigning 
caliph  to  be  slain,  and  destroyed  the 
caliphate.  In  the  World  War  (1914- 
1918)  British  forces  captured  the  city,, 
March  11,  1917,  and  it  has  since  been 
governed  by  a  British  commission.  As 
a  result  of  the  peace  treaty,  handed  to 
the  Turkish  peace  delegates  in  Paris  on 
Mayll,  1920,  Bagdad  became  part  of 
the  independent  state  of  Mesopotamia. 
Pop.  of  vilayet  about  900,000.  City, 
about  225,000. 

BAGDAD  RAILWAY.  See  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

BAGEHOT,  WALTER  (baj'ot),  an 
English  writer  on  political  economy  and 
government,  born  in  Langport,  Somer- 
setshire, Feb.  3,  1826;  was  graduated  at 
University  College,  London,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  but  never  entered 
practice.  His  principal  works  are  "The 
English  Constitution";  "Physics  and 
Politics";   and  "Lombard  Street:  a  De- 


Islands;  the  former  between  22°  and  26" 
N.,  75°  and  79°  W.,  having  S.  and  W. 
the  Bahama  old  and  new  channels.  On 
it  are  the  islands  of  Providence,  Andros, 
and  Exuma.  The  Little  Bank,  N.  W.  of 
the  foregoing,  between  26°  and  27°  N., 
77°  and  79°  W.,  has  on  it  the  Great 
Bahama  and  Abaco  Islands. 

BAHAMA  CHANNEL,  OLD  and 
NEW,  two  American  channels;  the 
former  separates  the  Great  Bahama 
Bank  and  Cuba;  the  latter,  also  called 
the  Gulf  of  Florida,  j^  between  the 
Great  and  Little  Bahama  Banks  and 
Florida,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  chan- 
nel of  the  great  Gulf  Stream,  which 
flows  here  at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  5 
miles  an  hour. 

BAHAMA  ISLANDS,  or  LXJCAYOS,  a 

group  of  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
forming  a  colony  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  lying  N.  E.  of  Cuba  and  S.  E. 
of  the  coast  of  Florida,  the  Gulf  Stream 
passing  between  them  and  the  mainland. 
They  extend  a  distance  of  upward  of  600 
miles,  and  besides  innumerable  keys  and 
rocks,  number  20  inhabited  islands.  The 
principal    islands    are    Grand    Bahama, 


BAHIA 


385 


BAILEY 


Great  and  Little  Abaco,  Andros  Islands, 
New  Province,  Eleuthera,  San  Salvador^ 
Great  Exuma,  Watling  Island,  Long 
Island,  Crooked  Island,  Acklin  Island, 
Mariguana  Island,  Great  Inagua.  Of  the 
whole  group  the  most  populous  is  New 
Providence,  which  contains  the  capital, 
Nassau;  the  largest  is  Andros,  100  miles 
long,  20  to  40  broad.  They  are  low  and 
flat,  and  have  in  many  parts  extensive 
forests.  Total  area,  about  4,500  square 
miles.  The  soil  is  a  thin  but  rich  vege- 
table mold,  and  the  principal  product  is 
pine  apples,  which  form  the  most  impor- 
tant export.  Other  fruits  are  also  grown, 
with  sisal,  cotton,  sugar,  maize,  yams, 
groundnuts,  cocoanuts,  etc.  Sponges  are 
obtained  in  large  quantity  and  are  ex- 
ported. San  Salvador,  or  Cat  Island,  is 
generally  believed  to  be  the  same  as 
Guanahani,  the  land  first  touched  on  by 
Columbus  (Oct.  12,  1492)  on  his  first 
great  voyage  of  discovery.  The  first 
British  settlement  was  made  on  New 
Providence  toward  the  close  of  the  17th 
century.  A  number  of  loyal  Americans 
settled  in  the  islands  after  the  War  of 
Independence.  The  government  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  British  governor,  by 
executive  and  legislative  councils  of 
9  members  each,  and  a  representative 
assembly  of  29  members.  Fop.  (1918) 
59,928. 

BAHIA,  a  state  of  Brazil.  It  has 
an  area  of  about  165,000  square  miles. 
The  coast  is  well  wooded  and  is  fertile. 
The  land  in  the  interior  is  high  and  is 
not  well  adapted  for  agriculture.  The 
northern  part  is  composed  chiefly  of 
desert  land.  The  chief  river  is  Sao 
Francisco,  which  crosses  the  state  from 
south  to  north.  The  climate  on  the  coast 
is  hot  and  moist,  while  the  interior  is 
dry.  The  chief  products  are  tobacco, 
sugar,  cotton,  fruits,  coffee,  and  cocoa. 
Rubber  trees  have  also  been  introduced. 
Mines  of  gold  and  diamonds  exist  and 
salt  and  saltpeter  are  found.  Commerce 
is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain  and  France. 
The  chief  exports  are  tobacco,  sugar, 
rubber,  coffee,  and  skins.  An  important 
railway  line  is  owned  by  the  state.  Pop. 
about  2,500,000.    The  capital  is  Bahia. 

BAHIA,  the  capital  of  the  state  of 
the  same  name  in  Brazil.  It  is  on  the 
east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  All  Saints  and 
is  about  800  miles  N.  E.  of  Rio  Janeiro 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steamship 
and  cable.  The  new  city  is  well  built, 
while  the  old  has  narrow  and  dirty 
streets.  The  new  city  is  much  higher  in 
elevation  than  the  old  and  they  are  con- 
nected by  hydraulic  elevators.  The  city 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  It  has 
several  handsome  churches,  notably  the 


cathedral,  and  a  fine  archbishop's  palace. 
There  is  a  university,  a  normal  school, 
a  public  library,  and  a  museum.  There 
are  electric  railways  and  an  excellent 
harbor,  which  has  been  recently  im- 
proved. The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  cloth,  shoes, 
boots,  and  hats.  Bahia  is  the  second  city 
of  Brazil  in  population.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  United  States  consul.  Pop.  about 
300,000. 

BAHIA  BLANCA,  a  city  of  Argentina, 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires,  about  450  miles  S.  W.  of 
the  city  of  that  name.  It  is  well  built, 
having  good  streets  and  many  handsome 
public  buildings.  It  is  an  important 
railway  center  and  has  an  excellent 
harbor.  The  leading  exports  are  wool 
and  grain.  The  city  is  the  principal 
naval  base  of  Argentina.  Pop.  about 
75,000. 

BAHIA  HONDA  (ba-e'a  on'da),  a  sea- 
port  of  Cuba,  in  the  province  of  Pinar 
del  Rio,  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, and  lying  on  a  small  bay,  bearing 
the  same  name.  The  town  and  bay  are 
about  50  miles  W.  of  Havana,  being  com- 
manded by  a  small  fort.  There  are 
mines  of  coal  and  copper  in  the  vicinity. 
A  short  distance  to  the  S.  are  the  sulphur 
springs  of  Aguacate.     Pop.  about  1,500. 

BAI.ffi  (bl'e),an  ancient  Roman  water- 
ing-place on  the  coast  of  Campania,  10 
miles  W.  of  Naples.  Many  of  the 
wealthy  Romans  had  country  houses  at 
Baias,  which  Horace  preferred  to  all 
other  places.  Ruins  of  temples,  baths, 
and  villas  still  atti'act  the  attention  of 
archasologists. 

BAIKIE,  WILLIAM  BALFOUR,  an 
English  explorer,  born  in  the  Orkney 
Islands,  Aug.  27,  1825;  joined  the  British 
navy,  and  was  made  Surgeon  and  Natur- 
alist of  the  Niger  Expedition,  1854.  He 
took  the  command  on  the  death  of  the 
senior  officer,  and  explored  the  Niger  for 
250  miles.  Another  expedition,  which 
started  in  1857,  passed  two  years  in  ex- 
ploring, when  the  vessel  was  wrecked, 
and  all  the  members,  with  the  exception 
of  Baikie,  returned  to  England.  With 
none  but  native  assistants  he  formed  a 
settlement  at  the  confluence  of  the  Benue 
and  the  Quorra,  in  which  he  was  ruler, 
teacher,  and  physician,  and  within  a  few 
years  he  opened  the  Niger  to  naviga- 
tion, made  roads,  established  a  market, 
etc.  He  died  in  Sierra  Leone,  Dec.  12, 
1864. 

BAILEY,     JOSEPH     WELDON,     an 

American  public  official,  born  in  Copiah 
CO.,  Mi.ss.,  in  1863.  He  received  a  com- 
mon school  education,  and  after  study- 


BAILEY 


386 


BAJAZET 


ing  law  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1883. 
In  1885  he  removed  to  Gainesville,  Tex. 
He  entered  politics  and  was  a  member  of 
the  52d  and  56th  Congresses,  taking  a 
prominent  part  in  the  deliberations  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  and  quick- 
ly becoming  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
members.  He  was  elected  Senator  in 
1907.  In  1911,  before  the  expiration  of 
his  term,  he  resigned.  Though  later 
withdrawing  his  resignation,  he  refused 
to  stand  for  re-election.  In  the  Senate  he 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Democratic 
party.  He  was  a  candidate  for  Governor 
of  Texas  in  1920,  but  was  defeated. 

BAILEY,  LIBERTY  HYDE,  an  Amer- 
ican horticulturist,  born  in  South  Haven, 
Mich.,  March  15,  1858;  graduated  at  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  in  1882; 
was  associate  to  Dr.  Asa  Gray  at  Har- 
vard University  in  1882-1883;  Professor 
of  Horticulture  and  Landscape  Garden- 
ing in  the  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege in  1883-1888;  and  in  the  last  year 
became  Professor  of  Horticulture  in 
Cornell  University.  In  1903  he  became 
Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and 
director  of  the  experimental  station,  re- 
tiring in  1913.  He  was  an  associate 
editor  of  the  revised  edition  of  "John- 
son's Universal  Cyclopaedia"  (1892- 
1896),  and  editor  of  "American  Garden- 
ing." He  published  a  large  number  of 
technical  works,  including  "Annals  of 
Horticulture,"  "Evolution  of  Our  Na- 
tive Fruits,"  "Principles  of  Fruit  Grow- 
ing," "Text-book  of  Agriculture,"  "Cy- 
clopedia of  American  Horticulture" 
(1900  -  1902) ;  "  Cyclopedia  American 
Agriculture"    (1907-1909). 

BAILEY,  WILLIAM  WHITMAN,  an 
American  botanist,  born  in  West  Point, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  22,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  Brown  and  Harvard,  having  been  a 
pupil  of  Prof.  Asa  Gray.  In  1867  he 
was  botanist  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  the  40th  parallel;  in 
1867-1869  assistant  librarian  of  the 
Providence  Athanaeum.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Instructor  in  Botany  at  Brown 
University  in  1877,  and  became  professor 
there  in  1881.  He  published  "Botanical 
Collectors'  Handbook"  (1881);  "Botan- 
izing" (1899);  "Poems"  (1910).  Died 
Feb.  20,  1914. 

BAILLIE,  JOANNA,  a  Scottish  au- 
thor, born  at  Bothwell,  Lanarkshire, 
Sept.  11,  1762;  removed  in  early  life  to 
London.  Here  in  1798  she  published  her 
first  work,  entitled  "A  Series  of  Plays," 
in  which  she  attempted  to  delineate  the 
stronger  passions  by  making  each  pas- 
sion the  subject  of  a  play.  The  series 
was  followed  up  by  a  second  volume  in 
1802,   and   a  third  in   1812.     A   second 


series  appeared  in  1836,  and  a  complete 
edition  of  her  whole  dramatic  works  in 
1850.  She  also  published  a  volume  of 
miscellaneous  poetry,  in  1841.  Her  only 
plays  performed  on  the  stage  were  a 
tragedy,  the  "Family  Legend,"  and  "De 
Montfort."  She  died  in  Hempstead,  Feb. 
23,  1851. 

BAIRETJTH.  See  Bayreuth. 

BAIZE,  a  sort  of  coarse  woolen  fabric 
with  a  rough  nap,  now  generally  used 
for  linings,  and  mostly  green  or  red  in 
color. 

BAJA  (ba'ya),  an  Italian  seaport 
town,  W.  of  Naples.  It  is  the  ancient 
Balae. 

BAJA,  a  market  town  of  Hungary, 
near  the  Danube,  90  miles  S.  of  Pest.  It 
is  celebrated  for  its  annual  swine  fair, 
and  its  trade  in  grain  and  wine.  Pop. 
about  22,500. 

BAJAZET  (b!-a-zed'),  or  BAY- 
AZEED,  I.,  an  Ottoman  Sultan,  born 
1347,  succeeded  his  father,  Amurath  I., 
in  1389.  He  was  the  first  of  his  family 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Sultan.  The 
Turkish  Empire  at  this  time  extended  W. 
from  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of 
Europe,  and  Amurath  had  crossed  the 
Bosphorus,  subdued  the  greater  part  of 
Thrace,  and  fixed  the  seat  of  his  power  at 
Adrianople.  Bajazet  wrested  the  N. 
parts  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  dominion 
of  various  Turkish  emirs  whose  power 
had  long  been  established  there.  In 
Europe  he  conquered  Macedonia  and 
Thessaly,  and  invaded  Moldavia  and 
Hungary.  Sigismund,  King  of  the  latter 
country,  met  him  at  the  head  of  100,000 
men,  including  the  flower  of  the  chivalry 
of  France  and  Germany,  but  was  totally 
defeated  at  Nicopoli,  on  the  Danube,  Sept. 
28,  1396.  Bajazet  was  preparing  for  an 
attack  on  Constantinople,  when  he  was 
interrupted  by  the  approach  of  Timur 
the  Great,  by  whom  he  was  defeated  at 
Angora,  in  Anatolia,  July  28,  1402.  He 
was  taken  captive,  and  died  about  nine 
months  afterward,  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
He  was  succeeded  by  Mohammed  I. 

BAJAZET  II.,  a  Sultan  of  the  Turks; 
he  succeeded  his  father,  Mohammed  II., 
in  1481.  His  brother,  Zizim,  unsuccessfully 
contested  the  empire  with  him,  assisted 
by  Caith  Bey,  Sultan  of  the  Egyptian 
Mamelukes.  Bajazet  undertook  an  expe- 
dition against  Caith  Bey,  but  was  de- 
feated, with  great  loss,  near  Mount  Tau- 
rus in  Cilicia,  in  1489.  He  was  more 
fortunate  in  Europe,  where,  in  the  same 
year,  his  generals  conquered  Croatia  and 
Bosnia.  Bajazet  was  engaged  in  long 
and    bloody   hostilities   with   the   Molda- 


BAKEL 


387 


BASER 


vians,  the  Rhodians,  and  especially  the 
Venetians,  who  frequently  invaded  the 
S.  of  Greece;  and  with  Ishmael,  King  of 
Persia.  At  home  he  had  to  contend 
against  his  rebellious  son,  Selim,  to  whom 
at  last  he  resigned  the  empire.  He  died 
in  1512. 

BAKEL,  a  town  with  a  strong  fort,  in 
the  E.  of  the  French  colony  of  Senegal, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal  river. 
Pop.  about  2,000. 

BAKER,  a  city  of  Oregon,  the  county- 
seat  of  Baker  co.,  on  the  Powder  river 
and  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon  Railroad 
and  Navigation  Company.  It  is  the  center 
of  an  important  mining  region  and  has 
also  an  extensive  trade  in  lumber,  wool, 
live  stock,  and  mineral  products.  The 
surrounding  country  pi'oduces  agricul- 
tural products  in  large  quantities.  There 
is  an  opera  house,  a  Masonic  temple,  a 
hospital,  and  other  public  buildings.  Pop. 
(1910)  6,742;  (1920)  7,729. 

BAKER,  SIR  BENJAMIN,  an  Eng- 
lish engineer,  born  near  Bath,  in  1840. 
In  1877  he  superintended  the  removal 
of  Cleopatra's  Needle  from  Egypt  to 
London.  In  conjunction  with  Sir  John 
Fowler  he  drew  the  plans  for  the  great 
bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth.  He  also 
did  important  work  in  connection  with 
the  Assouan  dam,  the  Blackwall  tunnel, 
the  Tower  Bridge  (London)  and  the 
(London)  Metropolitan  Railway  System. 
He  has  written  numerous  scientific  trea- 
tises, including  "  Long  Span  Iron 
Bridges,"  "Suspension  Versus  Cantiliver 
Bridges,"  "The  Strength  of  Beams,"  and 
"Transportation  and  Re-erection  of 
Cleopatra's  Needle."     He  died  in   1917. 

BAKER,  MOSES  NELSON,  an  Ameri- 
can  civil  engineer,  bom  in  Enosburg,  Vt., 
Jan.  26j  1864;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1886;  was 
editor  for  several  years  of  the  "Manual 
of  American  Waterworks,"  and  associate 
editor  and  later  editor  of  "Engineering 
News."  He  wrote  "Sewage  Purification 
in  America,"  "Sewerage  and  Sewage 
Purification,"  etc.,  contributed  to  the 
Standard  Dictionary,  and  is  the  author 
of  various  works  on  engineering,  sani- 
tation, etc. 

BAKER,  NEWTON  DIEHL,  an 
American  public  official,  born  in  Martins- 
burg,  W.  Va.,  in  1871.  He  graduated 
from  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1892, 
studied  law  at  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity, and  practiced  law  in  Martins- 
burg,  W.  Va.,  in  1897.  From  1902  to 
1912  he  was  city  solicitor  of  Cleveland, 
O.,  and  was  mayor  from  1912  to  1914. 
His  introduction  of  several  radical  meth- 

2(i — Vol.  1 — Cyc 


ods  in  the  administration  of  the  city 
government  attracted  wide  attention.  On 
March  7,  1916,  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary  of  War  to   succeed   Lindley   M. 


NEWTON   DIEHL  BAKER 

Garrison,  who  had  resigned.  He  was 
Secretary  of  War  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  President  Wilson,  and  his  ad- 
ministration of  the  War  Department 
during  the  World  War  was  widely  criti- 
cized. He  was,  however,  supported  by 
President  Wilson,  who  resisted  all  de- 
mands for  his  removal.  The  criticisms 
made  against  Mr.  Baker  were  not  di- 
rected toward  his  integrity  or  good  inten- 
tions, but  rather  to  a  lack  of  administra- 
tive ability.  During  his  term  of  office 
he  made  several  tours  for  the  inspection 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces 
in  France.  He  wrote  "Frontiers  of 
Freedom — A  Collection  of  Addresses" 
(1917). 

BAKER,  RAY  STANNARD,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Lansing, 
Mich.,  in  1870.  After  graduating  from 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  in 
1889,  and  carrying  on  special  studies  in 
law  and.  literature  at  the  University  of 
Michigan,  he  engaged  in  newspaper 
work  and  was  for  several  years  assistant 
editor  of  "McClure's  Magazine,"  from 
1906  to  1915,  and  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "American  Magazine."  He  \\Tote 
a  series  of  articles  on  the  corruption  of 
the  government  in  American  cities  and 
did  much  to  bring  about  improved  condi- 
tions in  municipal  government.  His  pub- 
lished  writings   include  "Following  the 


BAKER 


388 


BALAKLAVA 


Color  Line"  (1908) ;  "New  Ideals  in 
Healing"  (1909)  ;  "The  Spiritual  Un- 
rest" (1910).  Under  the  pen  name  of 
David  Grayson  he  wrote  "Adventures  in 
Contentment"  (1907) ;  "Adventures  in 
Friendship"  (1910)  ;  "Great  Possessions" 
(1917). 

BAKER,  SIR  SAMUEL  WHITE,  an 
English  traveler,  born  in  1821.  He  re- 
sided some  years  in  Ceylon,  and,  in  1861, 
began  his  African  travels,  which  lasted 
several  years,  in  the  upper  Nile  regions, 
and  resulted,  among  other  discoveries,  in 
that  of  Albert  Nyanza  Lake  in  1864,  and 
of  the  exit  of  the  White  Nile  from  it. 
Upon  his  return  to  England  he  was 
knighted.  In  1869  he  returned  to  Africa 
as  head  of  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Khedive  of  Egypt  to  annex  and  open  up 
to  trade  a  large  part  of  the  newly  ex- 
plored country,  being  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  Pasha.  He  returned  in  1873,  hav- 
ing finished  his  work.  His  writings 
include  "Eight  Years'  Wanderings  in 
Ceylon,"  "The  Albert  Nyanza,  etc.," 
"The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia," 
"Ismailia :  a  Narrative  of  the  Expedition 
to  Central  Africa,"  "Cyprus  as  I  saw  it 
in  1879,"  "Cast  Up  by  the  Sea"  (1869). 
He  died  Dec.  30,  1893. 

BAKER,  MOUNT,  an  occasionally 
active  volcano  in  Whatcom  co.,  Wash., 
belonging  to  the  Cascade  Range;  very 
active  in  1880;  elevation,  10,827  feet. 

BAKERSFIELD,  a  city  of  California, 
the  county-seat  of  Kern  co.  It  is  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka  and  Santa  Fe  railroad  and  on  the 
Kern  river.  There  are  several  handsome 
public  buildings,  including  a  public  li- 
brary. The  city  is  the  center  of  a  nat- 
ural gas,  agricultural,  and  fruit-growing 
region.  It  contains  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  There  are  important 
gold  mines  in  the  vicinity.  There  are 
also  deposits  of  fullers'  earth,  gypsum, 
marble,  salt,  copper,  borax,  iron,  and  sul- 
phur. Pop.  (1910)  12,727;  (1920) 
18,638. 

BAKST,  LEON  NIKOLAJEWITSCH, 

a  Russian  artist,  born  in  Petrograd  in 
1886.  He  studied  art  in  Petrograd  and 
Paris,  and  began  his  career  as  an  artist 
in  Moscow,  where  his  treatment  of  polit- 
ical subjects  in  his  paintings  so  dis- 
pleased the  Russian  authorities  that  he 
removed  to  Paris  in  1906.  There  he  took 
up  stage  direction  and  his  work  as  an 
original  designer  of  stage  settings  cre- 
ated an  immediate  impression.  He  de- 
signed settings  for  several  well-known 
plays  and  operas,  including  "Salome," 
"The  Butterflies,"  and  "The  Orientale." 
He  designed  stage  settings  and  decora- 


tions for  many  plays  and  operas  given  in 
New  York  and  several  exhibitions  of  his 
designs  and  drawings  were  held  in  that 
and  other  American  cities. 

BAKU  (ba-ko'),  a  Russian  port  on  the 
W.  shore  of  the  Caspian,  occupying  part 
of  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron.  The  naph- 
tha or  petroleum  springs  of  Baku  have 
long  been  known;  and  the  Field  of  Fire, 
so  called  from  emitting  inflammable 
gases,  have  long  been  a  place  of  pilgrim- 
age with  the  Guebers  or  fire-worshippers. 
In  modern  times,  from  the  development 
of  the  petroleum  industry,  Baku  has 
greatly  increased,  and  has  become  a 
large  and  flourishing  town.  Hundreds  of 
oil  wells  are  in  operation,  producing  im- 
mense quantities  of  petroleum,  much  of 
which  is  led  direct  in  pipes  from  the 
wells  to  the  refineries  in  Baku.  Baku, 
previous  to  the  World  War,  was  the  sta- 
tion of  the  Caspian  fleet,  was  strongly 
fortified,  and  had  a  large  shipping  trade. 
In  1901  and  1905  conflicts  between  the 
Armenians  and  Tartars  resulted  in  the 
partial  demolition  of  the  town  and  costly 
conflagrations  in  the  oil  fleld.  During 
the  World  War  (1914-1918)  Baku  was 
the  scene  of  severe  fighting.  In  May, 
1918,  Baku  became  the  capital  of  the 
new  republic  of  Azerbaijan.  The  liberal 
government  formed  at  that  time  was 
overthrown  by  the  Bolsheviki  in  April, 
1920,  and  Baku  again  was  the  scene  of 
much  fighting. 

BAKUNIN,  MICHAEL  (ba-ko'nin), 
a  Russian  anarchist,  the  founder  of 
Nihilism,  born  in  1814  of  rich  and  noble 
family,  entered  the  army,  but  threw  up 
his  commission  after  two  years'  service, 
and  studied  philosophy  at  Moscow.  Hav- 
ing adopted  Hegel's  system  as  the  basis 
of  a  new  revolution,  he  went  in  1841  to 
Berlin,  and  thence  to  Dresden,  Geneva, 
and  Paris,  as  the  propagandist  of  an- 
archism. He  was  handed  over  to  Russia, 
in  1851,  by  Austria,  imprisoned  for  five 
years,  and  finally  sent  to  Siberia.  Es- 
caping thence  through  Japan,  he  joined 
Herzen  in  London,  on  the  staff'  of  the 
"Kolokol."  His  extreme  views,  however, 
ruined  the  paper  and  led  to  a  quarrel 
with  Marx  and  the  International.  He 
died  suddenly  and  almost  alone  at  Berne, 
in  1878.  He  demanded  the  entire  aboli- 
tion of  the  state  as  a  state,  the  absolute 
equalization  of  individuals,  and  the  ex- 
tirpation of  hereditary  rights  and  of  re- 
ligion. 

BALAKLAVA,  a  small  seaport  in  the 
Crimea,  8  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Sebastopol, 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  houses 
perched  upon  heights.  In  the  Crimean 
War  it  was  captured  by  the  British,  and 
a  heroically  fought  battle  took  place  here 


BALANCE 


389 


BALCH 


(Oct.  25,  1854) ,  ending  in  the  repulse  of 
the  Russians  by  the  British.  The  charge 
of  the  Light  Brigade  was  part  of  this 
battle. 

BALANCE,  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  relative  weights  or  masses 
of  bodies.  It  consists  of  a  beam  with  its 
fulcrum  in  the  middle,  and  its  arms  pre- 
cisely equal.  From  the  extremities  of 
the  arms  are  suspended  two  scales,  the 
one  to  receive  the  object  to  be  weighed, 
and  the  other  the  counterpoise. 

A  false  balance  of  this  type  is  one  in 
which  the  arms  are  unequal  in  length. 
As  the  balance  is  really  a  lever,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  a  smaller  weight  than  that 
in  the  scale  will  put  the  beam  into  equili- 
brium. The  fraud  may  at  once  be  de- 
tected by  putting  the  article  to  be 
weighed  into  the  scale  containing  the 
weight,  and  vice  versa. 

Hydrostatic  balance:  A  balance  de- 
sigTied  for  the  weighing  of  bodies  in 
water,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining 
their  specific  gravity. 

A  Roman  balance,  the  same  as  the 
steel-yard.  Of  this  type  the  Chinese, 
the  Danish  or  Swedish,  and  the  bent 
lever  balances  are  modifications. 

In  mechanics  and  natural  philosophy: 

Balance  of  torsion :  An  instrument  in- 
vented by  Coulomb  for  comparing  the 
intensities  of  very  small  forces.  It  con- 
sists of  a  metallic  wire  suspended  verti- 
cally from  a  fixed  point,  to  the  lower  end 
of  which  a  horizontal  needle  is  attached 
with  a  small  weight  desig:ned  to  keep  the 
wire  stretched.  The  magnitude  of  a 
small  force  acting  on  the  end  of  the 
needle  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  tor- 
sion, or  twisting  of  the  wire — in  other 
words,  by  the  arc  which  the  needle  passes 
over  measured  from  the  point  of  repose. 

In  horology: 

1.  Balance  of  a  watch:  The  circular 
hoop  or  ring  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
bob  of  a  pendulum  in  a  clock.  The  ac- 
tion of  a  hair-spring  causes  it  to  vibrate. 

2,  Compensating  balance  of  a  chron- 
ometer: A  balance,  or  wheel,  furnished 
with  a  spiral  spring,  with  metals  of  dif- 
ferent expansibility  so  adjusted  that,  in 
alterations  of  temperature,  they  work 
against  each  other  and  render  the  move- 
ments of  the  chronometer  uniform. 

In  astronomy:  A  constellation,  one  of 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  generally  desig- 
nated by   its   Latin   name.  Libra. 

In  book  and  account  keeping:  The  ex- 
cess on  the  debtor  or  ci'editor  side  of  an 
account,  which  requires  to  be  met  by  an 
identical  sum  entered  under  some  head- 
ing on  the  other  side  if  an  equilibrium 
is  to  be  established  between  the  two. 

In  commercial  and  political  economy: 
Balance    of    trade,    properly    an    equili- 


brium between  the  value  of  the  exports 
from,  and  the  imports  into,  any  country, 
but  more  commonly  the  amount  required 
on  one  side  or  other  to  constitute  such  an 
equilibrium. 

In  politics:  Balance  of  power,  such  a 
condition  of  things  that  the  power  of  any 
one  state,  however  great,  is  balanced  by 
that  of  the  rest. 

BALBEC.     See  BAALBEK. 

BALBOA,  VASCO  NUNEZ  DE,  a 
Spanish  explorer,  bom  at  Xeres  de  los 
Caballeros,  in  1475.  He  accompanied 
Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  in  his  expedition  to 
the  New  World,  and  first  settled  in  Haiti 
(or,  as  it  was  then  termed,  Hispaniola). 
Though  an  adventurer  in  search  of  for- 
tune, his  great  ambition  seems  to  have 
been  to  discover  another  great  ocean. 
He  proceeded  to  the  American  continent, 
and  there  founded  a  colony.  Accom- 
panied by  a  small  band  of  followers,  he 
began  to  thread  the  almost  impenetrable 
forests  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  At 
length,  after  a  toilsome  and  dangerous 
journey,  Balboa  and  his  companions 
approached,  on  Sept.  25,  1513,  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  range,  when  Balboa, 
leaving  his  followers  and  advancing 
alone  to  the  W.  declivity,  was  the  first 
to  behold  the  vast  unknown  ocean,  which 
he  named  the  Pacific.  Surrounded  by  his 
followers,  he  walked  into  it,  carrying  in 
his  right  hand  a  naked  sword,  and  in 
his  left  the  banner  of  Castile,  and  de- 
clared the  sea  of  the  South,  and  all  the 
regions  whose  shores  it  bathed,  to  belong 
to  the  crown  of  Castile  and  Leon.  During 
his  absence,  hov/ever,  a  new  govei-nor 
had  been  appointed  to  supersede  Balboa 
in  Haiti;  where,  on  his  return,  jealousy 
and  dissensions  springing  up  between 
them,  Balboa,  accused  of  a  design  to 
rebel,  was  beheaded  in  1517. 

BALBRIGGAN,  a  watering  place  in 
County  Dublin,  Ireland,  21  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Dublin.  It  is  a  seat  of  linen,  cot- 
ton, calico,  and  stocking  manufactures. 
Many  women  are  employed  in  embroider- 
ing muslin.  The  term  "Balbriggan"  is 
now  used  to  describe  certain  varieties 
of  cotton-knit  goods. 

BALCH,  EMILY  GREENE,  an  Ameri- 
can economist,  born  in  Jamaica  Plain, 
Mass.,  in  1867.  She  was  graduated  from 
Bryn  Mawr  College  in  1889,  studied 
economics  in  Paris  and  Berlin,  and  after- 
ward carried  on  settlement  work  in  the 
Denison  House  in  Boston  in  1892-1893. 
She  was  assistant  in  economics  at  Wel- 
lesley  College  in  1896-1897,  instructor 
from  1897  to  1903,  associate  professor 
from  1903  to  1913,  and  professor  of  po- 
litical economy  and  social  science  from 


SALDEB 


390 


BALDWIN 


1913.  She  was  a  member  of  many  state 
commissions  on  industrial  problems  and 
immigration,  a  member  of  the  City  Plan- 
ning Board  of  Boston  from  1914,  and  a 
delegate  to  the  International  Congress  of 
Women  at  The  Hague  and  to  several 
other  international  congresses.  She 
wrote  "Public  Assistance  of  the  Poor  in 
France"  (1893) ;  "Women  at  The  Hague" 
(1915) ;  "Approaches  to  the  Great  Set- 
tlement"   (1918);  etc. 

BALDER,  or  BALDTJR,  a  Scandina- 
vian divinity,  represented  as  the  son  of 
Odin  and  Frigga,  beautiful,  wise, 
amiable,  and  beloved  by  all  the  gods.  His 
mother  took  an  oath  from  every  creature, 
and  even  from  every  inanimate  object, 
that  they  would  not  harm  Balder,  but 
omitted  the  mistletoe.  Balder  was,  there- 
fore, deemed  invulnerable,  and  the  other 
gods  in  sport  flung  stones  and  shot  ar- 
rows at  him  without  harming  him.  But 
the  evil  god,  Loki,  fashioned  an  arrow 
from  the  mistletoe  and  got  Balder's  blind, 
brother  Hoder  to  shoot  it,  himself  guid- 
ing his  aim.  Balder  fell  dead,  pierced 
to  the  heart,  to  the  deep  grief  of  all  the 
gods.  He  is  believed  to  be  a  personifica- 
tion of  the  brightness  and  beneficence  of 
the  sun, 

BALD  MOUNTAIN,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral eminences  in  the  United  States,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal: 
(1)  In  Colorado,  height,  11,493  feet;  (2) 
in  California,  height,  8,295  feet;  (3)  in 
Utah,  height,  11,975  feet;  (4)  in  Wyom- 
ing, in  the  Wind  River  Range,  height, 
10,760  feet;  and,  (5)  in  North  Carolina, 
height,  5,550  feet. 

BALDNESS,  an  absence  of  hair  on  the 
head.  Congenital  baldness  (complete  ab- 
sence of  hair  at  birth)  is  sometimes  met 
with;  but,  in  most  cases,  is  only  tempo- 
rary, and  gives  place,  in  a  few  years,  to 
a  natural  growth  of  hair.  Occasionally, 
however,  it  persists  through  life.  Senile 
baldness  (calvities)  is  one  of  the  most 
familiar  signs  of  old  age.  It  commences 
in  a  small  area  at  the  crown,  wJiere  the 
natural  hair  is  first  replaced  by  down 
before  the  skin  becomes  smooth  and 
shining.  From  this  area  the  process  ex- 
tends in  all  directions.  It  is  more  com- 
mon in  men  than  women. 

Baldness  in  patches  {alopecia  areata) 
attacks  chiefly  children  and  young  per- 
sons, frequently  those  of  debilitated  con- 
stitutions. The  only  change  at  first  per- 
ceptible is  that  the  hair  falls  out  in  one 
or  more  places,  leaving  smooth  bare 
patches.  Alopecia  areata  has  been  at- 
tributed to  the  action  of  a  parasite;  but 
it  is  more  probably  due  to  some  obscure 
nervous  influence. 


BALDWIN,  BALDOUIN,  or  BALD- 
UIN,  the  name  of  a  long  line  of 
sovereign  Counts  of  Flanders,  of  whom 
the  most  celebrated  was  Baldwin  IX., 
who  became,  afterward.  Emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

BALDWIN  I.,  the  son  of  Baldwin  VIII., 
Count  of  Flanders  and  Hainault,  born 
in  Valenciennes  in  1170.  In  1200,  he 
joined  the  crusaders  with  his  brother 
Thierry,  and,  in  1202,  aided  the  Vene- 
tians in  their  attack  upon  Constanti- 
nople, of  which  city  he  was  crowned  Em- 
peror, May  16,  1204.  In  the  next  year 
Baldwin  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  King 
of  Bulgaria,  and,  it  is  said,  died  in  cap- 
tivity in  1206.  He  was  much  esteemed 
by  the  Gi'eeks  for  his  charity,  temper- 
ance, and  justice. 

BALDWIN  II.,  the  last  Frank  Em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  born  in  1217. 
He  was  the  son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay, 
and  succeeded  his  brother  Robert  in  1228. 
He  was  twice  besieged  in  his  imperial 
city,  and  being  too  weak  to  defend  his 
dominions,  repaired  to  Italy  to  seek  aid 
from  the  Pope.  At  the  court  of  France, 
Baldwin  was  favorably  received  by  the 
king,  St.  Louis,  to  whom  he  presented 
a  crown  of  thorns,  which  was  held  by 
all  Christendom  to  be  the  genuine  relic. 
Baldwin,  in  1239,  set  out  for  Constanti- 
nople with  a  body  of  crusaders,  who, 
however,  soon  quitted  him,  and  took  the 
route  to  Palestine.  He  succeeded,  ulti- 
mately, in  raising  new  forces  in  the 
West,  and  regained  his  capital;  but,  in 
1261,  Michael  Paleologus  invested  it,  and 
entered  Constantinople  on  the  29th  of 
July.  Baldwin  fled  to  Sicily,  where  he 
died  in  obscurity,  in  1273. 

BALDWIN  I.,  King  of  Jerusalem,  was 
the  son  of  Eustace,  Count  of  Bouillon, 
and  accompanied  his  brother  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  into  Palestine,  where  he  gained 
the  sovereignty  of  the  state  of  Edessa. 
He  succeeded  his  brother  on  the  throne 
of  Jerusalem  in  1100,  and  for  18  years 
waged  war  against  the  Turks,  the 
Arabs,  the  Persians,  and  the  Saracens. 
He  secured  for  the  Christians  the  coast 
of  Syria,  from  the  Gulf  of  Issus  to  the 
confines  of  Egypt.  He  died  at  Laris,  in 
the  desert,  in  1118,  and  was  buried  on 
Mount  Calvary. 

BALDWIN  II.,  King  of  Jerusalem, 
son  of  Hugh,  Count  of  Rethel,  was 
crowned  in  1118,  after  Eustace,  brother 
of  Baldwin  I.,  had  renounced  all  claim 
to  the  vacant  throne.  In  1120  he  gained 
a  great  victory  over  the  Saracens,  but,  in 
1124,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  them, 
and  was  ransomed  only  by  giving  up 
Tyre.     In  1131  he  abdicated  in  favor  of 


BALDWIN" 


391 


BALEABIC  CBANE 


his  son-in-law,  Foulques  of  Anjou,  and 
retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died. 
The  Order  of  Templars,  for  the  defense 
of  the  Holy  Land,  was  instituted  in  his 
rei^. 

BALDWIN  III.,  King  of  Jerusalem, 
son  of  Foulques  of  Anjou,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1142,  under  the  guardianship 
of  his  mother.  He  took  Ascalon  and 
other  places;  but  under  his  reign  the 
Christians  lost  Edessa.  Born  in  1130; 
died  at  Antioch,  in  1162.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  Amaury  I. 

BALDWIN  IV.,  son  of  Amaury,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1174;  but  be- 
ing leprous,  Raymond,  Count  of  Tripoli, 
governed  the  kingdom  for  him.  He  after- 
ward resigned  the  throne  to  his  nephew, 
Baldwin  V.,  in  1183,  and  died  in  1185. 

BALDWIN  v.,  King  of  Jerusalem,  son 
of  Sibylla,  sister  of  Baldwin  IV.,  was 
called  to  the  throne  when  five  years  old, 
in  1183,  and  died  of  poison,  supposed  to 
have  been  administered  by  his  mother, 
in  order  that  her  second  husband,  Guy 
de  Lusignan,  might  enjoy  the  throne. 
The  following  year,  1187,  the  Christians 
lost  Jerusalem,  which  was  taken  by 
Saladin. 

BALDWIN,  EVELYN  BRIGGS,  an 
American  explorer,  born  in  Springfield, 
Mo.,  in  1862.  He  graduated  from  North- 
western College  in  1885,  and  from  1887 
to  1891  was  principal  of  a  high  school, 
and  superintendent  of  city  schools  in 
Kansas  from  1892  to  1900.  From  1892 
to  1900  he  acted  as  observer  of  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  and  inspector-at- 
large  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  United 
States.  He  accompanied  Peary  on  his 
North  Greenland  expedition  in  1893- 
1894,  and  was  meteorologist  and  second 
in  command  in  Walter  Wellman's  expe- 
dition to  Franz-Josef  Land  in  1898-1899. 
In  the  latter  year  he  discovered  and  ex- 
plored Graham  Bell  Land,  organized  and 
commanded  the  Baldwin-Ziegler  polar 
expedition  in  1901-1902,  and  later  car- 
ried on  other  explorations  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  Greenland.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  "Search  for  the  North  Pole"; 
"Franz-Josef  Land"  (1898)  ;  "North 
Greenland  Expedition"    (1894) ;  etc. 

BALDWIN,  JAMES  MARK,  an  Amer- 
ican psychologist,  born  in  Columbia,  S.  C, 
Jan.  12,  1861;  educated  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege, Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Tubingen  Uni- 
versities; was,  successively.  Instructor 
of  German  and  French  at  Princeton  in 
1886-1887;  Professor  of  Philosophy  in 
Lake  Forest  University  in  1887-1889,  and 
in  the  University  of  Toronto  in  1889- 
1893 ;  Professor  of  Psychology  at  Prince- 


ton University,  1893-1903;  Professor  of 
Philosophy  and  Psychology  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University  1903-1909;  Professor 
at  the  National  University  of  Mexico, 
1909.  He  was  Vice-President  of  the  In- 
ternational Congress  of  Psychology  at 
London  in  1892;  Honorary  President  of 
the  International  Congress  of  Criminal 
Anthropology  at  Geneva  in  1896;  Presi- 
dent of  the  American  Psychological  As- 
sociation in  1897-1898;  Judge  of  Award 
at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in 
1893;  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  by  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  of 
Denmark,  in  1897,  for  the  best  work  in 
ethics;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  In- 
stitut  International  de  Sociologie,  in 
1898,  and  President  of  International 
Congress  of  Psychology  at  Geneva  in 
1909;  and  was  a  member  of  many  other 
domestic  and  foreign  scientific  societies. 
He  has  lectured  at  Oxford  and  at  French 
universities.  He  is  the  author  of  "Hand- 
book of  Psychology"  (2  vols.,  1889-1891) ; 
a  translation  of  Ribot's  "German  Psy- 
chology of  To-day"  (1886);  "Elements 
of  Psychology"  (1893);  "Thoughts  and 
Things"  (1906-1911);  "Individual  and 
Society"  (1910)  ;  etc.  He  was  also  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy 
and  Psychology,"  and  a  contributor  of 
articles  on  psychology  to  "Johnson's 
Universal  Cyclopedia"  (1892-1895).  He 
received  the  degree  of  D.  Sc.  from  Ox- 
ford University  in  1900. 

BALDWIN,  SIMEON  EBEN,  an 
American  public  official  and  jurist,  born 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1840.  He  grad- 
uated from  Yale  University  in  1861  and 
after  studying  law  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1863.  From  1869  to  1872  he  was 
instructor  in  law  at  Yale,  and  in  1872 
became  professor  of  law  at  that  univer- 
sity. He  was  associate  justice  of  the 
Connecticut  Supreme  Court  from  1893 
to  1907,  and  from  1907  to  1910  was  chief 
justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  of 
Errors.  In  1911  and  in  1913  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Connecticut  on  the 
Democratic  ticket.  He  was  a  member  of 
commissions  to  revise  the  general  stat- 
utes and  the  tax  laws  of  the  State,  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Bar  Association 
in  1890,  and  a  member  of  many  other 
historical,  legal,  and  economical  associa- 
tions. His  publications  include  "Two 
Centuries'  Growth  of  American  Law" 
(1900)  ;  "American  Railroad  Law" 
(1904) ;  "The  Relation  of  Education  to 
Citizenship"  (1912) ;  etc. 


BALE.     See  BASEL. 

BALEARIC  CRANE  (balearica  pavon- 
ina),  a  handsome  species  of  crested 
crane,  inhabiting   N.   W.  Africa. 


BALEARIC  ISLANDS 


392 


BALIOL 


BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a  group  of 
4  large  and  11  small  islands,  S.  E.  of 
Spain,  including  Majorca,  Minorca,  Iviza, 
and  Formentera.  The  Romans  annexed 
the  islands  in  123  B.  c.  after  the  de- 
struction of  Carthage  which  had  held 
them  previously.  After  being  taken  by 
the  Vandals,  under  Genseric,  and  later 
by  the  Moors,  they  were  taken  in  1232 
by  James  I.,  King  of  Aragon,  and  con- 
stituted a  kingdom,  which  in  1375  was 
united  to  Spain.  The  islands  now  form 
a  Spanish  province,  with  an  area  of 
1,935  square  miles.     Pop.  about  350,000. 

BALER,  a  town  in  the  N.  E.  part  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  town  is  noted  for  the  heroic 
defense  of  a  Spanish  garrison  in  1899, 
during  a  siege  by  the  Filipinos,  lasting 
11  months.  Baler  was  occupied  by  Amer- 
ican troops  in  March,  1900.  Fop.  about 
3,000. 

BALFE,  MICHAEL  WILLIAM,  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Dublin,  May  15,  1808. 
In  his  ninth  year  he  made  his  debut  as 
a  violinist,  having  begun  to  compose  at 
least  two  years  earlier.  In  1823  he  went 
to  London,  and,  during  1825-1826,  studied 
in  Italy  under  Paer,  Galli,  Federici,  and 
Rossini.  In  1826  he  wrote  the  music  for 
a  ballet,  "La  Perouse,"  performed  at 
Milan;  and  in  1827  he  sang  in  the  Ital- 
ian opera  at  Paris  with  great  success. 
In  1833  he  returned  to  England,  and  in 
1846  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
London  Italian  Opera.  He  died  Oct.  20, 
1870.  Of  his  numerous  operas,  operettas, 
and  other  compositions  the  most  success- 
ful have  been  "The  Bohemian  Girl" 
(1843);  "The  Rose  of  Castile"  (1857), 
and  "II  Talismano"  (1874).  If  Balfe 
was  wanting  in  depth  of  dramatic  force, 
he  had  command  of  orchestral  resources ; 
and  his  compositions  are  distinguished  by 
fluency,  facility,  and  melodic  power. 

BALFOUR,      ARTHUR     JAMES,      a 

British  statesman,  born  in  Scotland,  July 
25,  1848;  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge;  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1874;  was  private  secretary  to 
his  uncle,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury,  in 
1878-1880,  and  accompanied  him  to  the 
Berlin  Congress;  President  of  the  Local 
Government  Board  in  1885;  Secretary 
for  Scotland  in  1886;  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  in  1887-1891 ;  member  of  the 
Gold  and  Silver  Commission  in  1887- 
1888;  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  in 
1891-1892;  became  the  leader  of  the  Con- 
servative opposition  in  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1892.  He  was  Prime  Min- 
ister 1902-1905.  He  carried  through  the 
Education  Act  (1902)  and  the  Irish  Land 
Act  (1904),  and  created  the  Committee 
of  National  Defense.  Chamberlain's  res- 


ignation as  Colonial  Secretary  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  campaign  for  Colonial  pref- 
erence and  a  protective  tariff  and  led  to 
the  defeat  of  the  Unionists  in  1906.  Bal- 


ARTHUR   JAMES  BALFOUR 

four  lost  his  seat  for  East  Manchester, 
but  was  immediately  returned  from  Lon- 
don. In  1911  Balfour  resigned  to  Bonar 
Law  leadership  of  the  opposition.  In 
1915  he  joined  Asquith's  coalition  cabi- 
net as  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and 
was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  1916- 
1919.  In  1917  he  visited  the  United 
States  as  a  member  of  the  British  Com- 
mission. He  was  one  of  the  British  rep- 
resentatives at  the  Peace  Congress  of 
Versailles.  In  October,  1919,  he  was  made 
Lord  President  of  the  Council.  His  pub- 
lications include  "A  Defense  of  Philo- 
sophic Doubt"  (1879) ;  "Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses" (1893)  ;  "The  Foundations  of 
Belief"  (1895) ;  "Insular  Trade"  (1903) ; 
"Criticism  and  Beauty"  (1909) ;  "Theism 
and  Humanism"  (1915). 

BALI,  an  island  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago E.  of  Java,  belonging  to  Holland; 
greatest  length,  85  miles,  greatest 
breadth,  55  miles;  area,  about  2,170 
square  miles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a 
series  of  volcanic  mountains,  of  which 
the  loftiest,  Agoong  (11,326  feet),  be- 
came active  in  1843,  after  a  long  period 
of  quiescence.  Principal  products,  rice, 
cocoa,  coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  etc.  The 
people  are  akin  to  those  of  Java  and  are 
mostly  Brahmins  in  religion.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  districts  and  several  au- 
tonomous states  under  native  rajahs, 
and  forms  one  colony  with  Lombok,  the 
united  population  being  estimated  in  1918 
at  1,344,880. 

BALIOL,  or  BALLIOL,  JOHN,  of 
Barnard  Castle,  Northumberland,  father 


BALIOL 


393 


BALKAN  WARS 


of  King  John  Baliol,  a  great  English 
(or  Norman)  baron  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  to  whose  cause  he  strongly  attached 
himself  in  his  struggles  with  the  barons. 
In  1263  he  laid  the  foundation  of  Baliol 
College,  Oxford,  which  was  completed  by 
his  widow,  Devorguila  or  Devorgilla. 
She  was  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Allan 
of  Galloway,  a  great  baron  of  Scotland, 
and  of  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of 
David,  Earl  of  Huntington,  brother  of 
William  the  Lion.  It  was  on  the  strength 
of  this  genealogy  that  his  son  John  Baliol 
became  temporary  King  of  Scotland.  He 
died  in  1269. 

BALIOL,  or  BALLIOL,  JOHN,  King 
of  Scotland;  born  about  1249.  On  the 
death  of  Margaret,  the  Maiden  of  Nor- 
way, and  grandchild  of  Alexander  III., 
Baliol  claimed  the  vacant  throne  by  vir- 
tue of  his  descent  from  David,  Earl  of 
Huntington,  brother  to  William  the  Lion, 
King  of  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce  (grand- 
father of  the  King)  opposed  Baliol;  but 
Edward  I.'s  decision  was  in  favor  of 
Baliol,  who  did  homage  to  him  for  the 
kingdom,  Nov.  20,  1292.  Irritated  by  Ed- 
ward's harsh  exercise  of  authority,  Baliol 
concluded  a  treaty  with  France,  then  at 
war  with  England;  but,  after  the  defeat 
at  Dunbar  he  surrendered  his  crown  into 
the  hands  of  the  English  monarch.  He 
was  sent  with  his  son  to  the  Tower,  but, 
by  the  intercession  of  the  Pope,  in  1297, 
obtained  liberty  to  retire  to  his  Norman 
estates,  where  he  died  in  1315.  His  son, 
Edward,  in  1332,  landed  in  Fife  with  an 
armed  force,  and  having  defeated  a  large 
army  under  the  Regent  Mar  (who  was 
killed),  got  himself  crowned  King,  but 
was  driven   out  in  three  months. 

BALIOL,  or  BALLIOL  COLLEGE,  Ox- 
ford, founded  between  1263  and  1268  by 
John  de  Baliol,  father  of  John  Baliol, 
King  of  Scotland.  The  original  founda- 
tion consisted  of  16  poor  scholars,  and 
the  revenue  for  their  maintenance 
amounted  for  many  years  to  only  8d.  per 
week  for  each.  From  the  14th  century 
on  the  college  has  been  greatly  enriched 
by  various  benefactions.  The  college 
consists  of  a  master,  26  fellows  and 
about  50  scholars  and  exhibitioners.  John 
Wyclif  was  master  of  this  college  in 
1361;  its  most  famous  master  was  Benja- 
min Jowett;  among  its  scholars  have 
been  John  Evelyn  and  Bradley  the  as- 
tronomer. Among  eminent  modern  grad- 
uates were  the  poet  Swinburne,  Matthew 
Arnold,    Hilaire    Belloc,   etc. 

BALIZE.     See  Belize. 

BALKAN  PENINSULA,  the  usual 
name  for  the  peninsula  in  southeastern 
Europe  running  southward  between  the 


Adriatic  and  the  ^gean.  The  most  con- 
venient northern  boundary  is  the  Save 
and  the  lower  Danube;  though  histori- 
cally and  politically  Rumania  and  some 
parts  of  the  former  Austrian  dominions 
are  closely  associated  with  the  regions  S. 
of  the  Danube.  Greece  is  a  peninsula 
upon  a  peninsula,  but  is  not  usually  ac- 
counted one  of  the  Balkan  states. 

The  home  of  so  many  diverse  races,  the 
peninsula  has  long  been  a  hotbed  of  war- 
ring interests.  Previous  to  the  World 
War  the  Turk's  hand  may  be  said  to  have 
been  against  every  man's  hand,  and  every 
other  against  the  Turk.  Greeks  and  Bul- 
garians intrigued  each  against  the  other 
with  Russia,  and  looked  on  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  peninsula  as  exclusively 
theirs  by  right.  Bulgarian  and  Serb, 
though  cherishing  the  Slavonic  name,  met 
in  the  bloody  campaign  of  1885-1886. 
Macedonia  in  especial  was  demanded 
alike  by  Greek,  Bulgar  and  Serb.  And 
the  case  was  further  complicated  by 
the  hostile  faiths — Latin  Christianity, 
Greek  Church,  both  Orthodox  and 
United,  and  Mohammedanism. 

Greece,  with  the  aid  of  the  Great  Pow- 
ers, obtained  her  independence  in  1836, 
as  also  did  Serbia  in  1830-1867.  Wal- 
lachia  and  Moldavia  (now  united  in  the 
kingdom  of  Rumania)  were  made  trib- 
utary principalities  by  the  Peace  of 
Paris,  1856.  Rumania  and  Serbia  ob- 
tained their  complete  independence  by 
the  Berlin  Treaty  of  1878— the  former 
receiving  the  Dobrudja  in  exchange  for 
a  portion  of  Bessarabia,  which  was  re- 
stored to  Russia;  the  latter  having  its 
area  enlarged.  The  same  treaty  handed 
over  to  Austria-Hungary  the  administra- 
tion of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  and  es- 
tablished the  principality  of  Montenegro, 
the  principality  of  Bulgaria,  and  the 
province  of  Eastern  Rumelia,  which  was 
united  with  Bulgaria  in  1886.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  Balkan  Wars  (q.  v.)  of  1912- 
1913  and  the  World  War  (q.  v.)  of  1914- 
1918  various  political  readjustments  took 
place.  For  political,  statistical,  and 
other  details  see  Albania,  Bulgaria, 
Greece,  Jugoslavia,  Montenegro,  Ru- 
mania, Serbia,  Turkey. 

BALKAN  WARS,  two  conflicts  which 
took  place  in  the  Balkans  in  the  years 
1912  and  1913.  The  indirect  cause  of 
the  war  arose  from  long-standing  con- 
ditions in  the  Balkan  peninsula.  These 
included  a  dissatisfaction  of  Turkish  rule 
in  those  portions  of  the  Balkans  under 
Turkish  sovereignty;  and  to  dissatisfac- 
tion over  relations  with  Turkey  in  those 
states  which  are  ostensibly  independent. 
Its  immediate  cause  was  the  weakening 
of  the  Turkish  Government,  resulting  in 


BALKAN  WARS 


394 


BALKAN  WARS 


the  overthrow  of  the  ruling  power  in 
1908  by  the  Young  Turk  party,  and  by 
the  series  of  wars  carried  on  with  Italy 
by  Turkey  for  the  possession  of  the 
Tripolitan  hinterland. 

The  result  of  the  policy  carried  on  by 
the  Young  Turks  on  their  accession  to 
power  in  1908  served  to  draw  together 
the  Christian  nationalities  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula  in  common  hatred  of  the  Turks. 
As  a  result  of  this,  by  the  close  of  1910, 
the  Bulgarians  and  Greeks  in  Mace- 
donia, who  had  hitherto  been  bitter  ene- 
mies, became  reconciled  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  friendly  relations  between  the 
governments  of  Greece  and  Bulgaria. 
Another  result  of  the  policy  of  the  new 
Turkish  regime  was  disorder  and  insur- 
rection in  Albania  where  formerly  the 
tribesmen  had  been  loyal  to  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  The  Young  Turks,  however,  un- 
dertook to  abridge  their  privileges  and 
deprive  them  of  arms.  Thereupon  they 
rose  in  revolt.  In  August,  1912,  the 
Albanians  submitted  to  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment a  number  of  demands  which  in- 
cluded the  establishment  of  military  and 
civil  reforms.  The  Turkish  Government 
delayed  in  replying  to  these  demands  and 
had  made  no  reply  when  the  first  Balkan 
War  broke  out.  Both  Montenegro  and 
Serbia  were  directly  concerned  with  the 
Albanian  situation. 

A  similar  policy  created  a  like  situa- 
tion in  Macedonia,  and  the  Greek,  Ser- 
bian, and  Bulgarian  inhabitants  of  that 
province  received  the  sympathies  of  their 
own  nationalities.  Massacres  by  Turks 
in  Bulgaria,  Serbia,  and  Thessaly  in  1912 
added  to  the  rising  tide  of  hostility  on 
the  part  of  these  nations  toward  Turkey. 
This  situation  became  so  threatening  by 
October,  1912,  that  the  Great  Powers  had 
united  in  an  attempt  to  prevent  war. 
These  attempts,  however,  failed.  On  Oct. 
13,  1912,  Bulgaria,  Serbia,  and  Greece 
dispatched  an  identical  note  to  Turkey 
demanding  the  establishment  of  a  com- 
plete autonomy  under  Christian  govern- 
ment within  six  months.  Upon  receipt 
of  this  note  Turkey  immediately  with- 
drew her  representatives  from  the  cap- 
itals of  these  countries.  This  was  fol- 
lowed on  Oct.  17  by  a  declaration  of  war 
against  Turkey  by  Greece,  Serbia,  and 
Bulgaria. 

Hostilities  began  at  once.  The  mili- 
tary plans  of  the  four  Balkan  powers 
nad  been  well  perfected,  while  the  Turk- 
ish military  organization  had  fallen  into 
a  state  of  inefficiency  and  unreadiness. 
The  Balkan  forces  advanced  rapidly  into 
Turkish  territory.  On  Oct.  19  a  Bul- 
garian army  of  over  300,000  men  oc- 
cupied Mustapha  Pasha,  and  Kirk-Kilis- 


seh  on  Oct.  24.  Adrianople  was  sur- 
rounded by  Oct.  27  and  continued  in 
a  state  of  siege  thenceforward.  The 
Bulgarian  army  on  Oct.  29  won  the 
bloody  battle  of  Lule  Burgas,  which  was 
the  chief  engagement  of  the  war.  It 
resulted  in  the  utter  defeat  of  the  Turk- 
ish armies  with  a  loss  of  over  35,000 
men.  The  Turks  now  retreated  to 
Tchorlu  and  then  fell  back  behind  the 
strong  Tchatalja  forts,  the  last  line  of 
defensives  at  Constantinople.  The  Bul- 
garian attempts  to  carry  this  line  failed. 
On  Nov.  13  the  Turks  opened  negotia- 
tions for  armistice,  but  their  terms  were 
rejected  on  Nov.  20.  Five  days  later, 
however,  a  meeting  was  arranged  be- 
tween Bulgarian  and  Turkish  command- 
ers. These  resulted  in  the  preparation 
of  a  protocol  for  an  armistice  to  last 
until  the   end  of  peace   negotiations. 

The  Serbians  also  obtained  quick  suc- 
cess over  the  Turkish  armies.  This  cam- 
paign ended  in  the  capture  of  Durazzo. 

In  the  meantime  the  Greeks,  under 
the  leadership  of  Crown  Prince  Con- 
stantine,  had  invaded  Macedonia  and  won 
a  number  of  easy  successes.  Saloniki  was 
captured  on  Nov.  8.  Entrance  of  Bul- 
garian and  Serbian  troops  into  the 
city  on  the  following  day  gave  evidence 
of  jealousy  among  the  Allies.  The 
Greek  Government  declined  to  agree  to 
the  armistice  terms  and  continued  opera- 
tions on  land  and  sea.  During  the 
autumn  and  winter  the  Greeks  captured 
the  ^gean  Islands  not  already  occupied 
by  Italy.  The  Montenegrin  army  met 
with  successes  and  defeated  Turkish 
forces  in  several  encounters. 

During  the  progress  of  hostilities,  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Great  Powers  had 
continued  their  efforts  in  behalf  of  peace. 
The  chief  difficulty  was  found  with  the 
members  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  espe- 
cially Austria,  which  was  hostile  to  any 
movement  which  would  give  Serbia  a 
port  on  the  Adriatic,  or  would  cut  off 
Austria-Hungary  from  the  road  to  Sa- 
loniki. It  was  finally  agreed  that  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Powers  should  confer 
in  London  and  such  a  conference  was 
held.  Bulgaria,  Serbia,  Montenegro,  and 
Turkey  sent  delegates  to  this  conference. 
Greece  insisted  on  being  represented 
also,  although  she  was  still  carrying  on 
war  against  Turkey.  Turkey  refused  to 
yield  the  territorial  demands  of  the  Allies 
and  hostilities  were  resumed  in  Feb.  3, 
1913.  The  Turks  again  sustained  a  num- 
ber of  defeats.  The  Great  Powers  again 
on  March  1  offered  mediation  and  two 
weeks  later  the  Balkan  Allies  accepted. 
After  a  long  deliberation  Turkey  agreed 
to  accept  the  lines  laid  down  by  the 
Allies,  leaving  for  future  discussion  other 


BALKH 


S96 


BALL 


questions,  including  the  indemnity.  A 
second  armistice  was  signed  on  April  19, 
1913,  by  all  the  belligerents  except  Mon- 
tenegro which  persisted  in  carrying  on 
hostilities,  capturing  Scutari  on  April 
23.  Following  this  Montenegro  acceded 
to  the  armistice.  The  second  conference 
was  held  in  London  and  the  Balkan 
diplomats  came  to  an  agreement  late  in 
'May,  1913.  As  a  result  of  the  agreement 
made,  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  deprived 
of  all  her  European  possessions  except 
Constantinople  and  a  small  tract  of  land 
east  of  the  Maritza  river. 

The  question  of  the  division  of  the 
spoils  at  once  arose  among  the  Allies. 
Bulgaria  claimed  the  greater  part  of 
Macedonia,  to  which  also  a  claim  was 
made  by  Serbia.  Greece  insisted  upon 
retaining  both  Saloniki  and  Kavala, 
which  had  been  occupied  by  her  troops. 
Rumania,  which  had  not  joined  the  other 
Balkan  nations,  insisted  upon  "a  strategic 
frontier"  and  for  compensation  for  pre- 
serving neutrality  during  the  war.  The 
Bulgarian  Government,  encouraged  by 
Austria-Hungary,  made  a  sudden  offen- 
sive against  the  Greeks  and  Serbians  on 
June  30.  On  July  10  Rumania  began 
hostilities,  and  the  Turks,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  discord  among  her  ene- 
mies, advanced  toward  Adrianople.  The 
Bulgarian  armies  were  quickly  defeated 
against  these  odds.  Adrianople  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks,  and  the  Serbians  and 
Montenegrins  won  quick  success  over  the 
Bulgarian  forces.  King  Ferdinand,  in 
the  face  of  these  calamities,  asked  for 
peace.  The  Treaty  of  Bucharest  followed 
which  was  signed  on  Aug.  6.  By  its 
terms  Rumania  secured  important  ex- 
tension of  her  frontier.  Bulgaria  was 
obliged  to  yield  an  extensive  area  to 
Serbia  and  to  Greece.  She  was  also 
obliged  to  yield  Adrianople  to  Turkey. 

The  bitter  feeling  which  resulted  from 
this  brief  campaign,  and  the  resentment 
felt  by  Bulgaria  toward  Greece  and  the 
other  Balkan  nations,  were  a  large 
factc>*  in  determining  her  entrance  into 
the  World  War  on  the  side  of  Germany, 
rather  than  that  of  the  Entente  nations. 

BALKH  (balG),  a  district  of  Afghan 
Turkestan,  the  most  northerly  province 
of  Afghanistan.  It  was  for  some  time 
subject  to  the  Khan  of  Bokhara.  It  cor 
responds  to  ancient  Bactria,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Oxus, 
on  the  E.  by  Badakhshan,  on  the  S.  by 
the  Hindu  Kush,  and  on  the  W,  by  the 
desert.  Offsets  of  the  Hindu  Kush  trav- 
erse it  in  a  N.  W.  direction,  and  slope 
down  to  the  low  steppes  of  Bokhara.  Its 
area  is  about  5,000  square  miles.  The 
soil  has  the  general  characteristics  of  a 


desert  land;  only  a  few  parts  are  made 
fertile  by  artificial  irrigation;  and  such 
are  the  vicissitudes  of  climate,  that 
where  grapes  and  apricots  ripen  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  mulberry  tree  permits  the 
cultivation  of  silk,  in  winter  the  frost  is 
intense,  and  the  snow  lies  deep  on  the 
ground.    The  natives  are  Uzbegs. 

Balkh,  long  the  chief  town,  situated 
in  a  district  intersected  by  canals  and 
ditches,  by  means  of  which  the  waters 
of  the  Balkh-ab,  or  Dehas,  are  dissipated 
and  prevented  from  flowing  toward  the 
Amu-Daria,  only  45  miles  distant.  It 
was  twice  destroyed  by  Genghis  Khan 
and  Timur.  A  terrible  outbreak  of  chol- 
era in  1877  caused  the  capital  of  Afghan 
Turkestan  to  be  transferred  to  Mazar, 
W.  of  Balkh;  since  then  Balkh  has  lost 
most  of  its  former  importance. 

BALKHASH  (balG-ash'),  (Kirghiz 
Tengis;  Chinese  Sihai),  a  great  inland 
sea,  near  the  E.  border  of  Russian  Cen- 
tral Asia,  between  44°  and  47°  N.  lat., 
and  73°  and  79°  E.  long.  Ljring  about 
780  feet  above  sea-level,  it  extends  323 
miles  W.  S.  W.;  its  breadth  at  the  W. 
end  is  50  miles;  at  the  E.  from  9  to  4 
miles;  the  area  is  8.400  square  miles. 
The  water  is  clear,  but  intensely  salty. 
Its  principal  feeder  is  the  river  Hi.  It 
has  no  outlet. 

BALL,  SIR  ROBERT  STAWELL,  an 
English  astronomer,  born  in  Dublin,  July 
1,  1840;  studied  at  Trinity  College.  He 
was,  successively.  Professor  of  Applied 
Mathematics  and  Mechanics  at  the  Royal 
Irish  College  of  Science;  Professor  of 
Astronomy  at  Dublin;  Lowdean  Profes- 
sor Astronomy  at  Cambridge;  aiid  Di- 
rector of  Cambridge  Observatory,  and 
Astronomer  Royal  for  Ireland.  His 
published  works  on  mechanics  and  as- 
tronomy include  "The  Story  of  the  Heav- 
ens"; "Starland"  (1889);  "The  Earth's 
Beginnings"  (1911) ;  "Popular  Guide  to 
the  Heavens"  (1915).  He  was  knighted 
in  1886,  and  died  in  1918. 

BALL,  THOMAS,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  June  3, 
1819;  studied  in  Italy;  was  engaged  in 
painting  in  1840-1852;  adopted  sculpture 
exclusively  in  1851;  resided  in  Florence, 
Italy,  in  1865-1897,  and  afterward  in 
Montclair,  N.  J.  His  best  known  works 
are  the  equestrian  statue  of  WashingtGii, 
in  Boston ;  the  Webster  statue  in  Central 
Park,  New  York ;  the  Washington  Monu- 
ment in  Methuen,  Mass.;  and  "Emanci- 
pation," in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  pub- 
lished "My  Three  Score  Years  and  Ten, 
an  Autobiography"  (1891) ;  "History  of 
American  Sculpture"  (1903).  He  died 
in  Montclair,  N.  J.,  in  1911. 


BALL  AND  SOCKET 


396 


BALLINOER 


BALL  AND  SOCKET,  a  joint  used  in 
machinery  and  piping.  It  consist^  of  a 
spherical  end  of  a  rod  or  pipe  fitting  into 
a  hollow  sphere  of  the  same  size  on  a  like 
piece.  The  object  of  this  joint  is  to  pro- 
vide a  close,  movable  connection,  and  to 
prevent  leakage  in  pipes. 

BALLABAT,  or  BALLAARAT,  an 

Australian  town  in  Victoria,  chief  center 
of  the  gold-mining  industry  of  the  col- 
ony, and  next  in  importance  to  Mel- 
bourne, from  which  it  is  distant  W.  N. 
W.  about  75  miles.  It  consists  of  two 
distinct  municipalities,  Ballarat  West 
and  Ballarat  East,  separated  by  the 
Yarrowee  creek,  and  has  many  handsome 
buildings,  and  all  the  institutions  of  a 
progressive  and  flourishing  city.  Gold  was 
first  discovered  in  1851.  The  surface  dig- 
gings having  been  exhausted,  the  pre- 
cious metal  is  now  got  from  mines  ^  as 
deep  as  some  coal-pits,  the  gold  being 
obtained  by  crushing  the  auriferous 
quartz.  There  are  also  foundries,  woolen 
mills,  flour  mills,  breweries  and  distil- 
leries, etc.    Pop.  (1918)  39,970. 

BALLAST,  a  term  applied  (1)  to 
heavy  matter,  as  stone,  sand,  iron,  or 
water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  ship  or 
other  vessel,  to  sink  it  in  the  water  to 
such  a  depth  as  to  enable  it  to  carry 
sufficient  sail  without  oversetting.  (2) 
The  sand  placed  in  bags  in  the  car  of  a 
balloon  to  steady  it  and  to  enable  the 
aeronaut  to  lighten  the  balloon  by  throw- 
ing part  of  it  out.  (3)  The  material 
used  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the 
rails  on  a  railway  in  order  to  make  it 
firm  and  solid. 

BALLENY  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  five 
small  volcanic  islands,  discovered  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean,  in  1839,  nearly  on  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  and  in  longitude  164°  E. 
One  contains  Freeman's  Peak  (12,000 
feet) . 

BALLIN,  ALBERT,  German  ship- 
master and  financier.  He  was  born  in 
Hamburg,  in  1857.  He  spent  several 
years  in  England,  studying  the  shipping 
conditions  there,  and  returned  to  Ger- 
many, where  in  1886,  when  only  29  years 
old,  he  became  director-general  of  the 
Hamburg-America  line,  the  great  steam- 
ship line,  whose  operations  spread  all 
over  the  globe.  His  remarkable  admini- 
strative and  executive  abilities  were  re- 
flected in  the  growth  of  the  organiza- 
tion, which  at  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  had  a  capital  of  $37,500,000,  gross 
yearly  profits  of  $15,000,000,  and  180 
ships  on  its  sailing  lists.  He  was  re- 
puted to  be  a  close  friend  and  confiden- 
tial adviser  of  the  Kaiser,  and  it  was 
stated  that  he  exerted  all  his  efforts  dur« 


ing  the  conflict  to  prevent  any  action  on 
the  part  of  Germany  that  would  bring 


ALBERT  BALLIN 

the  United  States  into  the  war.  He  died 
suddenly  Nov.  10,  1918. 

BALLIN,  HUGO,  an  American  artist, 
born  in  New  York  in  1879.  He  studied 
art  in  New  York  City  and  in  Rome  and 
Florence  and  was  awarded  many  prizes 
both  in  the  United  States  and  in  foreign 
countries,  including  the  Hallgarten  prize 
in  1907.  His  mural  decorations  are  espe- 
cially noteworthy,  but  examples  of  his 
easel  printings  are  found  in  many  pri- 
vate and  public  collections.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  societies  of  artists,  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Let- 
ters, and  since  1905  an  Associate  of  the 
National  Academy. 

BALLINGER,  RICHARD  ACHILLES, 
an  American  public  official,  born  in 
Boonesboro,  la.,  in  1858.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Kansas, 
Washington  College,  and  Williams  Col- 
lege, graduating  from  the  latter  in  1884. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1886  and 
for  several  years  practiced  law  in  Kan- 
kakee, 111.,  and  New  Decatur,  Ala.     In 

1889  he  removed  to  Port  Townsend, 
Wash.,  where  he  remained  until  1897, 
when  he  removed  to  Seattle.  He  was 
United  States  Court  Commissioner  from 

1890  to  1892,  Judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Jefferson  co..  Wash.,  from  1894 
to  1897,  Mayor  of  Seattle  from  1904  to 
1906,  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office  in  Washington  from  1907  to  1909, 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior  of  Presi* 


BALLISTA 


397 


BALLOV 


dent  Taft's  Cabinet  from  1909  to  1911. 
He  resigned  in  the  latter  year  as  a  re- 
sult of  a  controversy  over  the  coal  lands 
in  Alaska.  His  stand  was  upheld  by 
President  Taft  and  by  an  investigation, 
but  to  avoid  embarrassment  to  the  Presi- 
dent he  withdrew  from  office.  See 
Alaska. 

BALLISTA,  a  machine  used  in  military 
operations  by  the  ancients  for  hurling 
heavy  missiles,  thus  serving  in  some  de- 
gree the  purpose  of  the  modern  cannon. 
The  motive  power  appears  to  have  been 
obtained  by  the  torsion  of  ropes,  fibers, 
catgut,  or  hair.  They  are  said  to  have 
sometimes  had  an  effective  range  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  and  to  have  thrown 
stones  weighing  as  much  as  300  lbs.  A 
ballistic  pendulum  is  an  apparatus  for 
ascertaining  the  velocity  of  military  pro- 
jectiles, and  consequently  the  force  of 
fired  gunpowder. 

BALLISTICS,  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  projection  of  heavy  bodies  into 
space.  The  usual  meaning  of  the  term, 
however,  is  restricted  to  the  motion  of 
projectiles  fired  from  cannon  or  small 
arms.  It  forms  an  intricate  and  difficult 
study,  including  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  mathematics.     See  Artillery. 

BALLISTBAHIA,  one  of  the  names 
given  to  those  projections  with  narrow 
apertures,  frequent  in  the  walls  of  old 
castles,  and  through  which  the  crossbow- 
men  discharged  their  arrows. 

BALLON  D' ALSACE  (bal-6n'  d'al- 
sas') ,  or  ELSASSER  BELCHEN,  one  of 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  Vosges  Moun- 
tains; height,  4,101  feet. 

BALLON  DE  GTJEBWILLEIl,  or 
GEBWEILER  BELCHEN,  the  highest 
of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  in  Alsace, 
France;  height,  4,690  feet. 

BALLOON.     See  Aeronautics. 

BALLOT,  a  means  of  expressing  an 
individual  choice  for  a  public  or  other 
officer  or  a  measure  of  public  impor- 
tance; the  medium  through  which  a  voter 
indicates  his  preference  at  an  election. 

The  term  ballot,  at  a  club  or  private 
election,  is  applied  to  a  ball  used  for 
the  purpose  of  voting.  In  casting  a 
ball  for  or  against  an  individual,  the 
arrangement  sometimes  is  that  if  the 
vote  be  designed  in  his  favor,  then  a 
white  ball  is  used,  but  if  it  be  intended 
to  be  against  him,  then  one  of  a  black 
color  is  used — -whence  the  phrase  "to 
blackball  one." 

In  ancient  Athens  and  the  other 
Greek  states  the  ballot  was  in  use  when 
votes  had  to  be  taken  on  political  ques- 


tions. In  England  it  constituted  one 
of  the  five  points  in  the  Chartist  pro- 
gramme, both  of  the  great  political 
parties  being  at  first  opposed  to  it,  as 
deeming  it  a  revolutionary  project. 
Gradually,  however ,  the  mass  of  the 
Liberal  party  ceased  to  fear  the  ballot, 
and  opposition  to  it  on  the  part  of  the 
Conservatives  became  less  pronounced, 
till,  at  last,  while  Mr.  Gladstone  was 
in  the  plenitude  of  his  power,  a  bill, 
legalizing  it  as  an  experiment  for  eight 
years,  was  passed  during  the  session  of 
1872.  In  the  United  States  the  ballot 
was  in  use  in  the  early  colonial  times. 

Ballot  reform  is  a  term  applied  to  such 
improvements  in  methods  of  voting  as 
tend  to  eliminate  unfairness  at  elec- 
tions. In  1895  every  State  in  the  United  . 
States,  excepting  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina,  had 
adopted  some  reformed  plan  of  balloting, 
based  on  the  Australian  system,  and 
modified  to  suit  local  conditions.  The 
first  States  that  adopted  a  reformed 
plan  were  Massachusetts,  for  the  whole 
State,  and  Kentucky,  for  the  city  of 
Louisville,  both  in  1888.  Subsequently, 
experience  and  legislation  have  led  to  a 
variety  in  the  forms  of  the  ballot,  more 
than  40  States  now  employing  the  single 
"blanket-ballot."  Two  forms  of  the 
single  ballot  are  in  use:  (a)  One,  fol- 
lowing the  Australian  plan,  in  which 
the  titles  of  the  officers  are  arranged 
alphabetically,  the  names  of  the  can- 
didates and  of  the  party  following;  (b) 
one  which  groups  all  names  and  offices 
by  parties. 

A  newer  feature  of  ballot  reform  is 
the  substitution  for  the  ballot  paper, 
which  is  folded  and  deposited  by  hand, 
of  a  voting  machine. 

BALLOTT,  HOSEA  (ba-lo'),  an  Ameri- 
can Universalist  clergyman,  journalist, 
and  historian,  born  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Oct. 
18,  1796;  was  the  first  President  of 
Tufts  College  (1854-1861),  and  was  very 
successful  as  editor  of  the  "Universalist 
Magazine."  He  wrote  "Ancient  History 
of  Universalism"  (1829)  and  a  hymn 
book  (1837).  He  died  at  Somerville, 
Mass.,  May  27,  1861. 

BALLOU,  MATURIN  MURRAY,  an 
American  journalist,  bom  in  Boston, 
April  14,  1820.  Besides  editing  "Bal- 
lou's  Pictorial,"  "Ballou's  Monthly,"  etc., 
he  wrote  "History  of  Cuba"  (1854) ; 
"Biography  of  Hosea  Ballou,"  "Due 
West,"  "Due  South"  (1885) ;  "Under  the 
Southern  Cross,"  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
etc.  In  1872  he  became  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Boston  "Globe."  He  died  in  Cairo, 
Egypt,  March  27,   1895. 


aAIiL'S  BLUFF 


398 


BALTIMORE 


BALL'S  BLUFF,  a  spot  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Potomac  river,  in  Londoun 
CO.,  Va.,  about  33  miles  N.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington; where  the  bank  rises  about  150 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  It  is 
noted  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  between 
a  Union  force  under  Col.  Edward  D. 
Baker,  and  a  Confederate  force  under 
the  command  of  General  Evans,  Oct.  21, 
1861.  The  battle  resulted  in  the  serious 
defeat  of  the  Union  force  and  the  in- 
stantaneous death  of  Colonel  Baker. 

BALMACEDA,  JOSE  MANUEL,  a 
Chilean  statesman,  born  in  1840;  early 
distinguished  as  a  political  orator; 
advocated  in  Congress  separation  of 
Church  and  State;  as  Premier,  in  18845 
introduced  civil  marriage;  elected  Pres* 
ident  in  1886.  A  conflict  with  the  Con- 
gressional party,  provoked  by  his  alleged 
cruelties  and  official  dishonesty,  and 
advocacy  of  the  claim  of  Signor  Vicuna 
as  his  legally  elected  successor,  resulted 
in  Balmaceda's  overthrow  and  suicide 
in  1891. 

BALMORAL  CASTLE,  the  Highland 
residence  of  Queen  Victoria,  now  owned 
by  King  George,  beautifully  situated  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Dee,  in  the  county 
of,  and  45  miles  W.  of  Aberdeen. 

BALSAM,  the  common  name  of  suc- 
culent plants  of  the  genus  impatiens, 
family  balsaminacese,  having  beautiful 
irregular  flowers,  cultivated  in  gardens 
and  greenhouses.  Itnpatiens  balsamina, 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is  a  common 
cultivated  species.  Impatiens  noli-me- 
tangere,  grows  wild  in  Great  Britain, 
but  is  not  native. 

BALSAM,  an  aromatic,  resinous  sub- 
stance, flowing  spontaneously  or  by 
incision  from  certain  plants.  A  great 
variety  of  substances  pass  under  this 
name.  But  in  chemistry  the  term  is 
confined  to  such  vegetable  juices  as  con- 
sist of  resins  mixed  with  volatile  oils, 
and  yield  the  volatile  oil  on  distillation. 
The  balsams  are  either  liquid  or  more  or 
less  solid;  as,  for  example,  the  Balm  of 
Gilead,  and  the  balsams  of  copaiba, 
,  Peru,  and  Tolu.  The  balsams  are  used 
in  perfumery,  medicine,  and  the  arts. 

BALTIC  PROVINCES,  a  term  which 
comprehends  the  three  former  Russian 
governments  bordering  on  the  Baltic, 
viz.,  Courland,  Livonia,  Esthonia.  Since 
the  European  War  they  are  independent 
states.  The  Baltic  provinces  once  be- 
longed to  Sweden,  except  Courland, 
which  was  a  dependency  of  Poland.  They 
came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  partly 
m  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
through  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great, 


partly  under  Alexander  in  1809  They 
form,  however,  a  borderland  between  the 
Germanic  and  Slavonic  areas,  and  have 
been  a  frequent  cause  of  difficulty  be- 
tween Germany  and  Russia.  In  1905,  the 
Letts  and  Esthonians  revolted  against 
the  German  land  owners  and  Russian 
Government,  when  much  property  was 
destroyed.  Area  35,614  square  miles; 
pop.  about  2,750,000. 

BALTIC  SEA,  the  great  gulf  or  in- 
land sea  bordered  by  Denmark,  Germany, 
Russia,  and  Sweden,  and  communicating 
with  the  Kattegat  and  North  Sea  by  the 
Sound  and  the  Great  and  Little  Belts. 
Its  length  is  from  850  to  900  miles; 
breadth,  from  100  to  200;  and  area, 
including  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Fin- 
land, 184,496  square  miles,  of  which 
12,753  are  occupied  by  islands.  Its  shal- 
lowness and  narrowness,  its  numerous 
islands  and  reefs,  the  shoal  coasts  of 
Prussia  on  the  one  side,  and  the  rocky 
coast  of  Sweden  on  the  other,  make  the 
navigation  of  the  Baltic  very  dangerous. 
The  group  of  the  Aland  Islands  divides 
the  S.  part  of  the  sea  from  the  N.  part 
or  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  Gulf  of  Finland, 
branching  off  eastward  into  Russia, 
separates  Finland  from  Esthonia.  A 
third  gulf  is  that  of  Riga  or  Livonia. 
The  water  of  the  Baltic  is  colder  and 
clearer  than  that  of  the  ocean,  and  con- 
tains only  a  fourth  of  the  proportion  of 
salt  found  in  the  Atlantic.  Ice  hinders 
the  navigation  of  the  Baltic  from  three 
to  five  months  yearly.  Upward  of  250 
rivers  flow  into  this  sea,  which,  through 
them  and  its  lakes,  drains  rather  less 
than  one-fifth  of  all  Europe,  its  drainage 
area  being  estimated  as  717,000  square 
miles.  The  chief  of  these  rivers  are  the 
Oder,  Vistula,  Niemen,  Dwina,  Narva, 
Neva;  the  waters  of  Lake  Maeler,  and 
those  of  Wetter  and  other  lakes  reach 
the  sea  through  the  river  Motala.  The 
principal  islands  are  Zealand,  Fiinen, 
Bomholm,  Samsoe,  Laaland,  Gottland, 
Oland,  Hveen,  the  Aland  Islands  and 
Riigen.  Timber,  hides,  tallow,  and  grain 
are  the  exports  from  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Baltic. 

BALTIMORE,  the  largest  city  of 
Maryland,  on  Patapsco  river,  about  14 
miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  on  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania, 
Western  Maryland,  and  other  railroads. 
It  extends  over  6  from  E.  to  W.  and  be- 
tween 4^/^  and  5  miles  from  N.  to  S., 
covering  an  area  of  31 V^  square  miles. 
Its  convenient  situation  in  relation  to 
shipping  has  produced  an  increased  in- 
dustrial grovrth  in  recent  years.  One  of 
the  largest  of  these  developments  is  tho 


BALTIMOBE 


399 


BALTIMOBE  BIRD 


Sparrows  Point  plant  of  the  Bethlehem 
Steel  Co.,  which  has  grown  to  be  one  of 
the  largest  steel  plants  of  the  world,  em- 
ploying between  15,000  and  20,000  per- 
sons. Baltimore  is  one  of  the  largest 
wholesale  centers  of  the  United  States 
and  acts  as  a  distributing  and  jobbing 
point  for  a  large  area.  It  is  on  the 
threshold  of  the  great  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  West  Virginia  coal  fields. 
Electric  power  is  generated  on  a  large 
scale  from  Mc  Call's  Ferry  on  the 
Susquehanna  river.  This  supplies  the 
power  for  the  large  industrial  plants  of 
the  city.  Baltimore  is  called  the  Monu- 
mental City,  from  the  number  of  memo- 
rials found  within  its  borders.  These 
include  the  Washington  Monument, 
Battle  Monument,  the  Wells  McComas, 
the  William  Wallace,  the  Howard,  the 
Confederate,  the  Francis  Scott  Key,  and 
the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument.  The 
city  is  notable  for  the  large  number  of 
handsome  public  buildings.  These  include 
the  city  hall,  postoffice,  custom  house, 
Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  Masonic  Tem- 
ple, and  a  court  house.  The  city  is  the 
center  of  a  large  agricultural  and  fruit- 
growing center  and  is  notable  for  its 
public  markets.  It  has  one  of  the  most 
excellent  harbors  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  its  growth  as  a  port  has  been  re- 
markably rapid  in  recent  years.  Ship- 
building is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
its  industries  and  during  the  World  War 
a  large  number  of  vessels  were  con- 
structed in  the  shipbuilding  yards  of  the 
city.  There  are  over  30  miles  of  wharf- 
age and  water  front  within  the  city 
limits.  A  uniform  depth  of  35  feet  is 
maintained  up  to  the  piers,  providing 
for  transatlantic  steamships.  Over 
$21,000,000  has  been  expended  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  improv- 
ing the  channel  approaches.  There  is 
an  elaborate  system  of  municipally 
owned  wharves,  chiefly  constructed  of 
concrete,  a  number  of  large  modern 
grain  elevators  with  a  total  capacity  of 
nearly  7,000,000  bushels,  and  a  floating 
dock  of  12  marine  railways  and  three 
dry  docks.  Many  steamship  companies 
engaged  in  transatlantic  and  other 
foreign  trade  have  their  terminals  in 
Baltimore.  Local  companies  also  oper- 
ate over  70  steamers  in  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  in  coastwise  trade. 

•The  city  has  many  important  educa- 
tional institutions.  The  best  known  of 
these  is  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Others  are  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Loyola 
College,  Culture  College  for  Women, 
Morgan  College  (colored),  and  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary  (colored).  There  is 
an  excellent  system  of  public  schools  in 
which  are  enrolled   over  80,000   pupils. 


The  city  is  notable  for  many  handsome 
churches,  including  a  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral,  Grace  Episcopal  Church, 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  and  others 
There  are  many  large  retail  stores.  The 
banking  facilities  are  unusually  good. 
The  exchanges  in  the  clearing  house  for 
the  year  1919  amounted  to  $4,196,983,000. 
an  increase  of  $1,291,911,000  over  the 
previous  year.  The  industries  of  the  city 
are  varied.  Among  the  most  important 
are  men's,  women's,  and  children's  cloth- 
ing, shipbuilding,  public  utility  electric 
equipment,  steel  rails  and  products, 
automobiles,  boilers,  fertilizers,  drugs, 
machinery,  structural  iron,  chemicals,  etc. 
The  city  was  founded  in  1729  and  the 
advantage  of  its  situation  resulted  in  a 
growth  which  placed  it  ahead  of  older 
towns  in  trade.  During  the  War  of  1812 
the  city  was  attacked  by  land  and  water, 
but  was  successfully  defended.  During 
the  bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry, 
Francis  Scott  Key,  who  was  held  on 
board  a  British  vessel,  composed  "The 
Star  Spangled  Banner."  The  con- 
struction of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
canal  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail- 
road resulted  in  rapid  increase  in  the 
industrial  importance  of  the  city.  It 
suff'ered  severely  from  loss  of  trade 
during  the  Civil  War,  but  the  revival  was 
rapid.  On  Feburary  7,  1904,  fire  de- 
stroyed most  of  the  business  center  of 
the  city,  causing  a  loss  of  over  $125,000,- 
000.  Within  three  years  the  burned 
area  was  practically  rebuilt.  The  growth 
in  population  has  been  steady  and  rapid. 
Pop.  (1890)  434,439;  (1900)  508,957; 
(1910)    558,485;    (1920)    732,826. 

BALTIMORE,  GEORGE  CALVERT, 
LORD,  an  English  colonist,  born  in  York- 
shire about  1580;  was  for  some  time 
Secretary  of  State  to  James  I.,  but  this 
post  he  resigned  in  1624  in  consequence 
of  having  become  a  Roman  Catholic.  He 
retained  the  confidence  of  the  King,  who, 
in  1625,  raised  him  to  the  Irish  peerage. 
He  had  previously  obtained  a  grant  of 
land  in  Newfoundland,  but  left  it,  obtain- 
ing another  patent  for  Maryland.  He 
died  (1632)  before  the  charter  was  com- 
pleted, and  it  was  granted  to  his  son, 
Cecil. 

BALTIMORE  BIRD,  BALTIMORE 
ORIOLE,  BALTIMORE  HANG-NEST, 
or  BALTIMORE,  a  bird  of  the  family 
sturnidss  (starlings),  and  the  sub-family 
oriolinie  (orioles).  It  is  the  oriohis  bal- 
thnore  of  Catesby,  now  ictenis  baltimorii. 
The  name  Baltimore  was  applied,  because 
its  colors,  black  and  orange,  were  the 
same  as  those  on  the  coat  of  arms  or 
livery  of  the  Lord  Baltimore  who  was 
formerly  proprietor  of  Maryland. 


BALUCHISTAN 


400 


BALZAC 


BALUCHISTAN,  a  country  in  Asia, 
the  coast  of  which  is  continuous  with  the 
N.  W.  seaboard  of  India,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Afghanistan,  on  the  W.  by  Persia, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  on  the 
E.  by  Sind.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
135,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
estimated  at  850,000.  The  general  sur- 
face of  the  country  is  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous, with  some  extensive  intervals  of 
barren,  sandy  deserts,  and  there  is  a 
general  deficiency  of  water.  The  country 
is  almost  entirely  occupied  by  pastoral 
tribes  under  semi-independent  sirdars  or 
chiefs.  The  inhabitants  are  divided  into 
two  great  branches,  the  Baluchis  and 
Brahuis,  differing  in  their  language, 
figure,  and  manners.  The  Baluchis  in 
general  have  tall  figures,  long  visages, 
and  prominent  features;  the  Brahuis  on 
the  contrary,  have  short,  thick  bones,  vnth 
round  faces  and  flat  lineaments,  with 
hair  and  beards  frequently  brown.  Both 
races  are  zealous  Mohammedans,  hos- 
pitable, brave,  and  capable  of  enduring 
much  fatigue.  The  Khan  of  Khelat  is 
nominal  ruler  of  about  one  half  of  the 
total  area,  and  in  1877  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Great  Britain,  which  placed  the 
whole  country  at  the  disposal  of  the 
British  for  military  purposes.  Another 
part,  area  46,960  square  miles,  called 
British  Baluchistan,  is  administered  by  a 
chief  commissioner.  The  balance  of  the 
country  consists  of  a  native  state  called 
Las  Bela  (7,132  square  miles)  and  va- 
rious tribal  areas  (7,268  square  miles). 

BALZAC,  HONORE  DE  (balts-ac'), 
a  French  author,  born  at  Tours,  May  20, 
1799.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  de 
Vendome  and  studied  law  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  opposition  to  his  father's  wish 
that  he  should  become  a  notary,  he  left 
Tours  in  1819  to  seek  his  fortune  as  an 
author  in  Paris.  From  1819  to  1830  he 
led  a  life  of  f I'equent  privation  and  inces- 
sant industry,  producing  stories  and  be- 
coming burdened  with  debt.  He  first 
tasted  success  in  his  30th  year  on  the 
publication  of  "The  Last  of  the  Chouans," 
which  was  soon  afterward  followed  by 
"The  Magic  Skin,"  a  marvelous  inter- 
\yeaving  of  the  supernatural  into  modern 
life,  and  the  earliest  of  his  great  works. 
After  writing  several  other  novels,  he 
formed  the  design  of  presenting  in  the 
"Human  Comedy"  a  complete  picture  of 
modern  civilization,  especially  in  France. 
All  ranks,  professions,  arts,  trades,  all 
phases  of  manners  in  town  and  country, 
were  to  be  represented  in  his  imaginary 
system  of  things.  In  attempting  to  carry 
out  this  impossible  design,  he  produced 
what  is  almost  in  itself  a  literature.  The 
Stories  composing  the  "Human  Comedy" 


are  classified  as  "Scenes  of  Private  Life, 
of  Parisian  Life,  of  Political  Life,  of 
Military  Life,"  etc.  Each  of  the  actors 
in  the  brilliant  crowded   drama  is  mi- 


HONORE  DE  BALZAC 

nutely  described  and  clothed  with  indi- 
viduality, while  the  scenes  in  which  they 
move  are  set  forth  with  a  picturesqueness 
and  verisimilitude  hardly  to  be  matched 
in  fiction.  Among  the  masterpieces  which 
form  part  of  Balzac's  vast  scheme  may 
be  mentioned  "Lost  Illusions,"  "The 
Peasants,"  "The  Woman  of  Thirty," 
"Poor  Relations,"  "The  Quest  of  the 
Absolute,"  and  "Eugenie  Grandet."  The 
"Droll  Stories"  (1833)  stand  by  them- 
selves. He  wrote  85  novels  in  20  years, 
and  he  was  not  a  ready  writer,  being 
very  fastidious  in  regard  to  style,  and 
often  expending  more  labor  on  his  proof 
sheets  than  he  had  given  to  his  manu- 
script. In  his  later  years  he  lived  prin- 
cipally in  his  villa,  Les  Jardies,  at  Sevres. 
In  1849,  when  his  health  had  broken  ( 
down,  he  traveled  to  Poland  to  visit 
Madame  Hanska,  a  rich  Polish  lady,  with 
whom  he  had  corresponded  for  more  than 
15  years.  In  1850  she  became  his  wife, 
and  three  months  after  the  marriage,  in 
August  of  the  same  year,  Balzac  died  at 
Paris.  His  influence  on  literature  has 
been  deep  and  many-sided,  and  novelists 
with  so  little  in  common  as  Feuillet  and 
Zola  alike  claim  him  for  their  master.  He 
studied  character  and  the  machinery  of 
society  in  a  scientific  spirit,  but  he  was 
not  content  with  the  photographic  repro- 
duction of  fact.  He  was  a  visionary  as 
well  as  an  analyst,  an  idealist  and  a 
realist  in  one.    His  work  bears  trace  of 


BAMBEBG 


401 


BANBURY 


the  strain  with  which  it  was  produced ;  it 
is  often  coarse,  often  extravagant,  occa- 
sionally dull.  But  few  writers  give  such 
an  impression  of  intellectual  force  and  in 
the  power  of  investing  his  creations  with 
apparent  reality  he  stands  first  among 
novelists.  The  edition  definitive  of  his 
works  was  published  in  25  volumes  ( 1869- 
1875) ;  the  last  contains  his  correspond- 
ence from  1819  to  1850  (English  trans- 
lation, with  memoir,  2  vols.,  1879).  A 
supplemental  volume  is  the  "History  of 
the  Works  of  Honore  de  Balzac,"  by 
Lovenjoul  (1879).  A  complete  trans- 
lation was  made  by  Miss  K.  F.  Wormley 
(1889-1894)  and  another  edition  was 
edited  by  Saintbury   (1899). 

BAMBERGr,  a  Bavarian  city  in  Upper 
Franconia,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Regnitz,  3  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Main,  and  33  miles  N, 
of  Nuremberg  by  rail.  Set  in  the  midst 
of  vineyards,  orchards,  and  hop-gardens, 
and  founded  about  769,  from  1007  to 
1802  it  was  the  seat  of  independent 
prince-bishops.  The  most  noteworthy  of 
its  14  churches  is  the  cathedral,  a  mag- 
nificent edifice  in  the  Romanesque  style, 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  in 
1004,  and  containing  the  tomb  of  his  Em- 
press Cunigunda.  St.  Michael's  Bene- 
dictine Abbey  (1009)  was  in  1803  con- 
verted into  an  almshouse.  The  ruins  of 
the  castle  of  Altenburg,  originally  the 
seat  of  the  Counts  of  Babenberg,  are  near 
the  town.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  beer, 
cotton,  cloth,  gloves,  tobacco,  musical 
instruments,  etc.  A  large  export  trade  in 
liquorice  and  garden  seeds  is  carried  on. 
Albrecht  Pfister,  one  of  the  earliest  print- 
ers, was  practicing  his  art  at  Bamberg 
in  1461.    Pop.  about  50,000. 

BAMBOO,  any  species  of  the  botanical 
genus  bambusa,  and  especially  the  best 
known  one,  bambusa  arundinacea.  It  is 
a  giant  grass,  sometimes  reaching  the 
height  of  40  or  more  feet,  which  is  found 
everywhere  in  the  tropics  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  and  has  been  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies,  the  Southern  States 
of  America,  and  various  other  regions  of 
the  Western  world.  It  has  the  usual 
characteristics  of  a  grass — the  cylindrical 
stem,  of  flinty  hardness  externally,  while 
soft  or  even  hollow  within. 

The  uses  to  which  the  several  species 
of  bamboo  are  put  in  the  regions  where 
they  grow  are  almost  innumerable.  In 
housebuilding  they  furnish  the  framework 
of  the  sides  and  roof,  with  the  joists  and 
other  parts  of  the  flooring.  Bows,  arrows, 
quivers,  the  shafts  of  lances,  and  other 
warlike  weapons  can  be  made  from  the 
stems  of  bamboo,  as  can  ladders,  rustic 


bridges,  the  masts  of  vessels,  walking 
sticks,  water  pipes,  flutes.  The  seeds  are 
eaten  by  the  poorer  classes  in  parts  of 
India ;  and  in  the  West  Indies  the  tops  of 
the  tender  shoots  are  pickled  and  made 
to  supply  the  place  of  asparagus. 

BANANA,  a  fruit  originally  East  In- 
dian, but  much  cultivated  in  warm 
countries  over  the  whole  globe.  It  is  now 
generally  regarded  as  a  mere  variety  of 
the  plantain.  The  banana  has,  generally, 
dark  purple  stripes  and  spots  on  the 
stems,  and  the  fruit  is  smaller,  less 
curved,  and  of  a  more  delicate  taste  than 
the  plantain,  with  a  soft  and  luscious 
pulp.  Each  fruit  is  generally  about  four 
or  five  inches  long.  The  banana  is  al- 
ways used  in  a  ripe  state,  and  never,  like 
the  plantain,  as  a  substitute  for  bread. 

BANANA,  an  island  in  West  Africa, 
N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo;  also  a 
seaport  of  the  Kongo  Free  State  on  the 
island. 

BANANA-BIRD,  a  bird  xanthornus 
icterus,  belonging  to  the  family  stumidx 
(starlings),  and  the  sub-family  oriolinse, 
or  orioles.  It  is  tawny  and  black,  with 
white  bars  on  the  wings.  It  occurs  in 
the  West  Indies  and  the  warmer  parts 
of  continental  America. 

BANAS,  or  BUNAS,  the  name  of  three 
rivers  of  India.  (1)  A  river  of  Rajputana, 
rising  in  the  Aravulli  Mountains,  flows 
N.  E.  through  Mewar  for  120  miles, 
then  S.  E.,  and  falls  into  the  Chambal, 
after  a  total  course  of  300  miles;  (2)  a 
river  which  also  rises  in  the  Aravulli 
Mountains,  and,  after  a  southwestward 
course  of  180  miles,  is  lost  in  the  Runn 
of  Cutch;  (3)  a  river  of  Chutia  Nagpur, 
Bengal,  has  a  northwestward  course  of 
about  70  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Sone, 
near  Rampur. 

BANAT,  a  large  and  fertile  region, 
formerly  belonging  to  Hungary,  consist- 
ing of  the  counties  of  Temesvar,  Torontal, 
and  Krisso;  principal  town,,  Temesvar. 
The  region  originally  belonged  to  Hun- 
gary; was  occupied  by  the  Turks  in  1652- 
1716;  and  was  reunited  to  Hungary  in 
1799.  By  the  treaty  signed  at  Versailles 
on  June  4,  1920,  the  Banat  became  part 
of  Rumania.  Area,  11,009  square  miles.  ■ 
Pop.  about  1,600,000. 

BANBURY,  a  small  town  of  Oxford- 
shire, on  the  Oxfoi-d  canal  and  the 
Cherwell,  23  miles  N.  of  Oxford^  and  78 
N.  W.  of  London  by  rail.  Its  strong 
castle,  built  about  1125,  was  demolished 
during  the  Great  Rebellion,  when  Ban- 
bury was  noted  for  Puritanical  zeal.  In 


BANCA 


402 


BANDHOLTZ 


1469  the  Yorkists  were  defeated  in  the 
vicinity.  The  town  is  still  famous  for 
its  cakes  and  ale,  as  it  was  in  Ben 
Jonson's  day;  and  it  manufactures  web- 
bing and  agricultural  implements.  Pop. 
about  14,000. 

BANCA,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  between  Sumatra  and 
Borneo;  area  about  4,450  square  miles. 
A  large  part  of  the  population  is  Chinese. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  excellent  tin,  but 
it  produces  nothing  else  of  any  impor- 
tance.    Pop.    (1917)    154,178. 

BANCROFT,  GEORGE,  an  American 
historian,  born  near  Worcester,  Mass., 
Oct.  3,  1800.  He  was  educated  at  Har- 
vard and  in  Germany.  In  1824  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Heeren's  "Politics 
of  Ancient  Greece,"  and  a  small  volume 
of  poems.  Between  1834  and  1840  three 
volumes  of  his  History  of  the  United 
States  were  published.  In  1845  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  He 
was  American  Minister  to  England  from 
1846  to  1849,  when  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford conferred  on  him  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  D.  C.  L.  The  fourth  and  fifth 
volumes  of  his  history  appeared  in  1852. 
The  sixth  appeared  in  1854,  the  seventh 
in  1858,  the  eighth  soon  after,  but  the 
ninth  did  not  appear  till  1866.  From  1867 
to  1874  he  was  Minister  Plenipotentiary 
at  the  Court  of  Berlin.  The  10th  and 
last  volume  of  his  great  work  appeared 
in  1874.  An  additional  section  appeared, 
first  as  a  separate  work,  in  1882:  "His- 
tory of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,"  and  the  whole 
came  out  in  six  volumes  in  1884-1885. 
He  settled  in  Washington  on  returning 
from  Germany,  in  1875,  and  died  there 
Jan.  17,  1891. 

BANCROFT,    HUBERT    HOWE,     an 

American  historian,  born  in  Granville, 
O.,  May  5,  1832.  In  1852  he  went  to 
California  to  establish  a  book  business, 
and  began  to  collect  documents,  maps, 
books  and  MSS.  for  a  complete  "History 
of  the  Pacific  States"  from  Mexico  to 
Alaska.  He  published  "Native  Races  of 
the  Pacific  States"  (1875-1876)  ;  "His- 
tory of  the  Pacific  States"  (1882-1891); 
a  series  of  "Chronicles  of  the  Builders 
of  the  Commonwealth";  "The  New 
Pacific"  (1907) ;  "Retrospection"  (1912) ; 
etc.     He  died  in  1918. 

BANCROFT,  SIR  SQUIRE,  an  Eng- 
lish actor  and  manager,  born  in  London 
in  1841.  His  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  was  made  in  Birmingham  in  1861. 
This  was  followed  by  seasons  in  Dublin 
and  Liverpool,  after  which  he  appeared 
in  London  at  the  Prince  of  Wales  Thea- 
ter in  1865.     In  1871  he  married  Miss 


Wilton  and  with  her  took  up  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Prince  of  Wales  Theater. 
From  1880  to  1885  he  also  managed  the 
Haymarket  Theater.  He  and  his  wife 
then  retired  from  active  management. 
He  appeared  at  the  Lyceum  with  Henry 
Irving  in  1889  and  subsequently  took 
part  in  several  presentations  at  the 
Garrick  and  other  theaters.  He  was 
knighted   in   1897. 

BANDA  ISLANDS',  a  group  belonging 
to  Holland,  Indian  Archipelago,  S.  of 
Ceram,  Great  Banda,  the  largest,  being 
12  miles  long  by  2  broad.  They  are  beau- 
tiful islands,  of  volcanic  origin,  yielding 
quantities  of  nutmeg.  Goenong  Api,  or 
Fire  Mountain,  is  a  cone-shaped  volcano 
which  rises  2,320  feet  above  the  sea. 
Pop.  about  9,500. 

BANDA  ORIENTAL,  a  state  of  South 
America,  originally  settled  by  Spaniards 
from  Buenos  Aires,  claimed  by  Brazil, 
but,  after  a  war,  made  in  1825  into  the 
independent  state  of  Banda  Oriental  del 
Uruguay — i.  e.,  Eastern  Bank  of  the 
Uruguay,  now  usually  called  simply 
Uruguay   {q.  v.). 

BANDED  PEAK,  or  MT.  HESPERUS, 

a  peak  of  the  San  Juan  Mountains,  in 
southern  Colorado;  altitude,  12,860  feet. 

BANDELIER,     ADOLPH     FRANCIS 

ALPHONSE,  a  Swiss-American  archaa- 
ologist,  born  in  Berne,  Aug.  6,  1840; 
settled  early  in  the  United  States,  where 
he  carried  out  important  work  under  the 
direction  of  the  Archaeological  Institute 
of  America.  His  studies  have  been 
chiefly  among  the  Indians  of  New  Mex- 
ico and  Arizona,  Central  America  and 
Mexico.  He  was  the  author  of  "Art  of 
War  and  Mode  of  Warfare"  (1877); 
"Social  Organization  and  Government 
of  Ancient  Mexicans"  (1878) ;  "Tenure 
of  Lands  and  Inheritances  of  Ancient 
Mexicans"  (1878) ;  "An  Archaeological 
Tour  Into  Mexico"  (1885)  ;  a  novel  of 
Pueblo  Indian  life,  "The  Delight  Mak- 
ers"; "The  Gilded  Man";  etc.  He  died 
at  Madrid  in  1914. 

BANDHOLTZ,     HARRY     HILL,     ar. 

American  soldier,  born  in  Constantino, 
Mich.,  in  1864.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1890, 
was  commissioned  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
same  year  and  rose  through  the  various 
grades,  becoming  brigadier-general  in 
1918.  For  a  time  he  acted  as  professor 
of  military  science  and  tactics  at  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College.  During 
the  Spanish-American  War  he  served 
with  the  7th  Infantry  and  also  saw  serv- 
ice in  the  Philippines,  where,  in  1902- 
1903,  he  was  governor  of  Tayabas  prov- 


BANDONG 


403 


BANGOR 


ince.  He  was  colonel  and  assistant  chief 
of  the  Philippine  constabulary,  and  at 
the  same  time  was  in  command  of  the 
District  of  Southern  Luzon.  He  was 
active  against  outlaws,  and  succeeded  in 
capturing  the  leaders  in  several  upris- 
ings. From  1907  to  1913  he  was  briga- 
dier-general and  chief  of  the  Philippine 
constabulary.  In  1914  he  served  on  the 
Mexican  border,  remaining  until  Feb- 
ruary, 1918,  when  he  became  chief  of 
staff  of  the  58th  Infantry  Brigade;  he 
was  provost-marshal-general  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  from 
September,  1918,  to  August,  1919.  In  the 
latter  year  he  served  as  American  mem- 
ber of  the  Interallied  Military  Mission  to 
Hungary. 

BANDONG,  or  BANDUNG,  a  flourish- 
ing commercial  town  in  the  center  of  the 
western  end  of  Java,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  volcano  Gunong  Guntour.  Since 
1864  it  has  been  the  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince known  as  the  Preanger  Regencies. 
Pop.  about  22,000. 

BANFF,  a  health  resort  in  south- 
western Alberta,  Canada.  It  is  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  railroad  and  the  Bow 
river.  The  village,  which  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  1,000,  has  its  situation 
in  the  magnificent  scenery  of  the  Cana- 
dian Rockies.  There  are  several  fine 
hotels,  sulphur  springs,  open-air  baths, 
and  a  sanitarium.  It  is  included  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  National  Park  of  Can- 
ada, which  has  an  area  of  over  5,000 
square  miles. 

BANFFSHIRE,  a  county  in  Scotland 
in  the  northeast  division.  It  has  an  area 
of  630  square  miles.  The  surface  is  for 
the  most  part  hilly,  with  some  fertile 
valleys  and  pasture  land.  Agriculture 
and  fishing  are  the  leading  occupations. 
The  chief  towns  are  Banff,  Macduff, 
Keith,  and  Buckie.     Pop.  about  65,000. 

BANGALORE,  a  town  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  Mysore,  and  giving  its  name 
to  a  considerable  district  in  the  E.  of 
Mysore  state.  The  town  stands  on  a 
healthful  plateau  3,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  In  the  old  town  stands  the  fort, 
reconstructed  by  Hyder  Ali  in  1761,  and 
taken  by  Lord  Comwallis  in  1791. 
There  are  manufactures  of  silks,  cotton 
cloths,  carpets,  gold  and  silver  lace,  etc. 
Pop.  about  200,000.  The  Bangalore  dis- 
trict has  an  area  of  nearly  3,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  over  800,000. 

BANGKOK,  the  capital  city  of  Siam, 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Menam, 
about  20  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  in 
14°  N.  lat.,  and  100°  20'  E.  long.    The 

27 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


population  is  about  550,000,  nearly  half 
of  whom  are  Chinese,  the  others  includ- 
ing Burmese,  Annamese,  Cambodians, 
Malays,  Eurasians,  and  Europeans.  The 
foreign  trade  of  Siam  centers  in  Bang- 
kok, and  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Europeans  and  Chinese.  The  approach 
to  Bangkok  by  the  Menam,  which  can 
be  navigated  by  ships  of  350  tons  bur- 
den (large  sea-going  ships  anchor  at 
Paknam,  below  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river) ,  is  exceedingly  beautiful. 
Stone  buildings  are  used  only  for  the 
royal  palaces,  some  noblemen's  houses, 
monasteries,  and  the  dwellings  of  Euro- 
peans. A  large  number  of  the  houses 
float  on  rafts,  fastened  by  ropes  to  poles; 
most  of  the  trade  of  the  city  is  carried 
on  upon  the  river.  Much  of  the  internal 
traffic  of  Bangkok  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  canals,  but  in  recent  years  numerous 
streets  and  roads  have  been  built;  there 
are  now  also  electric  street  railways, 
electric  lights,  and  four  railway  stations. 
The  native  houses  on  land — of  bamboo  or 
other  woodj  like  the  floating  houses — are 
raised  upon  piles,  six  or  eight  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  are  reached  by  ladders. 
The  circumference  of  the  walls  of  Bang- 
kok, which  are  15  to  30  feet  high,  and 
12  broad,  is  about  6  miles.  Bangkok  is 
the  constant  residence  of  the  King  and 
the  seat  of  foreign  legations  and  con- 
sulates. The  palace  is  surrounded  by 
high  walls,  and  is  nearly  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference. It  includes  temples,  public 
offices,  accommodation  for  officials  and 
for  some  thousands  of  soldiers,  with 
their  necessary  equipments,  a  theater, 
apartments  for  a  crowd  of  female  attend- 
ants, and  several  Buddhist  temples,  or 
chapels.  Throughout  the  interior  are  dis- 
tributed the  most  costly  articles  in  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones.  The  temples 
of  Bangkok  are  innumerable  and  deco- 
rated in  the  most  gorgeous  style,  the 
Siamese  taking  a  pride  in  lavishing  their 
wealth  on  them.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Bangkok  are  iron  mines  and  forests 
of  teak-wood.  The  chief  exports  are  rice, 
sugar,  pepper,  cardamoms,  sesame,  hides, 
fine  woods,  ivory,  feathers,  and  edible 
birds'  nests.  There  is  regular  steam- 
ship service  with  Singapore,  Saigon,  and 
Hong  Kong.     See  Siam. 

BANGOR,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Penobscot  co..  Me.;  at  the 
junction  of  the  Penobscot  and  Kendus- 
keag  rivers,  on  the  Maine  Central,  and 
Bangor  and  Aroostook  railroads;  140 
miles  N.  E.  of  Portland.  It  is  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Penobscot  river;  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Kendus- 
keag;  and  derives  excellent  power  for 
maniif acturing  from  the  Penobscot  river. 


BAUGOR 


404 


BANK 


by  means  of  a  dam  near  the  water  works. 
The  city  has  direct  connection  with  the 
Canadian  Pacific  railway,  and  also  by 
steamers  with  New  York,  Boston,  and 
important  points  on  the  New  England 
coast.  Water  for  domestic,  fire,  and 
small  manufacturing  purposes  is  also 
obtained  from  the  Penobscot  river  by 
the  Holly  system.  Bangor  is  one  of 
the  most  important  lumber  centers  in 
the  country,  and,  besides  its  many  saw, 
planing,  and  molding  mills,  has  several 
wood-pulp  mills,  iron  foundries,  carriage 
factories,  ship-building  yards,  agricul- 
tural implement  works,  boot,  shoe  and 
moccasin  factories,  pork  packing  estab- 
lishments, etc.  It  is  a  trade  center  for 
five  counties,  and  is  connected  by  electric 
railway  \vith  their  principal  cities  and 
towns.  There  are  several  National 
banks;  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  pe- 
riodicals; and  various  educational  and 
charitable  institutions,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  the  Bangor  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  {q.  v.).  The  site  of  the 
city,  called  by  the  Indians  Kenduskeag, 
was  visited  by  the  French,  who  erected  a 
fort  here,  called  Norombega,  in  1656. 
The  place  was  permanently  settled  in 
1769;  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1791,  and  became  a  city  in  1834.  Pop. 
(1910)  24,803;  (1920)  25,978. 

BANGOR,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  Northampton  co.  It  is  on  the  Lacka- 
wanna, and  Lehigh  and  New  England 
railroads,  and  has  important  slate  quar- 
rying interests,  silk  mills,  machine  shops, 
and  other  industries.  Pop.  (1910)  5,369; 
(1920)   5,404. 

BANGOR,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Wales 
in  Carnarvonshire.  It  is  on  the  S.  E, 
bank  of  the  Menai  Strait.  The  beauty 
of  the  surrounding  scenery  has  made 
Bangor  a  much-sought-for  place  of  re- 
sort. It  is  the  seat  of  the  oldest  bishop- 
ric in  Wales  and  has  a  cathedral  be- 
gun in  1496.  The  city  has  several  im- 
portant educational  institutions,  includ- 
ing the  University  College  of  North 
Wales  and  other  colleges.  The  chief  in- 
dustry is  slate  quarrying.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

BANGOR  THEOLOGICAL  SEMI- 
NARY, an  educational  institution  in 
Bangor,  Me.;  chartered  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts  in  1814;  opened 
in  Hampden  in  1816;  and  removed  to 
Bangor  in  1819;  under  the  direction  of 
the  Congregational  Church,  but  open  to 
all  Christian  young  men.  It  has  a  three 
years'  course ;  grounds  and  buildings  val- 
ued at  over  $400,000;  a  library  of  about 
•■?0,000  volumes;  and,  in  1919,  5  profes- 
sors and  instructors;  and  18  students. 


BANGS,      JOHN      KENDRICK,      an 

American  humorist  and  editor,  born  in 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  May  27, 1862.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Columbia  College  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  "Life,"  and  has 
long  been  known  for  his  light  verse  and 
humorous  stories,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  "Coffee  and  Repartee"  (New 
York,  1886)  ;  "Mr.  Bonaparte  of  Corsica" 
(1895);  "Water  Ghost  and  Other  Sto- 
ries" (1896)  ;  "The  Bicyclers  and  Other 
Farces"  (1896);  "A  Houseboat  on  the 
Styx"  (1896);  "The  Pursuit  of  the 
Houseboat"  (1897);  "Foothills  of  Par- 
nassus" (1914).  He  was  at  various 
times  editor  of  "Harper's  Weekly" 
(1900);  "Metropolitan"  (1903);  "Puck'* 
(1904). 

BANK,  primarily  an  establishment  for 
the  deposit,  custody  and  repayment  on 
demand,  of  money;  and  obtaining  the 
bulk  of  its  profits  from  the  investment 
of  sums  thus  derived  and  not  in  imme- 
diate demand.  The  term  is  a  derivative 
of  the  banco  or  bench  of  the  early  Italian 
money  dealers. 

Divisions. — In  respect  of  constitution 
there  is  a  broad  division  of  banks  into 
public  and  private;  public  banks  includ- 
ing such  establishments  as  are  under 
any  special  state  or  municipal  control 
or  patronage,  or  whose  capital  is  in  the 
form  of  stock  or  shares  which  are  bought 
and  sold  in  the  open  market;  private 
banks  embracing  those  which  are  carried 
on  by  one  or  more  individuals  with- 
out special  authority  or  charter  and 
under  the  laws  regulating  ordinary  trad- 
ing companies.  In  respect  of  functior 
three  kinds  of  banks  may  be  discrimi 
nated:  (1)  banks  of  deposit  merely,  re- 
ceiving and  returning  money  at  the  con 
venience  of  depositors;  (2)  banks  oi 
discount  or  loan,'  borrowing  money  on 
deposit  and  lending  it  in  the  discount  of 
promissory  notes,  bills  of  exchange,  and 
negotiable  securities;  (3)  banks  of  cir- 
culation or  issue,  which  give  currency  to 
promissory  notes  of  their  own,  payable  to 
bearer  and  serving  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
change within  the  sphere  of  their  bank- 
ing operations.  The  more  highly  organ- 
ized banks  discharge  all  three  functions, 
but  all  modern  banks  unite  the  two  first. 
For  the  successful  working  of  a  banking 
establishment  certain  resources  other 
than  the  deposits  are,  of  course,  neces- 
sary, and  the  subscribed  capital,  that  is, 
the  money  paid  up  by  shareholders  on 
their  shares  and  forming  the  substantial 
portion  of  their  claim  to  public  credit, 
is  held  upon  a  different  footing  to  the 
sums  received  from  depositors.  It  is 
usually  considered  that  for  sound  bank- 
ing this  capital  should  not  be  traded  for 
the  purpose  of  making  gain  in  the  same 


BANE 


405 


BANK 


way  as  the  moneys  deposited  in  the  bank ; 
and  that  is,  for  the  most  part,  invested 
in  government  or  other  securities  subject 
to  little  fluctuation  in  value  and  readily 
convertiole  into  money.  But,  in  any  case, 
prudence  demands  that  a  reserve  be  kept 
sufficient  to  meet  all  probable  require- 
ments of  customers  in  eyent  of  commer- 
cial crises  or  minor  panics. 

Methods. — Of  the  methods  of  making 
profit  upon  the  money  of  depositors,  one 
of  the  most  common  is  to  advance  it  in 
the  discounting  of  bills  of  exchange  not 
having  long  periods  (seldom  more  than 
three  months  with  the  Bank  of  England) 
to  run ;  the  banker  receiving  the  amounts 
of  the  bills  from  the  acceptors  when  the 
bills  arrive  at  maturity.  Loans  or  ad- 
vances are  also  often  made  by  bankers 
upon  exchequer  bills  or  other  government 
securities,  on  railway  debenture  or  the 
stock  of  public  companies  of  various 
kinds,  as  well  as  upon  goods  lying  in 
public  warehouses,  the  dock-warrant  or 
certificate  of  ownership  being  trans- 
ferred to  the  banker  in  security.  To 
banks  of  issue  a  further  source  of  profit 
is  open  in  their  note  circulation,  inas- 
much as  the  bank  is  enabled  to  lend  these 
notes,  or  promises  to  pay,  as  if  they  were 
so  much  money  and  to  receive  interest  on 
the  loan  accordingly,  as  well  as  to  make 
a  profitable  use  of  the  money  or  property 
that  may  be  received  in  exchange  for  its 
notes,  so  long  as  the  latter  remain  in 
circulation.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  notes  issued  will,  however,  be  re- 
tained in  circulation  at  the  convenience 
of  the  public  as  a  medium  of  exchange; 
and  on  this  circulating  portion  a  clear 
profit  accrues.  This  rapid  return  of 
notes  through  other  banks,  etc.,  in  ex- 
change for  portions  of  the  reserve  of  the 
issuing  bank,  is  one  of  the  restraints 
upon  an  issue  of  notes  in  excess  of  the 
ability  of  the  bank  to  meet  them.  In 
England  a  more  obvious  restraint  upon 
an  unlimited  note  issue,  originating  part- 
ly in  a  desire  for  greater  security,  partly 
in  the  belief  that  the  note  augmentation 
of  the  currency  might  lead  to  harmful 
economic  results  in  its  influence  upon 
prices,  is  to  be  found  in  the  bank  acts 
of  1844  and  1845,  which  impose  upon 
banks  of  issue  the  necessity  of  keeping 
an  equivalent  in  gold  for  all  notes  issued 
beyond  a  certain  fixed  amount. 

In  specific  relation  to  his  customer  the 
banker  occupies  the  position  of  debtor  to 
creditor,  holding  money  which  the  cus- 
tomer may  demand  at  any  time  in  whole 
or  in  part  by  means  of  a  check  payable 
at  sight  on  presentation  during  banking 
hours.  For  the  refusal  to  cash  a  check 
from  the  erroneous  supposition  that  he 
has  no  funds  of  his  customer's  in  his 


hands,  or  for  misleading  statements  re- 
specting the  position  in  which  the  bank 
stands,  the  banker  is  legally  responsible. 
Moreover,  the  law  regards  him  as  bound 
to  know  his  customer's  signature,  and 
the  loss  falls  upon  him  in  event  of  his 
cashing  a  forged  check.  In  their  rela- 
tions to  the  community,  the  chief  services 
rendered  by  banks  are  the  following:  By 
receiving  deposits  of  money,  and  massing 
in  sums  efficient  for  extensive  enterprises 
the  smaller  savings  of  individuals,  they 
are  the  means  of  keeping  fully  and  con- 
stantly employed  a  large  portion  of  the 
capital  of  the  community  which,  but  for 
their  agency,  would  be  unproductive; 
they  are  the  means  by  which  the  surplus 
capital  of  one  part  of  a  country  is  trans- 
ferred to  another,  where  it  may  be  ad- 
vantageously employed  in  stimulating  in- 
dustry; they  enable  vast  and  numerous 
money  transactions  to  be  carried  on  with- 
out the  intervention  of  coin  or  notes  at 
all,  thus  obviating  trouble,  risk,  and  ex- 
pense. The  mechanism  by  which  the  last  of 
these  benefits  is  secured  is  to  be  found  in 
perfection  in  the  clearing-house  system. 
History. — In  the  12th  century  almost 
the  whole  trade  of  Europe  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Italian  cities,  and  it  was 
in  these  that  the  need  of  bankers  was 
first  felt.  The  earliest  possible  bank, 
that  of  Venice,  established  in  1171,  and 
existing  down  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
republic  in  1797,  was,  for  some  time,  a 
bank  of  deposit  only,  the  government  be- 
ing responsible  for  the  deposits,  and  the 
whole  capital  being  in  effect  a  public 
loan.  The  important  Bank  of  Amster- 
dam, taken  by  Adam  Smith  as  a  type 
of  the  older  banks,  was  established  in 
1609,  and  owed  its  origin  to  the  fluctua- 
tion and  uncertainty  induced  by  the 
clipped  and  worn  currency.  The  object 
of  the  institution  (established  under 
guarantee  of  the  city)  was  to  give  a  cer- 
tain and  unquestionable  value  to  a  bill 
on  Amsterdam;  and  for  this  purpose  the 
various  coins  were  received  in  deposit  at 
the  bank  at  their  real  value  in  standard 
coin,  less  a  small  charge  for  recoinage 
and  expense  of  management.  For  the 
amount  deposited  a  credit  was  opened 
on  the  books  of  the  bank,  by  the  transfer 
•of  which  payments  could  be  made,  this 
so-called  bank  money  being  of  uniform 
value  as  representing  money  at  the  mint 
standard.  Banks  of  similar  character 
were  established  at  Nuremberg  and  other 
towns,  the  most  important  being  the 
Bank  of  Hamburg,  founded  in  1619.  In 
England  there  was  no  corresponding  in- 
stitution, the  London  merchants  being  in 
the  habit  of  lodging  their  money  at  the 
Mint  in  the  Tower,  until  Charles  I.  ap- 
propriated the  whole  of  it  (£200,000)  in 


BANK 


406 


3A1TK 


1640.  Thenceforth  they  lodged  it  with 
the  goldsmiths,  who  began  to  do  banking 
business  in  a  small  way,  encouraging  de- 
posits by  allowing  interest  (4d.  a  day) 
for  their  use,  lending  money  for  short 
periods,  discounting  bills,  etc.  The  bank- 
note was  first  invented  and  issued  in 
1690  by  the  Bank  of  Sweden,  founded 
by  Palmstruck  in  1688. 

Bank  of  England. — The  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, the  most  important  banking  estab- 
lishment in  the  world,  was  projected  by 
William  Paterson.  It  was  the  first  pub- 
lic bank  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  was 
chartered  in  1694  by  an  act  which,  among 
other  things,  secured  certain  recompenses 
to  such  persons  as  should  advance  the 
sum  of  £1,500,000  toward  carrying  on 
the  war  against  France.  Subscribers  to 
the  loan  became,  under  the  act,  stock- 
holders, to  the  amount  of  their  respective 
subscriptions,  in  the  capital  stock  of  a 
corporation,  denominated  the  Governor 
and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  England. 
The  company  thus  formed  advanced  to 
the  government  £1,200,000  at  an  interest 
of  8  per  cent. — the  government  making 
an  additional  bonus  or  allowance  to  the 
bank  of  £4,000  annually  for  the  manage- 
ment of  this  loan  (which,  in  fact,  con- 
stituted the  capital  of  the  bank) ,  and  for 
settling  the  interest  and  making  trans- 
fers, etc.,  among  the  various  stockholders. 
This  bank,  like  that  of  Venice,  was  thus 
originally  an  engine  of  the  p^overnment, 
and  not  a  mere  commercial  establishment. 
Its  capital  had  been  added  to  from  time 
to  time,  the  original  capital  of  £1,200,000 
having  increased  to  £14,553,000,  in  1816, 
since  which  no  further  augmentation  has 
taken  place.  There  exists  besides,  how- 
ever, a  variable  "rest"  of  over  £3,000,000. 
The  issue  department  of  the  bank  was 
established  as  distinct  from  the  general 
banking  department,  the  sole  business  in- 
trusted to  the  former  being  the  issue  of 
notes.  The  bank  is  now  permitted  to 
issue  notes  against  securities  to  the 
amount  of  £18,450,000,  but  for  every  note 
that  the  issue  department  may  issue  be- 
yond this  total  an  equivalent  amount  of 
coin  or  bullion  must  be  paid  into  the 
coffers  of  the  bank.  The  Bank  of  Eng- 
land notes  are,  therefore,  really  equiva- 
lent to,  and  at  any  time  convertible  into, 
gold.  At  the  end  of  1919  the  total  of 
notes  issued  was  £108,748,000.  Notes 
once  issued  by  the  bank  and  returned 
to  it  are  not  reissued  but  are  destroyed — 
a  system  adopted  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  keeping  of  an  account  of  the  numbers 
of  the  notes  in  circulation,  and  so  pre- 
vent forgery. 

The  total  deposits  and  post  bills  of  the 
banking  department  at  the  end  of  1919 
was  £199,862,000. 


The  management  of  the  bank  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  governor,  deputy-governor 
and  24  directors,  elected  by  stockholders 
who  have  held  £500  of  stock  for  six 
months  previous  to  the  election.  A  direc- 
tor is  required  to  hold  £2,000,  a  deputy- 
governor  £3,000,  and  a  governor  £4,000 
of  the  stock. 

Other  English  Banks. — The  other  Eng- 
lish banks  consist  of  numerous  joint 
stock  and  private  banks  in  London  and 
the  provinces,  many  of  the  provincial  es- 
tablishments of  both  kinds  having  the 
right  to  issue  notes.  Private  banks  in 
London  with  not  more  than  six  partners 
have  never  been  prevented  from  issuing 
notes,  but  they  could  not  profitably  com- 
pete with  the  Bank  of  England.  The 
maximum  issues  of  the  provincial  banks 
are  limited  to  a  certain  amount  against 
which  they  are  not  compelled  to  hold  gold 
in  reserve,  and  they  have  no  power  to 
issue  against  specie  in  excess  of  the  fixed 
circulation.  Their  actual  issues  are  con- 
siderably below  this  amount. 

In  Scotland  there  are  no  private  banks, 
the  only  banks  in  that  portion  of  the 
United  Kingdom  being  the  Bank  of  Scot- 
land (1695),  the  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland 
(1727),  the  British  Linen  Company 
(1746),  and  10  other  joint-stock  banks 
of  issue,  with  many  branches.  By  the 
act  of  1845  new  banks  of  issue  were  pro- 
hibited, a  monopoly  being  given  to  such 
establishments  as  existed  in  the  year  pre- 
vious to  May  1,  1845.  At  the  same  time 
the  issue  of  each  was  limited  to  the 
amount  of  its  average  circulation  during 
that  year,  together  with  the  specie  held 
at  the  head  office.  Any  bank  issuing 
notes  in  excess  of  this  limit  is  supposed 
to  hold  an  equivalent  amount  in  gold. 

The  banks  in  Ireland  consist  of  one 
public  or  National  bank,  the  Bank  of 
Ireland,  8  joint-stock  and  several  private 
banks.  The  authorized  note  circulation 
is  arranged  on  the  same  footing  as  that 
of  the  Scotch  banks.  If  any  bank  dis- 
continues its  issue  and  issues  notes  of 
the  Bank  of  Ireland,  the  circulation  of 
the  latter  may  be,  to  an  equal  amount, 
increased. 

In  Canada  the  banks  are  not  allowed  to 
issue  notes  of  lower  denominations  than 
$5,  notes  for  small  amounts  up  to  $4  be- 
ing issued  by  the  Dominion  Government; 
and  the  banking  laws  are  such  that  there 
is  no  possibility  of  holders  of  bank-notes 
being  losers  by  them. 

Bank  of  France. — Of  all  other  banks, 
the  Bank  of  France  is  second  in  impor- 
tance only  to  the  Bank  of  England.  It 
was  established  in  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century,  at  first  with  a  capital  of 
45,000,000  francs,  and  with  the  exclusive 
privilege  in  Paris  of  issuing  notes  pay- 


BANK 


407 


BANK  NOTE 


able  to  bearer,  a  privilege  which  was  ex- 
tended in  1848  to  cover  the  whole  of 
France.  It  has  numerous  branches  in 
the  larger  towns.  The  government  ap- 
points the  governor  and  two  deputy  gov- 
ernors, who  are  all  required  to  be  stock- 
holders. There  is  also  a  body  of  15  di- 
rectors and  3  censors,  nominated  by  the 
shareholders.  The  capital  of  the  Bank  of 
France  is  fixed  at  182,500,000  francs. 
The  value  of  its  note  circulation  in  1920 
was  38,355,755,000  francs. 

Detailed  information  regarding  banks 
in  other  countries  will  be  found  in  the 
separate  articles  on  the  respective  coun- 
tries. For  banks  in  the  United  States 
see  Banks,  Federal  Reserve;  Banks  in 
THE  United  States. 

Banks  for  Savings. — Savings  banks  are 
banks  established  for  the  reception  of 
small  sums  so  as  to  be  taken  advantage 
of  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  they  are 
carried  on  entirely  for  behoof  of  the  de- 
positors. One  of  the  earliest  was  an  in- 
stitution in  which  small  sums  were  re- 
ceived and  interest  allowed  on  them, 
established  by  Mrs.  Priscilla  Wakefield, 
at  Tottenham,  near  London,  in  1803.  The 
first  savings  bank  in  Scotland  was 
formed  in  1810  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Dun- 
can, of  Ruthwell,  Dumfriesshire.  In  1814 
the  Edinburgh  Savings  Bank  was  estab- 
lished on  the  same  principles,  and  the 
system  soon  spread  over  the  kingdom. 
The  first  act  relating  to  savings  banks 
was  passed  in  1817.  By  it  all  deposits  in 
savings  banks,  as  soon  as  they  reached 
£50,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Na- 
tional Debt  Commissioners,  who  allowed 
interest  on  them.  In  1824  it  was  enacted 
that  the  deposits  for  the  first  year  should 
not  exceed  £50,  nor  those  in  subsequent 
years  £30,  the  total  deposits  being  lim- 
ited to  £150;  also,  that  no  more  interest 
should  be  paid  when  the  deposits,  with 
compound  interest  accruing  on  them, 
standing  in  the  name  of  one  individual, 
should  amount  to  £200,  This  enactment 
is  still  in  force.  Postoffice  savings  banks 
were  established  in  Great  Britain  in 
connection  with  the  money  order  depart- 
ment of  the  postoffice,  by  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  1861.  Any  sum  not  less 
than  a  shilling  is  received,  so  as  not  to 
exceed  £30  in  one  year,  or  more  than 
£150  in  all;  and  when  the  principal 
amounts  to  £200,  the  payment  of  interest 
is  to  cease.  Interest  is  paid  on  every 
complete  pound  at  the  rate  of  2V^  per 
cent.  For  the  deposits  the  government 
is  responsible,  and  they  may  be  drawn 
from  any  postoffice  savings  bank  in  the 
kingdom.  By  an  act  that  came  into 
operation  in  1880,  any  person  desiring 
to  invest  in  Government  stock  any  sum 
of  from  £10  to  £100,  can  do  so  through 


the  postoffice  banks  at  a  trifling  cost, 
and  obtain  the  dividend  free  of  charge. 
In  the  United  States  postal  savings 
banks  were  established  in  1911.  Sav- 
ings banks  are  now  well  known  in  all 
civilized  countries,  and  the  good  they 
have  done  is  incalculable.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  an  enormous  amount  of 
money  deposited  in  them.  School  sav- 
ings banks  are  the  most  recent  institu- 
tions of  this  kind,  and  have  had  a 
marked  effect  for  good.  See  Savings 
Banks. 

BANKHEAD,  JOHN  HOLLIS,  United 
States  Senator  from  Alabama,  born 
in  Marion  co.,  Ala.,  in  1842.  He  was 
educated  in  the  common  schools  and 
served  in  the  Civil  War,  rising  to  the 
rank  of  captain.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Alabama  House  of  Representatives 
from  1865  to  1867,  and  again  in  1880  and 
1881.  In  1876  and  1877  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  Senate.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Congress  in  1877,  serv- 
ing until  1907.  In  1906  he  was  elected 
alternate  United  States  Senator,  and  in 
1897  was  elected  Senator  to  succeed  Sen- 
ator Morgan.  He  was  re-elected  in  1911 
and  1918.  During  his  service  he  was 
a  member  of  many  important  commit- 
tees in  the  Senate,  including  the  Com- 
mission on  Public  Buildings,  Commis- 
sion on  Rivers  and  Harbors,  and  the 
Inland  Waterways  Commission.  He  was 
the  author  of  several  important  books 
relating  to  post  roads. 

BANK  NOTE,  an  engraved  certificate 
representing  its  face  value  in  specie.  In 
the  production  of  bank  notes,  the  princi- 
pal purpose  is  to  render  their  forgery 
impossible,  or  at  least  easy  of  detection. 
This  is  sought  to  be  effected  by  peculiar- 
ity of  paper,  design,  and  printing.  Bank 
of  England  notes  are  printed  in  one  of 
the  blackest  and  most  indelible  of  inks, 
on  paper  expressly  made  for  the  purpose 
by  one  firm  only.  It  is  a  handmade  paper, 
remarkable  for  its  strength,  lightness 
and  difficulty  of  imitation.  Its  peculiar 
water  mark  constitutes  one  of  the  chief 
safeguards  of  the  notes  against  forgery. 
No  Bank  of  England  notes  are  issued 
twice,  so  that  this  mark  is  rarely  indis- 
tinct, and  the  paper  does  not  lose  its 
peculiar  crispness. 

In  the  United  States,  the  bank  notes 
at  present  in  circulation  are  manufac- 
tured by  the  Government  Bureau  of  En- 
graving and  Printing,  the  paper  being 
made  by  a  private  concern,  under  a  pat- 
ented process,  the  chief  ingredients  be- 
ing a  mixture  of  linen  and  cotton  fiber, 
into  which  are  introduced  threads  of  silk, 
so  arranged  as  to  be  perceptible  after 
the   notes    are   printed.      This    style    of 


BANKRUPTCY  LAWS 


408       BANKS,    FEDERAL    RESERVE 


paper  is  furnished  only  to  the  Govern- 
ment. Superior  skill  is  exercised  in  en- 
graving the  plates,  nearly  all  parts  of 
them  being  executed  by  the  geometrical 
lathe  and  the  ruling  machine  the  work  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  imitate  success- 
fully by  hand.  The  printing  of  the  notes 
is  done  in  colored  inks  of  the  best  qual- 
ity, sometimes  as  many  as  four  shades 
being  used.  The  great  expense  of  the 
machines  used  in  the  engraving,  and  the 
superior  quality  of  the  work  generally, 
renders  successful  counterfeiting  almost 
impossible.  The  notes,  when  badly 
worn,  are  returned  to  the  United  States 
Treasury,  other  notes  being  issued  in 
their  stead. 

BANKRUPTCY  LAWS,  regulations 
passed  by  a  competent  authority  with  a 
view  to  distributing  the  property  of  an 
insolvent  equitably  among  his  creditors 
and  free  the  debtor  from  further  obliga- 
tion. In  England,  before  1841,  only  a 
tradesman  could  be  a  bankrupt.  The  dis- 
tinction was  then  abolished.  It  was  abol- 
ished in  the  United  States  in  1869.  The 
act  "to  establish  a  uniform  system  of 
bankruptcy  throughout  the  United 
States,"  was  passed  by  both  houses  of 
the  55th  Congress,  and  by  the  approval 
of  President  McKinley,  became  a  law 
on  July  1,  1898.  It  was  subsequently 
amended  in  1903,  1906,  1910,  1911,  1915, 
and  1917. 

The  provisions  under  which  a  man  can 
be  thrown  into  bankruptcy  against  his 
will  are  as  follows:  (1)  Where  a  man 
has  disposed  of  his  property  with  intent 
to  defraud.  (2)  Where  he  has  disposed 
of  his  property  to  one  or  more  creditors 
to  give  a  preference  to  them.  (3) 
Where  he  has  given  a  preference 
thi-ough  legal  proceedings.  (4)  Where 
a  man  has  made  a  voluntary  assignment 
for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors  generally. 
(5)  Where  a  man  admits  in  writing  that 
he  is  bankrupt.  The  last  two  provi- 
sions are  practically  voluntary  proceed- 
ing?. Under  the  common  law,  a  man  is 
considered  insolvent  when  he  cannot  pay 
his  debts  when  they  are  due;  under 
the  new  law,  he  is  deemed  insolvent  only 
when  his  property,  fairly  valued,  is  in- 
sufficient to  pay  his  debts.  Only  two 
offenses  are  cited  under  the  new  law: 
one  when  property  is  hidden  away  after 
proceedings  in  bankruptcy  have  been 
begun,  and  the  other  when  perjury  is 
discovered.  Discharges  are  to  be  denied 
ii  only  two  cases:  one,  in  which  either 
<  '^  the  offenses  detailed  has  been  com- 
mitted, and  the  other,  when  it  is  shown 
that  fraudulent  books  have  been  kept. 
The  term  of  imnvisonmont  for  either  of 
these  offeT^  '^^  is  not  to  exceed  two  years. 


The  law  provides  a  complete  system 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  for 
its  administration  by  the  United  States 
courts  in  place  of  the  different  systems 
formerly  in  existence  in  the  various 
States  administered  by  State  courts.  In 
bankruptcy  proceedings,  a  bankrupt 
debtor  may  turn  over  all  his  property 
to  the  court,  to  be  administered  for  the 
benefit  of  his  creditors,  and  then  get  a 
complete  discharge  from  his  debts.  A 
bankrupt  may  of  his  own  motion  offer 
to  .surrender  his  property  to  the  admin- 
istration of  the  United  States  court  and 
ask  for  his  discharge  in  voluntary  bank- 
ruptcy, or  creditors  may  apply  to  the 
court  to  compel  a  bankrupt  to  turn  over 
his  property  to  be  administered  under 
the  act  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors 
in  voluntary  bankruptcy.  The  bankrupt 
who  has  turned  over  all  his  property 
and  conformed  to  the  provisions  of  the 
act,  is  entitled  to  a  judgment  of  court 
discharging  him  from  any  future  lia- 
bility to  his  creditors. 

Provision  is  made  in  the  act  for  allow- 
ing bankrupts  to  compromise  or  settle 
with  their  creditors  by  a  proceeding 
known  as  composition  proceedings, 
whereby,  if  a  bankrupt  and  a  majority 
of  his  creditors  agree  upon  some  basis 
of  settlement,  the  same,  if  approved  by 
the  court,  shall  become  binding  upon  all 
creditors. 

BANKS,  FEDERAL  RESERVE,  the 
Federal  Reserve  system  is  primarily  a 
result  of  the  currency  disturbances  of 
1907-1908  which  were  promptly  fol- 
lowed by  the  passage  of  the  Aldrich  act 
providing  for  an  emergency  circulation 
not  to  exceed  $500,000,000.  The  condi- 
tions of  this  bill  were  so  strict,  however — 
having  been  framed  just  after  an  ex- 
treme crisis  and  suitable  only  for  such 
an  emergency — that  no  issue  was  ever 
undertaken  under  its  provisions.  It  had 
stirred  up  legislative  agitation  of  the 
subject,  however,  and  in  1910  a  commis- 
sion under  Senator  Nelson  A.  Aldrich  of 
Rhode  Island,  its  original  promulgator, 
set  seriously  to  work  on  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  banking  reform. 

This  National  Monetary  Commission 
spent  three  years  in  expert  investiga- 
tion of  banking  conditions  here  and  in 
Europe. 

Senator  Aldrich  meanwhile  offered  in 
1911  a  reorganization  plan  the  chief  fea- 
ture of  which  was  a  National  Reserve 
Association,  consisting  of  a  central 
bank — whose  stock  should  be  distributed 
to  other  banks  through  the  country— 
which  should  have  the  control  through 
the  election  of  a  majority  of  the 
directors.      Associate    or    local    systems 


BANKS,  FEDERAIi  RESERVE        409      BANKS,  FEDERAL  RESERVE 


were  to  be  formed,  also  controlled  by  the 
local  banks  which  were  members. 

This  measure  assigned  to  the  National 
Reserve  Bank — which  should  hold  a  re- 
serve from  all  the  banks,  and  rediscount 
the  paper  of  the  local  associations — 
the  function  of  controlling  the  credit  of 
the  whole  system  and  thus  limiting  local 
panics.  It  also  has  the  power  to  issue 
notes  on  general  assets  to  promote 
elasticity  of  the  currency.  It  can  also 
take  up  the  bonds  of  the  local  banks 
which  the  government  will  gradually  re- 
fund in  3  per  cent,  bonds  that  will  find 
buyers  in  the  general  market.  The  Na- 
tional Monetary  Commission  offered  a 
bill  the  year  following  which  was  essen- 
tially the  same. 

The  measure  was  taken  up  by  the 
Special  Session  of  Congress  in  1913,  and 
discussed  in  all  its  bearings  till  it  was 
finally  passed  with  some  change  on  Dec. 
23,  1913. 

Under  this  enactment  the  United 
States  is  divided  for  facilitating  the 
banking  inter-relations  of  the  country 
into  twelve  districts  whose  headquarters 
are  in  twelve  principal  cities  of  the 
country  under  the  control  of  a  Central 
Reserve  Board.  This  board  is  composed 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (ex- 
officio),  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency 
(ex-officio),  and  five  bankers  appointed 
for  terms  of  ten  years  by  the  President. 

A  Federal  Advisory  Council  is  also 
provided  for,  consisting  of  twelve  mem- 
bers, one  elected  by  each  of  the  twelve 
district  Reserve  banks,  to  confer  when 
necessary  with  the  Board. 

Each  district  bank  is  governed  by  a 
directorate,  three  of  whose  members  are 
the  appointees  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board;  the  others  appointed  by  the  bank 
itself.  Every  National  bank  is  required, 
and  every  State  bank  is  permitted,  under 
certain  conditions,  to  subscribe  to  the 
stock  of  the  Federal  Reserve  bank  in  its 
district  to  the  extent  of  6  per  cent,  of 
its  own  capital  and  surplus.  In  this  way 
the  paid-in  capital  of  the  twelve  Federal 
Reserve  banks  at  the  date  of  our  enter- 
ing the  war  with  Germany  was  about  56 
millions;  the  largest  bank,  New  York, 
having  very  close  to  twelve  millions;  the 
smallest,  Atlanta,  $2,414,000.  The  dis- 
trict banks  have  the  power  to  create 
branches  for  dealing  in  Government  and 
other  securities,  and  to  rediscount  com- 
mercial paper  for  their  associate  mem- 
bers. They  may  also  be  called  on  by 
the  Federai  Reserve  Board  to  rediscount 
paper  for  other  Federal  Reserve  banks. 

The  district  banks  are  empowered  to 
purchase  from  members  Government 
bonds  held  for  circulation,  and  take  out 


circulation  on  them.  As  an  alternative 
these  bonds  may  be  changed  to  3  per 
cent,  bonds  without  circulation.  This  pro- 
vision is  for  the  purpose  of  gradually  re- 
tiring the  note  circulation  secured  by 
bond.  Treasury  notes  made  by  the  Gov- 
ernment are  off'ered  as  a  new  circulatory 
element.  The  Federal  Reserve  bank  re- 
quiring these  must  place  rediscounted 
commercial  paper  in  the  hands  of  a 
director  who  is  designated  as  a  Federal 
Reserve  Agent.  The  circulation  of  these 
notes  is  guaranteed  by  the  bank  of  a 
reserve  in  gold  of  40  per  cent,  of  their 
face  value. 

The  system  is  divided  into  three 
classes :  Central-reserve  cities,  where  the 
total  reserves  are  required  to  be  18  per 
cent,  of  demand  liabilities  and  5  per  cent, 
of  time  deposits;  reserve  cities,  where 
the  reserves  are  required  to  be  15  per 
cent,  and  5  per  cent.;  and  other  banking 
centers  where  they  must  be  12  per  cent, 
and  5  per  cent.  For  two  years  after 
the  law  was  passed  the  latter  class  was 
required  to  hold  five-twelfths  of  its  re- 
serve in  its  own  vaults;  thereafter  four- 
twelfths.  The  remainder  of  the  reserves 
of  the  banks  in  the  reserve  cities  were 
to  be  gradually  withdrawn  until  five- 
twelfths  had  been  so  redeposited,  and  by 
the  end  of  the  third  year  the  entire  re- 
serve must  be  held  either  in  the  banks' 
vaults  or  by  the  Federal  Reserve  bank- 
The  reserves  of  reserve,  and  Central-re- 
serve cities  must  be  similarly  readjusted 
until,  in  the  former  case,  five-fifteenths 
are  held  in  the  banks'  vaults,  and  six- 
fifteenths  in  the  Federal  Reserve  bank — • 
in  the  latter  case,  six-eighteenths  and 
seven-eighteenths,  respectively.  At  the 
end  of  a  period  of  three  years  the  un- 
assigned  reserve  shall  be  either  in  the 
banks'  own  vaults  or  the  Federal  Reserve 
bank. 

The  Federal  Reserve  banks  are  not 
chartered  primarily  for  profit.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  is 
owned  by  the  member  banks,  subject  to 
a  cumulative  dividend  of  6  per  cent. 
Profits  in  excess  of  this  revert  to  the 
Government,  with  the  provision  that  one- 
half  of  these  excess  profits  shall  be 
diverted  to  the  creation  of  a  surplus  fund 
for  the  Federal  Reserve  bank  until  the 
fund  shall  have  reached  40  per  cent,  of 
the  capital  of  that  bank.  Primarily  the 
duty  of  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  is  to 
act  as  the  custodian  and  guardian  of 
the  bank  reserves  of  their  member  banks. 
Next  is  their  duty  to  render  a  service  to 
their  member  banks,  and  through  them 
in  turn  to  the  general  public  in  equaliz- 
ing and   stabilizing  interest   rates. 

The  Federal  Reserve  banks  came  into 
being  in  November,  1914,  and  notwith- 


SANES 


410    BANKS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Btanding  that  American  bankers  had 
gained  through  five  years  of  discussion  a 
better  understanding  of  the  deplorable 
defects  in  the  American  banking  and  cur- 
rency system,  the  managers  of  the  new 
Federal  Reserve  banks  found  that  the 
welcome  accorded  them  by  the  banks  of 
the  country  at  large  was  cool.  This  was 
because  they  did  not  really  understand 
the  new  regime.  The  breaking  out  of  the 
Great  War  was  the  immediate  influence 
in  their  organization — requiring  as  it  did 
the  best  linking  talent  and  machinery 
in  the  countiy.  The  immense  imports  of 
gold  from  abroad  following  the  outbreak 
of  the  war,  and  the  general  prosperity 
stimulated  by  war  profits  kept  the  sys- 
tem at  once  from  proving  its  great  value 
For  three  years,  from  its  formation 
up  to  our  own  entry  into  the  struggle,  in 
April,  1917,  it  was,  however,  gradually 
finding  itself.  When  this  great  test  came 
the  Federal  Reserve  banks  were  pre- 
pared for  its  great  responsibilities.  Dur- 
ing the  first  year  of  war  the  system  took 
a  high  place  in  the  confidence  and  esteem 
of  both  bankers  and  business  men. 

BANKS,  LOUIS  ALBERT,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman  and  writer,  born  at  Cor- 
vallis,  Ore.,  in  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
Philomath  College  and  Boston  Univer- 
sity, and  he  entered  the  Methodist  min- 
istry in  1879.  After  several  years  as 
pastor  in  Kansas  City  he  engaged  in 
evangelistic  work  in  1911.  In  1893  he 
was  Prohibition  candidate  for  governor 
of  Massachusetts.  He  was  the  author  of 
many  books  on  religious  subjects,  includ- 
ing "Windows  for  Sermons"  (1902) ; 
"The  Great  Portraits  of  the  Bible" 
(1903) ;  "The  Religious  Life  of  Famous 
Americans"  (1902);  "The  Problems  of 
Youth"  (1909) ;  "A  Summer  in  Peter's 
Garden"  (1913) ;  "Ammunition  for  the 
Final  Drive  on  Booze"  (1917). 

BANKS,  NATHANIEL  PRENTISS, 
an  American  legislator  and  soldier,  born 
in  Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan.  30,  1816.  At 
first  a  factory  worker,  he  studied  law, 
and  became  successively  a  member  of  the 
State  and  National  Legislatures.  He  was 
Speaker  of  Congress  in  1856,  and  in 
1857,  1859,  and  1861  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  his  native  State.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War,  he  took  a  com- 
mand in  the  army,  at  first  on  the  Po- 
tomac, then  at  New  Orleans,  and  finally 
on  the  Red  River.  Relieved  of  his  com- 
mand in  1864,  he  re-entered  Congress, 
voting  mainly  with  the  Republican  party. 
He  died  in  Waltham,  Sept.  1,  1894. 

BANKS,  THOMAS,  an  English  sculp- 
tor, born  in  1735.  He  studied  sculpture 
in    the    Royal    Academy,    and    in    Italy, 


where  he  executed  several  excellent 
pieces,  particularly  a  bas-relief  rep- 
resenting Caractacus  brought  prisoner 
to  Rome,  and  a  Cupid  catching  a  butter- 
fly, the  latter  work  being  afterward 
purchased  by  the  Empress  Catharine. 
Among  his  other  works  was  a  colossal 
statue  of  "Achilles  Mourning  the  Loss  of 
Briseis,"  in  the  hall  of  the  British  In- 
stitution, and  the  monument  of  Sir  Eyre 
Coote,  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  died 
in  1805. 

BANKS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
financial  institutions  comprising  (1)  Na- 
tional banks;  (2)  State  banks;  and  (3) 
savings  banks,  consisting  of  (a)  mutual 
savings  banks;  and  (b)  stock  savings 
banks.  These  are  general  throughout 
the  entire  country.  In  addition  to  these, 
are  (1)  co-operative  banks,  common  in 
New  England,  especially  Massachusetts; 

(2)  loan  and  trust  companies,  estab- 
lished in  nearly  all  the  large  cities;  and 

(3)  building  and  loan  associations,  now 
represented  in  most  of  the  States  and 
Territories.  The  last  three  classes  par- 
take of  some  of  the  features  of  regular 
banking,  especially  in  the  reception  of 
money  on  deposit,  subject  to  call,  and  the 
payment  of  interest  thereon.  The  first 
three  kinds  of  banks  only  are  here  con- 
sidered; the  others  will  be  found  under 
their  respective  titles. 

National  Banks. — There  were  on  No- 
vember 17,  1919,  19,129,842  depositors 
in  National  banks.  These  figures  show 
that  the  depositors  in  the  National  banks 
of  the  country  exceed  in  number  one- 
sixth  of  the  total  number  of  the  popula- 
tion in  that  year.  The  number  of  deposi- 
tors increased  from  1910  to  1919  11,439,- 
374,  or  148.75  per  cent. 

On  June  30,  1919,  there  were  21,338 
State  banking  institutions  which  in- 
cluded savings  banks,  private  banks,  and 
trust  companies.  The  aggregate  paid  in 
stock  in  these  institutions  amounted  to  a 
combined  capital  of  $1,318,716,000  and 
the  total  resources  to  $26,380,529,000. 
The  deposits  amounted  to  $21,744,046,000. 

The  State  banks  numbered  17,225  with 
a  combined  capital  of  $785,727,000  and 
aggregate  resources  of  $11,701,606,000. 
The  deposits  amounted  to  $9,046,919,000. 
There  were  622  mutual  and  1,097  stock 
savings  banks  in  1919.  The  deposits  in 
the  mutual  banks  amounted  to  $4,422,- 
096,000  with  9,011,464  depositors.  In  the 
same  year  there  were  1,377  loan  and 
trust  companies  with  resources  amount- 
ing to  $7,959,969,000  and  deposits 
amounting  to  $5,696,030,000.  There 
are  approximately  3,500  private  banks 
in  the  United  States,  of  which  only 
about  1,000  are  under  supervision  of  the 


BANKS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES    411     BANKS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


State  or  National  banking  departments. 
The  deposits  in  these  banks  amounted 
to  $219,830,000.  See  Postal  Savings 
Banks;  Banks,  Federal  Reserve-  Sav- 
ings Banks;  etc. 

The   following   tables,   compiled   from 


The  charters  were  sometimes  fraudu- 
lently obtained  and  currency  issued  to 
three  times  the  amount  of  their  capital, 
and,  in  1814,  1837,  and  1857,  many  of 
them  suspended  payment.  A  reform 
movement  in  bank  currency  was  inaugxi- 


the   report   of   the    Comptroller    of   the  rated  in  Massachusetts  in  1825,  and   a 

Currency    (Dec.    1,    1919)     give   a   com-  "safety-fund"    system,   recommeAded    by 

prehensiye  view  of  the  development  of  Mr.   Van   Buren,   adopted   in    1829      In 

the  National  banking  system  in  recent  1838  the  Free  Bank  Act  passed  the  New 

y®^^^-  York  Legislature,  which  authorized  any 

GROWTH    OP    national    BANKS    BY    FIVE-YEAR    PERIODS 
[In  thousands  of  dollars] 


Number 
of  banks 


Sept.  7,  1899 
Sept.  6,  1904 
Sept.  1,  1909 
Sept.  12,  1914 
Nov.   17,  1919 


Date 


Sept.  7,1899. 
Sept.  6,1904. 
Sept.  1,1909. 
Sept.  12,  1914. 
Nov.   17,  1919. 


3,595 
5,412 
6,977 
7,538 
7,865 


Number 
of  banks 


3,595 
5,412 
6,977 
7,538 
7,865 


Total 
deposits 


$3,459,611 
5,131,210 
7,079,570 
8,187,569 

17,467,853 


Capital 


$605,773 

770,778 

944,642 

1,060,332 

1,153,752 


Loans  and 
discounts  1 


$2,496,751 
3,726,151 
5,128,882 
6,400,767 

12,240,718 


$350,516 

583,137 

801,738 

1,011,483 

1,340,300 


Reserve 
held 


Circulation 


$200,346 
411,231 
658,040 
918.270 
680.879 


Excess 
reserves 


$259,780 

334,678 

346.886 

116,955 

59,562 


Total 
resources 


$4,650,355 » 

6,975,087' 

9,573,954' 

11,483,529> 

22,444.992 


'  Includes    rediscounts. 

2  Includes  cash  on  hand  and  due  from  reserve  agents. 

3  Besides  the  $1,262,339,000  carried  with  reserve  banks  on  Nov.  17,  1919,  the  member  national 
banks  held  on  that  date  cash  in  vaults  amounting  to  $450,041,000  and  had  $2,443,599,000  due 
from  other  banks. 


History. — The  first  bank  in  the  United 
States  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in 
1780,  and  a  bank  of  North  America  was 
planned  in  1781  and  opened  in  1782.  The 
Massachusetts  Bank  was  incorporated  in 
1784;  that  of  New  York  was  chartered 
in  1791,  although  since  1784,  under  Alex- 
ander Hamilton's  "Articles  of  Associ- 
ation," it  had  been  doing  business.  Alex- 
ander Hamilton  also  originated  a  plan 
for  a  United  States  bank,  with  a  capital 
of  $10,000,000,  three-fourths  to  be  paid 
in  United  States  stock,  at  6  per  cent., 
which  plan  was  adopted  and  approved  by 
Washington  in  1791.  The  bank  was  re- 
organized in  1816  with  a  capital  of  $35,- 
000.000,  the  United  States  subscribing 
$7,000,000,  with  interest  at  6  per  cent., 
but  in  consequence  of  a  general  financial 
depression,  was,  the  next  year,  in  great 
danger  of  failure.  Congress  refusing  to 
renew  the  charter,  a  State  bank,  called 
the  United  States  Bank,  was  chartered 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  eventually  failing, 
the  whole  account  was  settled  in  1856. 
The  $28,000,000  deposited  by  sharehold- 
ers was  totally  lost,  while  the  Govern- 
ment realized  $6,093,167  upon  its  invest- 
ments of  stock.  State  banks  were  after- 
ward chartered  in  the  interest  of  indi- 
viduals  and   dominant  political   parties. 


number  of  persons  to  form  a  banking 
association,  subject  to  certain  specified 
conditions  and  liabilities. 

On  Feb.  25,  1863,  the  National  banking 
system  was  organized,  but  the  act  estab- 
lishing it  was  modified  by  that  of  June 
3,  1864.  This  provided  for  a  National 
Bank  Bureau  in  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, whose  chief  officer  is  the  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency.  Under  it  Na- 
tional banks,  could  be  organized  by  any 
number  of  individuals,  not  less  than  five, 
the  capital  to  be  not  less  than  $100,000 
except  in  cities  of  a  population  not  ex- 
ceeding 6,000;  in  these  banks  could  be  es- 
tablished with  a  capital  of  not  less  than 
$50,000.  In  cities  having  a  population 
of  50,000  the  capital  stock  could  not  be 
less  than  $100,000.  One-third  of  the 
capital  was  required  to  be  invested  in 
United  States  bonds,  which  were  de- 
posited in  the  Treasury  for  security, 
upon  which  notes  were  issued  equal  in 
amount  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  current 
market  value,  but  not  exceeding  90  per 
cent,  of  the  par  value;  and  these  notes 
were  receivable  at  par  in  the  United 
States  for  all  payments  to  and  from  the 
Government,  except  for  duties  on  im- 
ports, interest  on  the  public  debt,  and  in 
redemption  of  the  national  currency.  On 


BANKS  LAND 


412 


BANTOCK 


March  3,  1865,  an  act  was  passed  by 
which  the  circulation  of  the  State  banks 
was  taxed  10  per  cent.,  which  drove  their 
notes  out  of  existence.  The  original  act 
N  authorized  the  issue  of  $300,000,000  of 
circulation;  that  of  May  12,  1870,  in- 
creased it  to  $354,000,000. 

The  act  of  Jan.  14,  1875,  authorized 
the  unlimited  issue  of  circulating  notes, 
subject  to  the  terms  of  the  law,  but  made 
it  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury to  retire  legal  tender  notes  to  the 
extent  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  additional 
circulating  notes  until  the  legal  tender 
notes  should  be  reduced  to  $300,000,000. 
The  banks  were  required  to  pay  annually 
1  per  cent,  tax  on  their  circulation,  and 
^  per  cent,  on  their  average  deposits 
and  on  their  average  capital  not  invested 
in  United  States  bonds.  By  act  passed 
March  3,  1883,  the  taxes  on  capital  and 
deposits  of  banks,  bankers  and  National 
banking  associations,  except  such  as  were 
already  due  and  payable,  were  repealed, 
and  also  the  stamp  tax  on  bank  checks, 
drafts,  orders,  and  vouchers  after  July 
1,  1883.  The  original  act  of  Feb.  25, 
1863,  limited  the  period  of  existence  of 
the  National  banks  to  20  years;  but,  on 
July  10,  1882,  an  act  was  passed,  ap- 
proved by  the  President  July  12,  which 
provided  for  the  extension  of  the  cor- 
porate existence  of  all  National  banks 
upon  compliance  with  certain  conditions, 
for  20  years.  Many  of  the  banks  took 
advantage  of  the  law,  and  reorganized 
under  the  act,  though  some  of  them 
under  a  different  name.  By  the  act  of 
June  3,  1864,  each  association  was  en- 
titled to  an  existence  of  20  years  from 
date  of  organization.  The  War  Rev- 
enue Act  of  1898  imposed  a  stamp  tax  of 
two  cents  on  every  bank  check. 

Currency  Act  of  1900. — On  March  14, 
1900,  President  McKinley  approved  a 
new  currency  act,  which,  among  other 
things,  established  the  gold  dollar  as  the 
standard  unit  of  value,  and  placed  at  a 
parity  with  that  standard  all  forms  of 
money  issued  or  coined  by  the  United 
States.  The  bill  also  made  a  number  of 
important  changes  in  the  regulations 
governing  National  banks.  The  law  per- 
mitted National  banks,  with  $25,000  capi- 
tal, to  be  organized  in  places  of  8,000  in- 
habitants or  less,  whereas  the  mini- 
mum capital  previously  was  $50,000. 
It  also  permitted  banks  to  issue  circula- 
tion on  all  classes  of  bonds  deposited 
up  to  the  par  value  of  the  bonds  in- 
stead of  90  per  cent,  of  their  face,  as 
before. 

BANKS  LAND,  an  island  in  the  W. 
of  Arctic  America,  discovered  by  Parry 
in    1819,   explored   by   Maclure   in    1850, 


and  named  by  him  Baring  Island.  It 
is  separated  by  Banks  Strait  from  Mel- 
ville Island,  lying  to  the  N.  W.,  and  by 
Prince  of  Wales  Strait  from  Prince 
Albert  Land,  lying  eastward. 

BANN,  two  rivers  in  the  N.  E.  of 
Ireland — the  Upper  Bann,  flowing  into, 
and  the  Lower  Bann,  out  of.  Lough 
Neagh.  The  Upper  Bann  rises  in  the 
Mourne  Mountains,  and  runs  25  miles 
N.  N.  W.  through  the  counties  of  Down 
and  Armagh,  The  Lower  Bann, 
strictly  the  continuation  of  the  Upper, 
issues  from  the  N.  W.  corner  of  Lough 
Neagh,  and  flows  40  miles  N,  N.  W., 
through  Lough  Beg,  dividing  the  coun- 
ties of  Antrim  and  Londonderry.  It 
runs  past  Coleraine,  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  has  important  salmon  and 
eel  fisheries. 

BANNOCKBURN,  a  village  of  Stir- 
lingshire, Scotland,  3  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Stirling,  on  the  Bannock  Burn,  a  little 
affluent  of  the  Forth.  It  is  an  important 
seat  of  the  woolen  manufactures,  espe- 
cially of  carpets  and  tartans.  Tan- 
ning is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and 
the  neighboring  villages  are  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  nails;  while  coal 
abounds  in  the  vicinity.  In  the  great 
battle  of  Bannockburn,  fought  on  June 
24,  1314,  Robert  Bruce,  with  30,000 
Scotch,  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
Edward  II.,  with  100,000  English,  and 
secured  his  throne  and  the  independence 
of  Scotland. 

BANQUETTE  (bang-kef),  in  for- 
tification, the  elevation  of  earth  behind 
a  parapet,  on  which  the  garrison  of  de- 
fenders may  stand. 

BANTOCK,  GRANVILLE,  an  English 
composer  and  conductor  of  music,  born 
in  London  in  1868.  He  studied  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  where  he  won 
the  Macfarren  Prize  in  his  first  year 
in  1889,  From  1893  to  1896  he  was 
editor  of  "The  New  Quarterly  Musical 
Review."  In  the  latter  year  he  became 
conductor  of  G.  Edwardes'  opera  com- 
pany. In  the  following  year  he  was 
appointed  municipal  director  of  music 
at  New  Brighton,  where  he  established 
an  orchestra  and  choral  society  which, 
from  the  excellence  of  its  performances, 
attracted  wide  attention.  He  was  con- 
ductor of  the  Liverpool  Orchestral 
Association  in  1903,  and  in  1908  was 
appointed  professor  of  music  in  Bir- 
mingham University,  He  was  a  prolific 
producer  of  operas  and  other  music.  His 
special  interest  and  attention  were  given 
to  English  music.  His  best  known 
operas  are  "The  Pearl  of  Iran"  (1896) ; 


d 


BANTRY  BAY 


413 


BAPTISM 


and  the  symphonic  poems,  "Dante" 
(1902);  "The  Fire  Worshippers" 
(1892);    and   "Saul"    (1907). 

BANTRY  BAY,  a  deep  inlet  in  the  S. 
W.  extremity  of  Ireland,  in  County 
Cork.  It  is  25  miles  long,  running  E. 
N.  E.  with  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  miles.  At 
the  head  of  the  bay  is  the  seaport  Ban- 
try,  a  famous  summer  resort.  Fop. 
about  3,500.  It  is  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  Europe,  affording  safe  and 
commodious  anchorage  for  ships  of  all 
sizes.  Here  a  French  force  attempted 
to  land  in  1796.  The  coast  around  is 
rocky  and  high. 

BANTtr,  the  ethnological  name  of  a 
group  of  African  races  dwelling  about 
6°  N.  lat.,  and  including  the  Kaffirs, 
Zulus,  Bechuanas,  the  tribes  of  the 
Loango,  Kongo,  etc.,  but  not  the  Hot- 
tentots. The  term  Bantu  is  also  used 
to  denote  the  homogeneous  family  of 
languages  spoken  in  Africa  throughout 
the  vast  region  lying  between  Kamerun, 
Zanzibar,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Hottentot, 
Bushmen,  and  Pigmy  enclaves. 

BANYAN  TREE,  the  ficus  indica,  a 
species  of  the  genus  ficus.  It  is  regarded 
as  a  sacred  tree  by  the  Hindus.  Its 
branches  produce  long  shoots  or  aerial 
roots,  which  descend  to  the  ground  and 
penetrate  the  soil;  so  that,  in  course  of 
time,  a  single  tree  becomes  a  vast  um- 
brageous tent,  supported  by  numerous 
columns. 

The  fruit  of  the  banyan  is  of  a  rich 
scarlet  color,  and  about  the  size  of  a 
cherry;  it  is  eaten  by  the  monkeys,  which 
live  with  birds  and  enormous  bats  in 
the  thick  forest  of  branches.  The  bark 
is  a  powerful  tonic.  The  white  glutinous 
juice  of  the  tree  is  used  to  relieve  tooth- 
ache, as  an  application  to  the  soles  of 
the  feet  when  inflamed,  and  for  making 
birdlime.  Ficus  elastica,  which  is  also 
a  native  of  India,  yields  an  inferior 
kind  of  caoutchouc.  Fictis  sycamorvs, 
the  sycamore  fig,  is  said  to  have  yielded 
the  wood  from  which  mummy-cases  were 
made. 

BAOBAB,  a  tree  also  styled  the 
monkey-bread,  African  calabash,  or 
Ethiopian  sour^ourd  tree.  It  has  a 
fantastic  look,  its  stem  being  of  little 
height,  but  of  great  thickness;  one 
specimen  was  found  30  feet  in  diameter. 
The  fruit  is  about  10  inches  long.  Ex- 
ternally it  is  downy;  within  this  down 
is  a  hard,  woody  rind,  containing  an 
eatable  pulp,  of  slightly  acid  taste.  The 
juice  mixed  with  sugar  is  serviceable  in 
putrid     and     pestilential    fevers.       The 


adansonia  is  properly  a  native  of  Africa. 
but  it  has  been  introduced  into  India.  It 
is  known  as  Adansonia  digitata,  being 
so  named  after  Adanson,  a  celebrated 
French  traveler,  who  lived  from  1749 
to  1754  in  Senegal.  The  tree  is  liable 
to  be  attacked  by  a  fungus  which, 
vegetating  in  the  woody  part,  renders 
it  soft  and  pithlike.  By  the  negroes  of 
the  W.  coast  these  trunks  are  hollowed 
into  chambers,  and  dead  bodies  are  sus- 
pended in  them. 

BAPAUME  (ba-pom'),  a  French  town 
in  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  12 
miles  S.  of  Arras,  Here,  on  Jan.  2  and 
3,  1871,  took  place  two  bloody  struggles 
between  the  French  Army  of  the  North 
and  the  Prussian  "army  of  observation"; 
the  French  were  defeated,  with  heavy 
losses.  It  was  again  the  scene  of  much 
and  very  heavy  fighting  during  the 
World  War  (1914-1918)  and  changed 
hands  several  times.  As  a  result  the 
largest  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed. 
See  Arras,  Battles  of. 

BAPTISM  (from  the  Greek  baptizo, 
from  bapto,  to  immerse  or  dip),  a  rite 
which  is  generally  thought  to  have  been 
usual  with  the  Jews  even  before  Christ, 
being  administered  to  proselytes.  From 
this  baptism,  however,  that  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist  differed,  because  he  baptized 
Jews  also  as  a  symbol  of  the  necessity 
of  perfect  purification  from  sin.  Christ 
himself  never  baptized,  but  directed  his 
disciples  to  administer  this  rite  to  con- 
verts (Matt,  xxviii;  19);  and  baptism, 
therefore,  became  a  religious  ceremony 
among  (Christians,  taking  rank  as  a 
sacrament  with  all  sects  which  acknowl- 
edge sacraments.  In  the  primitive 
Church  the  person  to  be  baptized  was 
dipped  in  a  river  or  in  a  vessel,  with  the 
words  which  Christ  had  ordered,  gener- 
ally adopting  a  new  name  to  further 
express  the  change.  Sprinkling,  or,  as 
it  was  termed,  clinic  baptism,  was  used 
only  in  the  case  of  the  sick  who  could 
not  leave  their  beds.  The  Greek  Church 
and  Eastern  schismatics  retained  the 
custom  of  immersion;  but  the  Western 
Church  adopted  or  allowed  the  mode  of 
baptism  by  pouring  or  sprinkling,  since 
continued  by  most  Protestants.  This 
practice  can  be  traced  back  certainly 
to  the  3d  century,  before  which  its  exist- 
ence is  disputed.  Since  the  Reformation 
there  have  been  various  Protestant  sects 
called  Baptists,  holding  that  baptism 
should  be  administered  only  by  immer- 
sion, and  to  those  who  can  make  a  per- 
sonal profession  of  faith.  The  Mon- 
tanists  in  Africa  baptized  even  the  dead, 
and  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  the 
practice    of    baptizing    church    bells — a 


BAPTISTS 


414 


BAPTISTS 


custom  of  10th  century  origin — continues 
to  this  day.  Being  an  initiatory  rite, 
baptism  is  only  administered  once  to 
the  same  person.  The  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholics  consecrate  the  water  of  bap- 
tism, but  Protestants  do  not.  The  act 
of  baptism  is  accompanied  only  with  the 
formula  that  the  person  is  baptized  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost;  but,  among  most  Christians,  it 
is  preceded  by  a  confession  of  faith 
made  by  the  person  to  be  baptized,  if 
an  adult,  and  by  his  parents  or  sponsors 
if  he  be  a  child.  The  Roman  Catholic 
form  of  baptism  is  far  more  elaborate 
than  the  Protestant.  This  church  teaches 
that  all  persons  not  baptized  are 
damned,  even  unbaptized  infants  are  not 
admitted  into  heaven;  but  for  those  with 
whom  the  absence  of  baptism  was  the 
chief  fault,  even  St.  Augustine  himself 
believed  in  a  species  of  mitigated  dam- 
nation. Protestants  hold  that  though 
the  neglect  of  the  sacrament  is  a  sin, 
yet  the  saving  new  birth  may  be  found 
without  the  performance  of  the  rite 
which  symbolizes  it.  Naming  the  person 
baptized  forms  no  essential  part  of  the 
ceremony,  but  has  become  almost  uni- 
versal, probably  from  the  ancient  custom 
of  renaming  the  catechumen. 

BAPTISTS,  a  Protestant  denomination 
based  on  the  belief  that  immersion  is 
the  only  Scriptural  mode  of  baptism, 
and  that  those  only  are  proper  subjects 
for  this  ceremony  who  are  converted 
and  profess  personal  faith  in  Christ. 
They  thus  reject  both  infant  baptism 
and  baptism  by  sprinkling  or  pouring 
of  water  as  invalid.  There  are,  however, 
other  sects,  including  the  Mennonites, 
the  Christians,  the  Disciples  of  Christ, 
etc.,  who  accept  the  prominent  prin- 
ciples of  the  Baptists  in  whole  or  in 
part,  and  yet  are  not  classified  with 
them,  owing  to  some  minor  differences. 
The  Baptists  first  appeared  in  Swit- 
zerland, in  1523,  and  soon  spread  to 
Germany,  Holland,  and  other  continental 
countries,  whence  they  were  driven  to 
England  by  persecution  on  account  of 
their  rejection  of  infant  baptism.  The 
first  regularly  organized  church  was 
Arminian,  and  was  established  in  1610 
or  1611.  A  Calvinistic  Baptist  Church 
was  founded  about  1633.  Those  holding 
Arminian  views  received  the  name  of 
General  Baptists,  and  those  holding 
Calvinistic  views,  the  name  of  Particular 
Baptists. 

The  Baptists  in  the  United  States 
spring  historically  from  the  English  and 
Welsh  Baptists;  but  the  first  Baptist 
Church  was  organized  by  Roger  Wil- 
liams,   who     was    a    minister    in     the 


Massachusetts  Colony  previous  to  his 
immersion.  After  being  immersed,  in 
1639,  by  Ezekiel  HoUiman,  whom  he  in 
turn  immersed  with  10  others,  he 
organized  a  Baptist  Church  in  Pro'.i* 
dence,  R.  I.  There  were  other  Baptists^ 
however,  who  emigrated  from  England 
in  the  17th  century,  and,  before  the  end 
of  the  18th  century,  became  numerous 
in  New  England,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia,  Georgia,  and  other 
States.  In  all  the  British  colonies,  ex- 
cepting Rhode  Island,  the  Baptists 
were  persecuted  for  a  long  time.  After 
the  Revolutionary  War  the  Baptists 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  espe- 
cially in  the  South  and  southwestern 
States,  and  have  steadily  increased  ever 
since. 

There  are  at  present  three  principal 
bodies  of  Regular  Baptists,  the  Northern, 
the  Southern,  and  the  Colored,  all  of 
whom  agree  in  doctrinal  and  ecclesias- 
tical principles,  but  each  has  its  own 
associations,  State  Conventions  and 
general  missionary  and  other  associa- 
tions. In  1845  a  controversy  concern- 
ing slavery,  caused  a  division  between 
the  Baptists  in  the  Northern  and  those 
in  the  Southern  States,  after  which  the 
Northern  Baptists  continued  to  support 
the  Home  Mission  Society  and  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  on 
an  anti-slavery  basis.  The  Southern 
Division  is  the  largest  branch  of  white 
Baptists.  After  the  division  of  1845  the 
Southern  churches  established  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Convention,  which  holds 
annual  meetings.  It  is  composed  of 
representatives  from  associations,  other 
organizations,  and  from  the  churches. 
The  Colored  Baptists  compose  the 
largest  body  of  Regular  Baptists,  those 
being  included  who  have  separate 
churches,  State  Conventions,  and  associa- 
tions. The  Colored  Baptists  of  the 
North  are  generally  members  of  churches 
belonging  to  white  associations.  In 
1866  the  first  State  Convention  of 
Colored  Baptists  was  organized  in  North 
Carolina.  Besides  these  associations 
there  are  the  American  National  Con- 
vention, which  deliberates  upon  ques- 
tions of  general  concern;  the  Consol- 
idated American  Missionary  Convention, 
the  General  Association  of  the  Western 
States  and  Territories,  the  New  Eng- 
land Missionary  Convention,  and  the 
Foreign  Missionary  Convention  of  the 
United  States. 

Besides  the  three  large  divisions  of 
Baptists,  there  are  several  smaller  ones: 
The  Six  Principle  Baptists,  Seventh  Day 
Baptists,  Free  Will  Baptists,  Original 
Free    Will    Baptists,    General    Baptists, 


BAPTIST  YOUNG  PEOPLE  S/ UNION  415 


BABBADOES 


Separate  Baptists,  United  Baptists, 
Baptist  Church  of  Christ,  Primitive 
Baptists,  Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit  Bap- 
tists;, Regular  Baptists,  etc.  The  Free 
Will  Baptists  joined  the  Regular  Bap- 
tists in  1911. 

All  Baptist  denominations  are  con- 
gregational in  polity.  Each  church,  un- 
der its  officers  of  pastor  and  deacons, 
manages  its  own  affairs.  There  are 
Associations  and  State  Conventions, 
composed  of  pastors  and  delegates  from 
the  churches,  but  none  of  these  bodies 
have  any  ecclesiastical  authority.  Coun- 
cils, consisting  of  ministers  and  laymen, 
may_  be  called  to  advise  churches,  to 
ordain  ministers,  or  to  recognize  new 
churches  at  the  invitation  of  individual 
churches. 

Statistics  of  the  Churches. — The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  a  summary  of  the 
various  Baptist  Churches  in  the  United 
States : 


North 

South 

Colored 

Other  (14  bodies) 


Organiza- 
tions 


8,178 
23,692 
21,754 

5,156 


Members 


1,227,448 

2,711,591 

3,018,341 

279.270 


8,631 
15,946 
19,423 

4,992 


The  total  membership  of  the  Baptist 
Church  in  1920  was  estimated  as  fol- 
lows: United  States  and  Canada,  7„600,- 
000;  British  Isles,  408,000;  elsewhere, 
1,000,000;   world  total,  9,008,000. 

BAPTIST  YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  UNION 
OF  AMERICA,  an  association  represent- 
ing numerous  young  people's  societies 
connected  with  the  Baptist  Churches  in 
all  the  States  and  in  Canada,  organized 
in  June,  1891,  in  Chicago,  111.,  which 
place  has  since  been  its  headquarters 
and  the  place  of  publication  of  its 
monthly  magazine  "Service."  Conven- 
tions are  held  yearly. 

BARABBAS,  a  noted  robber  in 
Christ's  time,  who  was  imprisoned  and 
awaiting  death  for  the  crimes  of  sedition 
and  murder.  It  was  a  custom  of  the 
Roman  government,  for  the  sake  of 
conciliating  the  Jews,  to  release  one 
Jewish  prisoner,  whom  they  might  choose 
at  the  yearly  Passover.  Pilate  desired 
thus  to  release  Jesus,  but  the  Jews  de- 
manded Barabbas  (Matt,  xxvii:  16-26). 

BARABOO,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Sauk  CO.,  Wis.;  on  the  Baraboo  river 
and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  rail- 
road; 40  miles  N.  W.  of  Madison.  It  is 
in  an  agricultural  region;  has  important 
manufacturing  interests,  which  are  pro- 
moted by  an  excellent  water  power;  is 
a  noted  fruit  center;  and  has  National 


bank,    daily,   weekly,   and    monthly    pe- 
riodicals.     Pop.     (1910)     6,324;     (1920) 

UjOoO, 

BAR  ASSOCIATION,  AMERICAN,  an 
organization  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
advancing  the  science  of  jurisprudence, 
promoting  the  administration  of  justice, 
securing  uniformity  of  legislation,  and 
upholding  the  honor  of  the  legal  profes- 
sion. The  National  association  has  affili- 
ated associations  in  most  of  the  States. 
Meetings  are  held  annually  in  which 
jurists  and  lawyers  present  subjects  re- 
lating to  the  purposes  of  the  association. 
There  are  about  11,000  active  and  15 
honorary  members.  The  State  Bar  As- 
sociations number  38. 

BARATARIA  BAY,  in  the  S.  E.  part 
of  Louisiana,  extending  N.  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  between  the  parishes  of  Jef- 
ferson and  Plaquemine.  This  bay  is 
about  15  miles  long  by  6  wide.  It  and 
the  lagoons  branching  out  of  it  were 
rendered  notorious  about  the  years  1810- 
1814  as  being  both  the  headquarters  and 
rendezvous  of  the  celebrated  Lafitte  and 
his   buccaneers. 

BARBACAN,  or  BARBICAN,  a  pro- 
jecting watch  tower,  or  other  advanced 
work,  before  the  gate  of  a  castle  or 
fortified  town.  The  term  barbacan  was 
more  especially  applied  to  the  outwork 
intended  to  defend  the  drawbridge,  which 
in  modern  fortifications  is  called  the 
tete  du  pont  or  bridge  head. 

BARBACENA,  a  flourishing  town  of 
Brazil,  in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes. 
125  miles  N.  W..of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It 
is  situated  in  the  Mantiqueira  Mountains, 
about  3,500  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop. 
about  6,000. 

BARBADOES,  or  BARBADOS,  the 
most  eastern  of  the  West  Indian  Islands, 
first  mentioned  in  1518,  and  occupied  by 
the  British  in  1625;  length,  21  miles; 
breadth,  13;  area,,  166  square  miles; 
mostly  under  cultivation.  It  is  divided 
into  11  Church  of  England  parishes; 
capital,  Bridgetown.  (Pop.  about  17,- 
000.)  It  is  more  densely  peopled  than 
almost  any  spot  in  the  world.  Pop. 
(1918)  about  190,000.  This  is  about 
1,145  to  the  square  mile.  The  climate  is 
hot,  though  moderated  by  the  constant 
trade  winds;  and  the  island  is  subject 
to  very  severe  hurricanes.  There  are 
few  indigenous  mammals  or  birds.  The 
black  lowland  soil  gives  great  returns 
of  sugar  in  favorable  seasons.  The  chief 
exports,  besides  sugar,  are  molasses  and 
rum;  imports:  rice,  salt  meat,  corn,  but- 
ter^ flour,  textiles,  etc.  The  imports  in 
1918-1919      were      valued     at      almost 


BARBABOSSA 


416  BARBED  WIRE  Elf TANGLEMENTS 


£3,000,000,  the  exports  at  almost 
£2,500,000,  Barbadoes  has  a  considerable 
transit  trade,  being  in  some  measure 
the  central  mart  for  all  the  Windward 
Islands.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  and  the 
headquarters  of  the  British  forces  in  the 
West  Indies.  There  is  a  railway  across 
the  island,  also  tramways,  telephones, 
etc.  The  island  forms  a  distinct  govern- 
ment under  a  governor,  an  executive 
and  a  legislative  council  (9  appointed 
members),  and  a  house  of  assembly  (24 
elected  members). 

BARBAROSSA.  See  FREDERICK  I.,  Em- 
peror OF  THE  Holy  Roman  Empirb. 

BARBARY,  a  general  name  for  the 
most  northerly  portion  of  Africa,  ex- 
tending about  2,600  miles  from  Egypt 
to  the  Atlantic,  with  a  breadth  varying 


BARBAULD,  ANNA  LiETITIA,  an 
English  poet  and  essayist,  born  in  1743. 
In  1774  she  married  the  Rev.  Rochemont 
Barbauld.  Her  first  poems  (1773)  went 
through  four  editions  in  one  year.  She 
wrote  "Early  Lessons  for  Children" 
(about  1774) ;  "Devotional  Pieces" 
(1775);  "Hymns  in  Prose  for  Children" 
(1776),  translated  in  many  languages; 
"Eighteen  Hundred  and  Eleven,"  her 
longest  effort  (1811) ;  and  prepared  an 
edition  of  the  best  English  novels  in 
50  volumes.     She  died  March  9,  1825. 

BARBED  WIRE.  See  WiRE. 

BARBED  WIRE  ENTANGLE- 
MENTS. Protection  placed  in  front  of  a 
military  position  to  check  an  enemy  as- 
sault. In  the  World  War  these  were 
used  to  an  unprecedented  extent,  owing 


BARBED   WIRE   DEFENSE   THAT   CAN   BE    MOVED   FROM    PLACE   TO   PLACE 


from  about  140  to  1,550  miles;  comprising 
Morocco,  Fez,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tri- 
poli (including  Barca  and  Fezzan).  The 
principal  races  are  the  Berbers,  the 
original  inhabitants,,  from  whom  the 
country  takes  its  name;  the  Arabs,  who 
conquered  an  extensive  portion  of  it 
during  the  times  of  the  caliphs;  the 
Bedouins,  Jews,  Turks,  negroes,  and  the 
French  colonists  of  Algeria,  etc.  The 
country,  which  was  prosperous  under 
the  Carthaginians,  was,  next  to  Egypt, 
the  richest  of  the  Roman  province^,  and 
the  Italian  states  enriched  themselves 
by  their  intercourse  with  it.  In  the  15th 
century,  however,  it  became  infested  with 
adventurers  who  made  the  name  of  Bar- 
bary  corsair  a  terror  to  commerce,  a  con- 
dition of  things  finally  removed  by  the 
French  occupation  of  Algeria.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century  the 
United  States  Government  found  itself 
forced  as  a  result  of  the  attitude  of  some 
of  the  Barbary  countries  to  make  war 
against  them. 


to  the  prevalence  of  trench  warfare. 
Great  ingenuity  was  displayed  in  making 
these  as  impregnable  as  possible.  Often 
they  were  wound  around  posts  or  stakes, 
projecting  at  an  angle  so  as  to  form  an 
abatis.  At  other  times  they  were  wound 
from  bush  to  bush  and  tree  to  tree, 
every  natural  obstacle  being  availed  of 
to  strengthen  the  defense.  Before  an 
assault  upon  a  trench  thus  defended 
could  be  made  with  any  chance  of  suc- 
cess, an  intensive  and  long  continued  ar- 
tillery fire  was  necessary  to  cut  lanes 
through  the  wires  for  the  passage  of  the 
assaulting  troops.  Sometimes  electric 
currents  were  run  through  the  wires  by 
the  defenders,  as  a  further  strengthening 
of  their  position.  The  situation  was  not 
met  until  the  invention  of  the  tanks. 
These  great  monsters  could  not  be  de- 
terred from  crushing  their  way  through 
the  entanglements,  while  the  attacking 
troops  followed  in  their  wake.  After 
the  Somme  battle,  where  the  tanks  first 
demonstrated  their  value,  they  were  al- 


BABBERINI 


417 


BABCA 


ways  put  in  the  van  of  the  drive  pro- 
jected by  the  Allies,  and  entanglements, 
however  strong,  could  not  succeed  in 
stopping  them. 

BARBERINI,  a  celebrated  Florentine 
family^  which,  since  the  pontificate  of 
Maffeo  Barberini  (Urban  VIIL,  1623  to 
1644) ,  has  occupied  a  distinguished  place 
among  the  nobility  of  Rome.  During  his 
reign  he  seemed  chiefly  intent  on  the  ag- 
grandizement of  his  three  nephews,  of 
whom  two  were  appointed  cardinals,  and 
the  third  Prince  of  Palestrina,  The  Bar- 
berini Palace  in  Rome  contains  a  famous 
picture  gallery. 

BARBERRY,  or  BERBERRY,  the 
English  name  of  the  berberis,  a  genus 
of  plants  constituting  the  typical  one  of 
the  order  berberidacese  (berberids).  The 
common  barberry  (barbeHs  vulgaris)  is 
planted  in  gardens  or  in  hedges,  being 
an  ornamental  shrub,  especially  when 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  yellow 
flowers  or  loaded  with  fruit.  The  flowers 
are  much  frequented  by  bees.  The  juice 
of  the  berries  is  acid,  hence  they  are 
used  for  preserves  and  confectionery. 
The  root,  boiled  in  lye,  and  the  inner 
bark  of  the  stem,  dye  a  fine  yellow. 

BARBERRY  BLIGHT,  the  English 
name  of  a  minute  fungal,  the  xcidium 
berberidis  of  Persoon.  It  occurs  on 
leaves  of  the  barberry,  forming  roundish, 
bright  red  spots,  consisting  of  the  fruits 
of  the  xcidium,  which  form  little  cups 
full  of  spores  when  they  burst.  These 
spores  germinate  on  the  leaves  or  stems 
of  wheat,  send  out  mycelium  into  the 
plant,  and  produce  the  disease  called 
rust. 

BARBERTON,  a  mining  town  of  the 
province  of  Transvaal  Union  of  South 
Africa,  in  the  De  Kaap  gold  fields.  It  is 
situated  at  the  base  of  a  high  range  of 
hills  2,500  feet  above  sea-level,  180  miles 
E.  of  Pretoria,  and  100  N.  W.  of  Delagoa 
Bay,  with  both  of  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  In  1886-1887,  owing  to  the 
discovery  of  rich  gold  reefs,  there  was 
a  rush  to  the  place,  and  the  population 
soon  rose  to  8,000  or  more;  but  the  su- 
perior attraction  of  the  Witwatersrand 
reefs  and  the  growth  of  Johannesburg 
reduced  Barberton  to  a  subordinate  place. 
Pop.  about  3,000. 

BARBERTON,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in  Sum- 
mit CO.  It  is  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Erie,  the  Northern  Ohio,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  railroads,  and  on  the  Ohio 
canal.  It  has  important  industries,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  matches, 
chemicals,  sewer  pipes,  rubber,  paint,  etc. 
Pop.   (1910)  9,410;   (1920)   18,811. 


BARBIZON  (bar-be-z6n'),  a  village 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  forest  of  Fon- 
tainebleau,  a  great  artists'  resort,  the 
home  of  Millet;  Corot,  Diaz,  Daubigny, 
Dupre,  Troyon,  and  Rousseau  were  also 
of  the  "Barbizon  school"  of  painters. 
They  were  really  not  a  "school,"  but 
simply  a  group  of  painters  of  animal, 
landscape,  and  peasant  subjects  having 
similar  aims  and  painting  in  accordance 
with  similar  principles:  a  close  study 
of  nature,  an  individual  expression  of 
the  painter's  mood  of  sentiment.  They 
belonged  to  the  Romantic  school  of 
painting. 

BARBOUR.     RALPH     HENRY,     an 

American  writer,  born  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  1870.  He  received  an  academic 
education  and  began  early  in  life  to  con- 
tribute to  periodicals  and  magazines 
under  the  pen  name  of  Richard  Stillman 
Powell.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  of 
boys'  story  books,  which  include  "The 
Junior  Trophy"  (1908) ;  "Benton's  Ven- 
ture" (1914)  ;  "The  Brother  of  a  Hero" 
(1914);  "The  Lucky  Seventh  (1915); 
"Hearts  Content"   (1915);  etc. 

BARBUDA  (bar-bo'da),  one  of  the 
Leeward  Islands,  West  Indies,  annexed 
by  Great  Britain  in  1628;  about  15  miles 
long  and  8  wide;  lying  N.  of  Antigua. 
It  is  flat,  fertile,  and  healthy.  Corn,  cot- 
ton, pepper,  and  tobacco  are  the  prin- 
cipal produce.  There  is  no  harbor,  but 
a  well  sheltered  roadstead  on  the  W. 
side.  It  is  a  dependency  of  Antigua. 
Pop.   about   1,000,  mostly  colored. 

BARCA,  or  BENGAZI,  a  country  extend- 
ing along  the  N.  coast  of  Africa,  between 
the  Great  Syrtis  (now  called  the  Gulf  of 
Sidra)  and  Egypt.  Bounded  on  the  W. 
by  Tripoli,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Libyan 
Desert,  it  is  separated  from  Egypt  on 
the  E.  by  no  definite  line.  It  nearly 
corresponds  with  the  ancient  Cyrenaica; 
and  a  great  part  of  it  is  a  high  plateau. 
The  climate  is  healthful  and  agreeable  in 
the  more  elevated  parts,  which  reach  a 
height  of  almost  2,000  feet.  Rice,  dates, 
olives,  and  saffron  flourish;  the  horses 
are  celebrated  as  in  ancient  times.  But 
the  good  soil  extends  over  only  about  a 
fourth  of  Barca.  Many  ruins  in  the  N. 
W.  parts  attest  its  high  state  of  cultiva- 
tion in  ancient  times,  when  its  five  pros- 
perous cities  bore  the  title  of  the  Libyan 
Pentapolis.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Cyrus,  Barca  became  a  state,  which 
proved  dangerous  to  the  neighboring 
state  of  Cyrene;  but  within  a  single  cen- 
tury it  sank,  and  became  subject  to 
Egypt.  In  the  Roman  period,  its  inhabit- 
ants were  noted  for  their  predatory  ex- 
cursions. It  was  afterward  a  province 
of  the  Greek  Empire,  and  had  declared 


BARCELONA 


418        BAREBONE'S   PARLIAMENT 


itself  independent  when  the  Arabs  in- 
vaded it  and  conquered  it  in  641.  The 
present  inhabitants  consist  of  Arabs  and 
Berbers.  Its  area  is  about  20,000  square 
miles;  and  the  population  is  estimated  at 
325,000.  The  capital  is  Bengazi  (pop. 
about  35,000),  by  which  name  the  prov- 
ince is  sometimes  known.  By  the  treaty 
of  Ouchy  (Oct.  12,  1912)  between  Italy 
and  Turkey,  Barca  became  an  Italian 
dependency,  and  is  now  one  of  the  two 
districts  of  Lybia  (g.  v.). 

BARCELONA,  the  most  important 
manufacturing  city  in  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name;  pop.  about 
625,000.  The  province  of  Barcelona  has 
an  area  of  2,968  square  miles,  pop.  about 
1,195,000.  The  streets  of  the  old  town, 
forming  the  N.  W.  division,  are  crooked, 
narrow,  and  ill  paved.  Those  of  the  new 
are  much  more  spacious  and  regular. 
There  is  a  large  suburb  E.  of  the  town 
where  the  seafaring  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation chiefly  reside.  Barcelona  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop.  It  has  a  university,  and 
colleges  and  schools,  the  finest  theater 
in  Spain,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  which, 
begun  in  1298,  is  not  yet  completed, 
and  many  other  beautiful  public  and 
private  buildings.  Barcelona  manufac- 
tures silk,  woolens,  cottons,  lace,  hats, 
firearms,  etc.,  which  form  its  principal 
exports.  Next  to  Bilbao  it  is  the  most 
important  port  in  Spain.  Barcelona  is 
a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  associated 
with  many  historical  events.  Local  tra- 
dition fixes  the  date  of  its  foundation 
400  years  before  the  Romans;  and  it  is 
said  to  have  been  refounded  by  Hamilcar 
Barca,  the  father  of  Hannibal,  from 
whom  its  ancient  name,  Barcino,  was  de- 
rived. An  important  city  under  the  Ro- 
mans, Goths,  and  Moors,  Barcelona  in 
878  became  an  independent  sovereignty, 
under  a  Christian  chief  of  its  own,  whose 
descendants  continued  to  govern  it,  and 
to  hold  the  title  of  Count  of  Barcelona, 
until  the  12th  century,  when  its  ruler 
adopted  the  title  of  King  of  Aragon,  to 
which  kingdom  it  was  annexed.  During 
the  Middle  Ages,  Barcelona  became  a 
flourishing  seaport,  rivaled  in  the  Medi- 
terranean by  Genoa  only.  In  recent  times 
Barcjelona  has  become  the  center  of 
Spanish  radicalism. 

BARCELONA,  formerly  called  New 
Barcelona,  capital  of  the  state  of  An- 
zoategui,  Venezuela,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Neveri,  160  miles  E.  of  Caracas.  The 
surrounding  country  is  fertile,  but 
Barcelona  is  very  unhealthy.  Cattle, 
jerked  beef,  hides,  indigo,  cotton,  and 
cacao  are  the  chief  exports.  There  are 
coal  and  salt  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
about  15,000.    The  town  was  founded  in 


1638  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  Santo,  but 
was  removed  to  its  present  location  in 
1671. 

BARCOCHBA,  or  BARCOKECAS 
("son  of  a  star"),  a  famous  Jewish  im- 
postor, whose  real  name  was  Simeon,  and 
who  lived  in  the  2d  century  A.  D.  After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
the  Jews,  at  different  periods,  sought  to 
regain  their  independence;  and  Bar- 
cochba,  seeing  his  countrymen  still  im- 
patient of  the  Roman  yoke,  resolved  to 
attempt  their  emancipation.  With  this 
view  he  sought  to  sound  the  dispositions 
of  his  co-religionists  of  Egypt,  Mes- 
opotamia, Greece,  Italy  and  Gaul,  and 
sent  forth  emissaries,  who  traveled  over 
all  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
When  all  was  ready  Barcochba  solemnly 
announced  himself  as  King  and  Messiah, 
and  seized  by  surprise  on  many  fortified 
places.  All  who  refused  to  submit  to 
him,  particularly  the  Christians,  were  put 
to  death.  Great  numbers  of  Jews,  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  hastened  to  join 
his  standard;  and  so  formidable  did  this 
revolt  become  that  Julius  Severus,  gen- 
eral of  the  armies  of  the  Emperor 
Adrian,  was  compelled  to  act  with  ex- 
treme caution,  and  to  content  himself 
with  surprising  detached  bodies  of  the 
enemy.  Soon,  however,  the  superior  dis- 
cipline of  the  Romans  prevailed.  The 
Jewish  army,  shut  up  in  the  fortress  of 
Bethar,  succumbed  under  fatigue  and 
famine;  Barcochba  perished  miserably, 
and  all  his  followers  were  massacred  or 
reduced  to  slavery.  From  this  period 
may  be  dated  the  entire  dispersion  of 
the  race  of  Israel  over  the  face  of  the 
earth. 

BARD,  a  fortress  and  village  in  the 
Italian  province  of  Turin,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  about  23  miles 
S.  E.  of  Aosta.  When  the  French 
crossed  the  St.  Bernard,  in  1800,  the  for- 
tress of  Bard,  manned  by  400  Austrians, 
maintained  for  10  days  a  resistance  to 
their  further  advance  into  Italy.  Ulti- 
mately Napoleon  contrived  to  elude  the 
vigilance  of  the  garrison,  and  passed  by 
a  mountain-track  during  the  night.  Bard 
was  taken  a  short  time  after  by  the 
French,  and  razed,  but,  in  1825,  it  was 
restored. 

BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT,  the 
"Little  Parliament"  summoned  by  Oliver 
Cromwell,  met  July  4,  1653,  so  nicknamed 
from  the  name  of  one  of  its  members.  It 
consisted  of  139  persons,  "faithful,  fear- 
ing God,  and  hating  covetousness."  They 
began  by  abolishing  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery, and  were  proceeding  to  abolish 
tithes,  when  Cromwell  dissolved  the  Par- 
liament on  Dec.  12  of  the  same  year. 


BABEGES 


419 


BABITE 


BABEGES,  a  watering-place,  S.  of 
France,  department  of  Hautes-Pyrenees, 
about  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  celebrated 
for  its  thermal  springs,  which  are  fre- 
quented for  rheumatism,  scrofula,  etc. 

BABEILLY  (ba-ral'e),  a  town  of  Hin- 
dustan in  the  United  Provinces,  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  on  a 
pleasant  and  elevated  site.  It  has  a  fort 
and  cantonments,  a  government  college, 
and  manufactures  sword-cutlery,  gold 
and  silver  lace,  perfumery,  furniture  and 
upholstery.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  In- 
dian Mutiny  the  native  garrison  took 
possession  of  the  place,  but  it  was  re- 
taken by  Lord  Clyde  in  May,  1858.  Pop. 
about  130,000. 

BABFLEUB,  a  seaport  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  La  MancTie, 
about  15  miles  E.  of  Cherbourg.  It  is 
noteworthy  in  history  as  the  port  whence, 
in  1066,  William  the  Conqueror  set  out 
on  his  invasion  of  England.  Close  by, 
on  the  ill-famed  "Pointe  de  Barfleur," 
stands  the  highest  lighthouse  in  France, 
271  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  about  1,250. 

BAEHAM,   BICHABD  HABRIS,   an 

English  poet,  born  in  Canterbury,  Dec.  6, 
1788;  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  and 
Oxford;  took  orders  in  1813;  was  rector 
of  two  country  churches,  and  later  of  one 
in  London.  Under  the  name  of  Thomas 
Ingoldsby  he  vrrote  the  "Ingoldsby  Le- 
gends," prose  and  verse  (London,  1840- 
1847),  which  are  now  classics.  He  also 
wrote  "My  Cousin  Nicholas,"  a  novel 
(1841),  and  "Life  of  Theodore  Hook" 
(1849).  He  died  in  London,  June  17, 
1845. 

BAB  H  ABB  OB,  a  popular  summer  re- 
sort in  Hancock  co.,  Me.;  on  the  E. 
shore  of  Mt.  Desert  Island,  and  opposite 
Porcupine  Islands.  It  derives  its  name 
from  a  sandy  bar  which  connects  Mt. 
Desert  with  the  largest  of  the  Porcupine 
group.  The  village  is  knovioi  locally  as 
East  Eden.  The  surrounding  scenery 
is  very  pleasing,  and  within  a  short  dis- 
tance are  many  points  of  interest  readily 
accessible  to  the  tourist.  Among  these 
are  the  summit  of  Green  Mountain, 
Eagle  Lake,  Mt.  Newport,  Kebo,  The 
Ovens,  Great  and  Schooner  Heads, 
Spouting  Horn,  Thunder  Cave,  and  Eagle 
Cliff. 

BABI,  ancient  BABITJM,  a  seaport  of 
southern  Italy,  on  a  small  promontory 
of  the  Adriatic,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Bari  delle  Puglie.  It  was  an  impor- 
tant place  as  early  as  the  3d  century 
B.  c,  and  has  been  thrice  destroyed  and 
rebuilt.  The  present  town  has  a  large 
Norman  castle,  a  fine  cathedral,  and 
priory,  etc    It  manufactures  cotton  and 

28— Vol.  I— Cyc 


linen  goods,  hats,  soap,  glass,  and 
liquors;  has  a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  alm- 
onds, oil,  etc.,  and  is  now  an  important 
seaport.  Pop.  about  115,000.  The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  2,048  square  miles, 
and  is  fertile  in  fruit,  wine,  oil,  etc.  Pop. 
about  950,000. 

BABING,  family  name  of  the  founders 
of  one  of  the  greatest  financial  and  com- 
mercial houses  in  the  world;  now  known 
as  Baring  Brothers  &  Co.  The  father 
of  the  founders  was  John  Baring,  a  Ger- 
man cloth  manufacturer,  who  started  a 
small  business  at  Larkbear,  near  Exeter, 
England,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Two  of  his  sons,  Francis  and 
John  (1730-1816),  established  in  London 
in  1770  the  now  existing  house. 

BABING-GOULD,  SABINE,  an  Eng- 
lish antiquary  and  novelist,  born  in 
Exeter,  Jan.  28,  1834.  He  graduated 
from  Cambridge  in  1856,  and  from  1881 
was  rector  of  Lew-Trenchard  in  Devon. 
He  is  author  of  "Iceland :  Its  Scenes  and 
Sagas"  (1864);  "The  Book  of  Were- 
wolves" (1865)  ;  "Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages"  (series  1  and  2,  1866- 
1867);  "Lives  of  the  Saints"  (1872- 
1879);  "Yorkshire  Oddities"  (2  vols., 
1874) ;  and  "Germany,  Past  and  Present" 
(2  vols.,  1879).  He  has  also  written  re- 
ligious books  and  novels  which  have  be- 
come popular.  They  include  "Mehalah: 
a  Story  of  the  Salt  Marshes"  (2  vols., 
1880) ;  "John  Herring"  (2  vols.,  1883)  ; 
"Red  Spider"  (1887);  "The  Broom 
Squire"  (1896) ;  "Bladys"  (1897)  ;  "Do- 
mitia"  (1898);  "Pabo  the  Priest" 
(1899) ;  "A  Book  of  the  West"  (1899) ; 
"Furze-Bloom"  (1899),  etc.  He  died 
June  4,  1906. 

BABING  ISLAND,  an  island,  also  a 
strait  and  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
Arctic  Archipelago.  They  were  named 
for  Sir  Francis  Baring,  who  was  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  at  the  time  of 
their  discovery. 

BABITE,  or  BABYTE,  BaSO^,  a 
mineral,  called  also  baroselenite,  sulphate 
of  baryta,  heavy  spar,  and  by  the  Derby- 
shire miners,  cauk,  calk,  or  cawk.  It  is 
placed  by  Dana  in  his  celestite  group. 
It  is  orthorhombic,  and  has  usually  tab- 
ular crystals,  or  is  globular,  ^  fibrous, 
lamellar,  or  granular.  Its  color  is  white, 
yellowish,  grayish,  black,  reddish,  or  dark 
brown.  It  is  sometimes  transparent, 
sometimes  almost  opaque.  When  rubbed, 
it  is  occasionally  fetid.  Its  composition 
is:  Sulphuric  acid,  34.3;  baryta  (mon- 
oxide of  barium),  65.7=100,  hence  the 
name  sulphate  of  baryta.  It  is  found 
as  part  of  the  gangue  of  metallic  ores 
in  veins  in  secondary  limestone,  etc.  It 


BABIXJM 


420 


BABKEB 


is  found  in  the  United  States  and  on  the 
continent   of   Europe. 

BABIUM,  a  dyad  metallic  element; 
symbol  Ba;  atomic  weight,  137._  Barium 
is  prepared  by  the  decomposition  of  ba- 
rium chloride,  BaCL,  by  the  electric  cur- 
rent, or  by  the  vapor  of  potassium.  It  is 
a  white,  malleable  metal,  which  melts  at 
red  heat,  decomposes  water,  and  oxidizes 
in  the  air.  Barium  occurs  in  nature  as 
barium  carbonite  and  sulphate.  Its  salts 
are  prepared  by  dissolving  the  carbonate 
in  acids,  or  by  roasting  the  native  sul- 
phate of  barium  with  one-third  its  weight 
of  coal,  which  converts  it  into  barium 
sulphide,  BaS ;  this  is  decomposed  by  hy- 
drochloric or  nitric  acid,  according  as  a 
chloride  or  nitrate  of  barium  is  required. 
All  soluble  salts  of  barium  are  very 
poisonous;  the  best  antidotes  are  alkaline 
sulphates.  The  salts  of  barium  are  em- 
ployed as  re-agents  in  the  laboratory, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  fireworks,  to 
produce  a  green  light. 

BABK,  the  exterior  covering  of  the 
stems  of  exogenous  plants.  It  is  com- 
posed of  cellular  and  vascular  tissue,  is 
separable  from  the  wood,  and  is  often 
regarded  as  consisting  of  four  layers: 
(1)  The  epidermis,  or  cuticle,  which, 
however,  is  scarcely  regarded  as  a  part 
of  the  true  bark;  (2)  the  epiphlceum, 
or  outer  cellular  layer  of  the  true  bark 
or  cortex;  (3)  the  mesophlceum,  or  mid- 
dle layer,  also  cellular;  (4)  an  inner 
vascular  layer,  the  liber,  or  endophloeum, 
commonly  called  bast.  Endogenous  plants 
have  no  true  bark.  Bark  contains  many 
valuable  products,  as  gum,  tannin,  etc. 

BARK,  PERUVIAN,  is  the  bark  of 
various  species  of  trees  of  the  genus 
cinchona,  found  in  many  parts  of  South 
America,  but  more  particularly  in  Peru. 
Its  medicinal  properties  depend  upon  the 
presence  of  quinine,  which  is  now  ex- 
tracted from  the  bark,  and  prescribed. 

BARKER,  ELSA,  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Leicester,  Vt.  She  was  educated 
privately,  and  for  several  years  acted  as 
teacher  and  newspaper  writer.  In  1904 
and  1905  she  was  lecturer  for  the  New 
York  Board  of  Education.  Her  books  in- 
clude "The  Son  of  Mary  Bethel"  (1907)  ; 
•The  Frozen  Grail  and  Other  Poems" 
(1910);  "War  Letters  from  a  Living 
Dead  Man"  (1914)  ;  "Songs  of  a  Vagi-om 
Angel"  (1916).  She  also  wrote  several 
plays.  She  was  a  frequent  contributor 
of  poetry  and  prose  to  magazines. 

BARKER,  FORDYCE,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Wilton,  Franklin  co.. 
Me.,  May  2,  1819.  Completing  courses  at 
Bowdoin,  Harvard,  and  in  Europe,  he  en- 


tered upon  the  practice  of  his  profession 
in  Norwich  in  184'5.  He  made  a  specialty 
of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  women. 
After  serving  as  Professor  of  Midwifery 
at  Bowdoin,  he  removed  to  NeT»r  York 
City  in  1850.  He  was  an  incorporator  of 
the  New  York  Medical  College  and  ob- 
stetrical surgeon  to  Bellevue  Hospital. 
He  wrote  "Puerperal  Diseases"  and  "On 
Seasickness."  Pie  died  in  New  York  City, 
May  30,  1891. 

BARKER  (HARLEY)  GRANVILLE,  \ 

an  English  actor  and  playwright,  born  in 
1877.  He  began  his  career  as  an  actor, 
but  soon  became  manager  of  the  Court 
Theater  in  London.  His  first  successes 
were  made  in  several  of  Bernard  ^  j 
Shaw's  plays.  He  was  better  known  w 
as  a  playwright  than  as  an  actor.  The  ": 
revolutionary  and  realistic  movement  in 
the  drama  early  attracted  him  and  he 
became  one  of  its  chief  exponents.  He 
produced  a  number  of  plays  in  which 
prominence  was  given  to  social  problems. 
He  developed  a  high  technical  skill  in 
writing  these  plays  which  were  produced 
with  great  success  in  England  and  in 
the  United  States.  Some  of  his  best 
known  works  were  "The  Marrying  of 
Ann  Leet"  (1901);  "Waste"  (1907); 
"Prunella"  1913). 

BARKER,  WHARTON,  an  American 
financier  and  publicist,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1846.  He  graduated  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1866  and 
afterward  took  post-graduate  courses  at 
that  institution.  He  became  a  member  of 
the  banking  firm  of  Barker  Bros,  and 
Co.,  and  in  1887  was  appointed  special 
financial  agent  in  the  United  States  of 
the  Russian  Government.  In  1887  he  was 
in  Russia  as  adviser  of  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment on  the  development  of  coal  and  ^ 
iron  mines,  and  later  spent  some  time  in  ■ 
China  in  an  advisory  capacity.  He  ^ 
founded  the  Investment  Co.  of  Philadel- 
phia and  he  founded  also  the  "Penn 
Monthly,"  which  was  merged  in  1880 
into  "The  American,"  of  which  he  was 
publisher  from  1880  to  1890.  He  was 
chief  organizer  of  the  opposition  to  a 
third  term  of  General  Grant  and  pro- 
posed Garfield  for  president.  He  was 
active  in  Republican  politics  until  1896, 
when  he  became  a  Populist  and  was  anti- 
fusion  Populist  nominee  for  president  in 
1900.  He  was  the  leading  advocate  of 
a  commercial  union  of  all  American  na- 
tions. He  opposed  the  annexation  of  the 
Philippines  and  urged  the  independence 
of  the  islands.  From  1880  he  was  a  trus-  Jj 
tee  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  || 
He  was  a  member  of  many  economic  so- 
cieties, and  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines  on  economic  subjects. 


BAR-LE-DUC 


421 


BARMECIDES 


BAR-LE-DUC,  a  city  in  France,  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Meuse.  It 
is  on  the  Ornain  river  and  the  Marne 
canal,  about  160  miles  E.  of  Paris. 
Among  other  notable  buildings  are  a 
15th  century  church,  the  city  hall,  a 
commercial  museum,  a  library,  and  the- 
ater. The  city  suffered  severely  during 
the  World  War.  Prior  to  that  time  it 
had  important  manufactures,  including 
cotton  and  woolen  mills,  breweries,  paper 
mills,  foundries,,  etc.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

BARLEY,  seeds  or  grains  of  various 
species  and  varieties  of  the  genus  hor- 
deum.  That  most  commonly  in  culti- 
vation is  hordeum  vulgare,  spring,  or 
two-rowed  barley,  especially  the  rath- 
ripe  and  thanet  sorts.  H.  hexastichon 
(i.  e.,  with  the  seeds  growing  in  six 
rows)  is  the  bear,  or  bigg  barley.  H. 
distichon,  two-rowed,  or  common  barley, 
is  preferred  for  malting,  which  is  one  of 
the  chief  purposes  for  which  barley  is 
cultivated.  H.  zeocHton,  or  sprat-barley, 
is  more  rare.  Barley  is  the  hardiest  of 
all  the  cereals,  and  was  originally  a 
native  of  Asia,  but  it  is  now  cultivated 
all  over  the  world,  even  as  far  N. 
as  Lapland.  In  ancient  times,  it  was 
largely  used  as  an  article  of  food,  but 
the  greater  proportion  now  grown  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  malt  and 
spirits.  For  culinary  purposes,  it  is 
sold  in  two  forms,  Scotch  or  pot  barley, 
and  pearl  barley,  the  former  partially 
deprived  of  its  husk;  the  latter,  with  all 
the  husk  removed. 

Bread  made  from  barley  meal  is  darker 
in  color  and  less  nutritious  than  that 
made  from  wheat  flour. 

BARLOW,  FRANCIS  CHANNING,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  Oct.  9,  1834;  graduated  from 
Harvard  College  in  1855;  studied  law 
in  New  York,  and  practiced  there.  In 
1861  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  12th 
Regiment,  New  York  State  National 
Guard.  He  was  promoted  Lieutenant 
after  three  months  of  service;  Colonel 
during  the  siege  of  Yorktown;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of  Fair 
Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines,  for  which  he  was 
promoted  Brigadier-General;  fought  in 
almost  every  subsequent  battle  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  severely 
wounded  at  Chancellorsville,  May  2, 
1863,  and  at  Gettysburg,  July  1,  1863. 
He  was  mustere^  out  of  the  service  with 
the  rank  of  Major-General  of  volunteers. 
In  1860-1868,  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
of  New  York;  in  1871  became  Attorney- 
General;  and  in  1873  resumed  law  pi'ac- 
tice  in  New  York.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  11,  1896. 


BARLOW,  JANE,  an  Irish  poet  and 
story  writer,  born  in  County  Dublin 
about  1857.  Her  popular  books  in- 
clude "Irish  Idylls"  (1892)  ;  "Bogland 
Studies,"  "Kerrigan's  Quality,"  "Walled 
Out,  or  Eschatology  in  a  Bog,"  "The 
Mockers  of  the  Shallow  Waters" 
(1893);  "Strangers  at  Lisconnel" 
(1895);  "Irish  Ways"  (1911);  "Flaws" 
(1912) ;  etc.     She  died  in  1917. 

BARLOW,  JOEL,  an  American  poet 
and  statesman,  born  in  Reading,  Conn., 
March  24,  1754;  published  political 
works  and  poems,  which  contain  many 
philosophical  and  political  dissertations. 
"The  Vision  of  Columbus"  (1787)  was 
extended  into  "The  Columbiad,"  a  long 
epic  (1807).  He  also  wrote  "The  Con- 
spiracy of  Kings"  (1792),  and  the  cele- 
brated poem,  "Hasty  Pudding."  He  died 
near  Cracow,  Poland,  Dec.  24,  1812, 
while  on  his  way  to  meet  Napoleon  I.  in 
his  capacity  as  commissioner  to  the 
French  Emperor. 

BARLOW,  PETER,  an  English  physi- 
cist and  mathematician,  born  at  Nor- 
wich in  1776.  He  was  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  Royal  Military  Acad- 
emy at  Woolwich  for  a  period  of  40 
years.  In  1823,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1825  re- 
ceived from  it  the  Copley  medal  for  his 
researches  in  magnetism.  In  1829,  he 
was  admitted  a  member  of  the  French 
Institute.  His  greatest  work  is  the 
"Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dic- 
tionary." He  was  also  the  author  of 
"Machinery  and  Manufactures  of  Great 
Britain"  (1837) ;  "Force  and  Rapidity  of 
Locomotives"  (1838) ;  and  "Essay  and 
Magnetic  Attraction,"  one  of  the  first 
works  in  which  the  phenomena  of  mag- 
netism were  distinctly  enunciated.  He 
died  in  1862. 

BARMECIDES,  an  illustrious  family 
of  Khorassan,  the  romance  of  ■whose  his- 
tory is  equally  familiar  to  Europeans  and 
Americans  in  the  "Arabian  Nights  En- 
tertainments," and  to  Orientals  in  the 
pages  of  their  historians  and  poets;  and 
who  flourished  at  the  Court  of  the  early 
Abbasside  Caliphs.  Barmec,  or  Barmek, 
the  founder  of  the  family,  transmitted 
the  honors  conferred  on  him  by  the 
Caliph  Abd-al-Malik  to  his  son,  Khalid, 
and  from  him  they  passed  to  his  son, 
Yahia,  who,  becoming  tutor  to  the  fa- 
mous Haroun-al-Raschid,  acquired  an  in- 
fluence over  that  Prince,  which  carried 
his  sons,  Fadl,  or  Fazl,  Giaff'ar,  Mo- 
hammed, and  Mousa,  to  the  highest  digni- 
ties of  the  Court.  The  virtues  and  munifi- 
cence of  the  Barmecides  were,  for  a  long 
period,  displayed  under  favor  of  Haroun; 


SABMEN 


422 


BABNARD 


but  one  of  the  brothers,  Giaffar,  having 
at  last  become  an  object  of  suspicion  to 
the  Caliph,  Yahia  and  his  sons  were 
suddenly  seized,  Giaffar  beheaded,  and 
the  others  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment.  The  year  802  is  assigned 
as  the  date  of  this  tragedy. 

BARMEN,  a  city  on  the  Wupper,  in 
the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  government 
of  Dusseldorf,  and  formed  by  the  union 
of  seven  villages  contained  in  the  fine 
valley  of  Barmen.  It  has  extensive  rib- 
bon and  other  textile  manufactures;  also 
dye  works,  manufactures  of  chemicals, 
metal  wares,  buttons,  yarns,  iron,  ma- 
chines, pianos,  organs,  soap,  etc.  Pop. 
about  175,000. 

BARNABAS,  ST.,  or  JOSEPH,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Jesus,  and  a  companion  of  the 
Apostle  Paul.     He  was  a  Levite,  and  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  is 
said  to  have  sold  all  his  property,  and 
laid  the  price  of   it  at  the  feet  of  the 
apostles   (Acts  iv:  36,  37).     When  Paul 
came  to  Jerusalem,  three  years  after  his 
conversion,  about  A   D.  38,  Barnabas  in- 
troduced him  to  the  other  apostles  (Acts 
ix:   26,  27).     Five  years  afterward,  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem  being  informed  of 
the  progress  of  the  Gospel  at  Antioch, 
sent    Barnabas    thither.      (Acts    xi:    20, 
24).     He  afterward  went  to  Tarsus,  to 
seek    Paul    and    bring   him    to    Antioch, 
where  they  dwelt  together  two  years,  and 
great  numbers  were  converted.   They  left 
Antioch  A.  D.  45,  to  convey  alms  from  this 
Church  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  and  soon 
returned,  bringing  with  them  John  Mark 
(Acts  xi:  28,  30;  xii:  25).     While  they 
were  at  Antioch,  the  Holy  Ghost  directed 
that  they  should  be  set  apart  for  those 
labors  to  which  he  had  appointed  them; 
viz.,  the  planting  of  new  churches  among 
the  Gentiles.     They  then  visited  Cyprus, 
and   some   cities   of   Asia    Minor    (Acts 
XV :  2-14) ,  and  after  three  years'  absence 
returned  to  Antioch.     In  A.  D.  50,  he  and 
Paul  were  appointed  delegates  from  the 
Syrian  churches  to  consult  the  apostles 
and  elders  at  Jerusalem,  respecting  cer- 
tain questions  raised  by  Jewish  zealots; 
and  they  returned  after  having  obtained 
the  judgment  of  the  brethren   of  Jeru- 
salem.    While   preparing   for   a    second 
missionary    tour,    Paul    and    Barnabas, 
having  a  dispute  relative  to  Mark,  Bar- 
nabas'   nephew,    they     separated,    Paul 
going  to  Asia,  and  Barnabas  with  Mark 
to  Cyprus  (Acts  xiv:  36-41;  Gal.  ii:  13). 
Nothing    is    known    of    his    subsequent 
history.     The  festival   of   St.   Barnabas 
is    celebrated    in    the    Roman     Catholic 
Church   on   the   11th    of   June. 

Epistle   of   St.   Barnabas,   an   apoc- 
ryphal   letter    laying    greater    claim   to 


canonical  authority  than  most  of  the 
other  uncredited  writings.  It  is  pub- 
lished by  Archbishop  Wake  among  his 
translations  of  the  works  of  the  Apos- 
tolical Fathers,  in  the  preliminary  dis- 
sertation to  which  he  gives  the  argu- 
ments adduced  to  prove  it  to  be  the  work 
of  St.  Barnabas.  It  is,  however,  gen- 
erally believed  to  have  been  written  by 
some  converted  Jew  in  the  2d  century, 
and  seems  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
unconverted  Jews.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts. 

Gospel  of  St.  Barnabas,  the  apoc- 
ryphal work  also  ascribed  to  Barnabas. 
It  relates  the  history  of  Christ  very  dif- 
ferently from  the  Evangelists,  and  is 
believed  to  be  a  forgery  of  some  nominal 
Christians,  and  afterward  altered  and 
interpolated  by  the  Mohammedans,  the 
better  to  serve  their  purpose.  It  cor- 
responds with  those  traditions  which  Mo- 
hammed followed  in  the  Koran. 

BARNABAS,  CAPE,  a  headland  of 
Alaska,  which  Cook  discovered  on  St. 
Barnabas  Day. 

BARNACLE,  in  zoology,  (1)  A  general 
name  for  both  pedunculated  and  sessile 
cirripeds.  (2)  Special:  The  English 
name  of  the  pedunculated  cirripeds  {le- 
padidss) ,  as  contradistinguished  from 
those  which  are  sessile,  yet  more  espe- 
cially applied  to  the  lepas,  the  typical 
genus  of  the  family  and  order. 

In  ornithology  the  name  for  the  bar- 
nacle goose.  Formerly  the  absurb  belief 
was  entertained  that  there  geese  sprung 
from  the  barnacles  described  above.  Two 
species  of  the  genus  lepas  were  called, 
by  Linnaeus,  lepas  anserifera  and  L  ana- 
tifera  =  goose-bearing,  of  course  with  no 
belief  in  the  fable  suggested  by  the 
name. 

BARNARD,  EDWARD  EMERSON,  an 
American  astronomer,  born  in  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  Dec.  16,  1857;  graduated  at  Van- 
derbilt  University  in  1887;  was  astron- 
omer in  Lick  Observatory,  California,  in 
1887-1895,  and  then  became  Professor 
of  Astronomy  in  Chicago  University  and 
Director  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory.  His 
principal  discoveries  are  the  fifth  satel- 
lite of  Jupiter  in  1892,  and  16  comets. 
He  has  made  photographs  of  the  Milky 
Way,  the  comets,  nebulaa,  etc.  The 
French  Academ.y  of  Sciences  awarded 
him  the  Lelande  gold  medal  in  1892,  the 
Arago  gold  medal  in  1893,  the  Janssen 
gold  medal  in  1900,  and  the  Janssen 
prize  in  1906,  and  the  Royal  Astronom- 
ical Society  of  Great  Britain  gave  him  a 
gold  medal  in  1897.  He  is  a  member  of 
many  American  and  foreign  societies, 
and  a  contributor  to  astronomical  jour- 
nals. 


SABNABD 


423 


BARNES 


BARNARD,  FREDERICK  AUGUS- 
TUS PORTER,  an  American  educator, 
bom  in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  May  5,  1809; 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828; 
,  instructor  there  in  1830;  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Alabama  in  1837- 
1848,  and  afterward  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History  till  1854;  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mississippi,  1854-1861;  its 
president  in  1856-1858;  and  its  Chancel- 
lor in  1858-1861.  He  was  president  of 
Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  in 
1864-1888.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  expedition  to  observe  the 
eclipse  of  the  sun  in  Labrador;  was  en- 
gaged in  1862  in  reducing  observations 
of  the  stars  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere ; 
had  charge  of  the  publication  of  charts 
and  maps  of  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  in  1863;  was  named  one  of  the 
original  incorporators  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1863;  was  one 
of  the  United  States  commissioners  to 
the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867,  member 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
corresponding  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Liege,  and  member  of  many 
other  scientific  and  literary  associations. 
Among  his  publications  are  "Letters  on 
College  Government"  (1854) ;  "Report 
on  Collegiate  Education"  (1854)  ;  "Art 
Culture"  (1854) ;  "History  of  the  Amer- 
ican Coast  Survey"  (1857) ;  "University 
Education"  (1858) ;  "Undulatory  Theory 
of  Light"  (1862) ;  "Machinery  and  Proc- 
esses of  the  Industrial  Arts,  and  Ap- 
paratus of  Exact  Science"  (1868) ;  "Met- 
ric System  of  Weights  and  Measures" 
(1871) ;  etc.  He  died  in  New  York  City, 
April  27,  1889. 

BARNARD,      GEORGE      GREY,      an 

American  sculptor,  born  in  Bellefonte, 
Pa.,  in  1863.  He  studied  art  in  Paris, 
exhibited  in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1894,  was 
awarded  a  gold  medal  in  the  Paris  Ex- 
^  position  in  1900,  and  also  received  other 
medals  for  excellency  in  artistic  work. 
For  several  years  he  was  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  Art  Students'  League, 
New  York.  Following  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus Saint  Gaudens  he  was  the  most 
conspicuous  of  American  sculptors.  His 
best  known  works  include  sculptures  for 
the  Pennsylvania  State  capitol  and  a 
statue  of  Lincoln  which,  after  a  bitter 
controversy  as  to  its  fidelity  and  artistic 
merits,  was  presented  to  the  city  of  Man- 
chester, England,  in  1920. 

BARNARD-CASTLE,  a  town  of  Eng- 
land, county  of  Durham,  giving  name  to 
a  parliamentary  division  of  the  county. 
There  is  a  large  thread  mill  and  carpet 
manufactories,  the  Bowes  Museum  and 


Art  Gallery,  and  the  Northern  Counties 
School.  The  castle  was  originally  built 
about  1178  by  Barnard  Baliol,  grand- 
father of  John  Baliol. 

BARNARD  COLLEGE,  a  college  for 
women  in  New  York  City,  forming  a 
part  of  Columbia  University  (g.  v.). 
There  were  in  1919,  715  students  and  86 
members  of  the  faculty.  Dean,  V.  C. 
Gildersleeve,  Ph.  D. 

BARNARDO,  THOMAS  JOHN,  an 
English  philanthropist;  founder  of  the 
Barnardo  Homes  for  homeless  children; 
had  his  attention  first  turned  in  this  di- 
rection by  the  condition  in  which  he 
found  a  boy  in  a  ragged  school  in  East 
London  in  1866.  Following  up  the  sub- 
ject, he  began  to  rescue  children  who  had 
found  their  only  shelter  at  night  under 
archways,  or  in  courts  and  alleys.  These 
were  introduced  to  his  homes,  where  they 
received  an  industrial  training.  At  the 
time  of  Dr.  Barnardo's  death,  in  1905, 
over  60,000  destitute  children  had  passed 
through  his  institutions.  There  were 
then  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  colonies 
112  branches  including  an  immigration 
depot  at  Ontario,  and  farm  at  Mani- 
toba, home  for  babies  and  hospital  for 
sick  children.  Thousands  of  "Barnardo's 
boys"  fought  with  the  British  forces  on 
land  and  sea  in  the  European  War. 

BARNAVE,  ANTOINE  PIERRE 
JOSEPH  MARIE  (bar-naV),  a  French 
orator,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1761. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  rich  procureur. 
He  was  chosen  a  Deputy  of  the  tiers  Hat 
to  the  Assembly  of  the  States-General, 
and  showed  himself  an  open  enemy  to  the 
court.  The  Constituent  Assembly  ap- 
pointed him  their  President  in  January, 
1791.  After  the  flight  of  the  King,  and 
the  subsequent  arrest  of  the  royal  family, 
he  was  sent,  with  Petion  and  Latour- 
Maubourg,  to  conduct  them  to  Paris. 
When  the  correspondence  of  the  court 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victorious 
party,  Aug.  10,  1792,  they  pretended  to 
have  found  documents  which  showed  him 
to  have  been  secretly  connected  with  it, 
and  he  was  guillotined  Nov.  29,  1793. 

BARN  BURNERS,  the  nickname  given 
to  the  radical  element  of  the  Democratic 
party  in  New  York  State,  which  sup- 
ported Van  Buren  in  the  campaign  of 
1848. 

BARNEGAT  BAY,  a  bay  on  the  E. 
coast  of  New  Jersey,  about  25  miles  in 
length.  Barnegat  Inlet  connects  the  bay 
with  the  Atlantic. 

BARNES,  GEORGE  NICOLL.  a 
British  statesman,  born  in  Scotland  in 
1859.    He  entered  Parliament  in  1906  as 


BABXZS 


424 


BABNUM 


representative  of  the  Labor  party.  In 
1910  he  was  made  Pensions  Minister,  and 
in  1917  became  a  member  of  the  War 
Council.  He  was  a  dele^te  to  the  Peace 
Conference  in  Paris  in  1919,  and  was  a 
prominent  fi^re  in  the  discussion  and 
framing  of  the  Labor  feature  of  the 
LeagTie  of  Nations  covenant. 

BAB,XZS,      JAMES,      an      American 

writer,  born  in  Annapolis.  Md.,  in  1866. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  University 
in  1891,  was,  for  several  years  follow- 
ing, a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of 
several  magazines,  war  correspondent  in 
South  Africa  from  1889  to  1901,  and  lit- 
erary editor  of  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  from 
1905  to  1908.  Among  his  many  books 
are  '^Yankee  Ships  and  Yankee  Sailors" 
(1897) ;  "The  Son  of  Light  Horse 
Harry  (1904) ;  "The  Clutch  of  Circum- 
stance" (1908) ;  "Through  Central  Africa 
from  Coast  to  Coast"  (1915)  ;  etc.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  he  served  as  an  avi- 
ator and  for  several  months  was  head 
of  the  Princeton  Aviation  School.  He 
was  also  head  of  the  photographic  divi- 
sion of  the  United  States  Army  and  was 
sent  to  France  to  organize  the  United 
States  aviation  photographic  work. 

BABJfES,  WTLLIAM,  an  English  poet 
and  philologist,  bom  in  Dorsetshire,  Feb. 
22,  1800 ;  wrote  many  books  on  philology ; 
and  three  series  of  "Poems  of  Rural  Life 
in  the  Dorsetshire  Dialect"  (1844,  1846 
and  1863),  and  "Poems  of  Rural  Life" 
(1866).  He  died  in  Winterboume  Came, 
in  October,  1886. 

BAENES,  WTLLIAM,  JE.,  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  bom  in  1866.  He  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  University  in  1888 
and  became  in  the  following  year  owner 
and  editor  of  the  "Albany  Evening  Jour- 
nal." His  influence  and  powerful  per- 
sonality made  him  one  of  the  leading 
political  figures  in  New  York  State.  He 
was  for  several  years  practically  the  di- 
rector of  the  Republican  party  in  that 
State,  although  he  at  no  time  held  office. 
His  control  continued  until  1912,  when 
he  bitterly  opposed  the  attempt  to  nom- 
inate Theodore  Roosevelt  at  the  Repub- 
lican National  Convention.  Following  the 
defeat  of  the  Republican  party  in  1912 
his  influence  lessened  but  was,  however, 
gradually  revived  imtil  he  was  active 
in  the  Republican  Convention  of  1920 
and  was  one  of  the  leading  figures 
in  the  conservative  element  of  that 
convention. 

BAB,17ET,  a  town  of  England,  in 
Herts,  11  miles  from  London,  where  was 
fought  in  1471  a  battle  between  the 
Yorkists  and  Lancastrian?,  resulting  in 
the  defeat  of  the  latter  p.vd  the  death  of 


Warwick,  Edward  IV.  being  thus  estab- 
lished on  the  throne. 

BAENEVELDT.  JAN  VAN  OLDEN 
(bar'ne-velt) ,  Grand  Pensionary  of  Hol- 
land, born  in  1549.  He  had  scarcely 
reached  his  20th  year  when  he  was  called 
to  the  office  of  Councilor  and  Pensionary 
of  Rotterdam.  He  was  allowed  an  im- 
portant share  in  the  management  of 
those  transactions  with  France  and 
England  by  which  the  United  Provinces 
sought  to  maintain  themselves  against 
Spain,  whose  yoke  they  had  just  thrown 
off.  His  conduct  in  the  high  office  of 
Grand  Pensionary  of  Holland  and  West 
Friesland,  which  he  afterward  filled,  not 
only  secured  the  independence,  but  re- 
stored the  trade  and  improved  the 
finances  of  the  United  Provinces.  After 
the  election  of  Maurice  of  Nassau  to  the 
dignity  of  Stadtholder,  Bameveldt  be- 
came the  champion  of  popular  liberties, 
and  opposed  the  ambitious  designs  of  the 
new  prince.  He  was  so  far  successful 
as  to  have  a  truce  of  12  years  concluded 
with  Spain,  in  opposition  to  the  views 
of  the  Stadtholder.  About  this  time,  the 
fanaticism  of  two  sects,  the  Arminians 
and  (Jomarists,  raged  throughout  Hol- 
land, and  the  Grand  Pensionary  was  in- 
volved in  the  ruin  of  the  former.  After 
the  condemnation  of  the  Arminians  b5 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  Bameveldt  was  ad- 
judged to  death  as  a  traitor  and  heretic, 
by  26  deputies  named  by  Maurice.  The 
sentence  was  carried  into  effect  in  1619. 

BARNSLEY.  a  city  and  county 
borough  of  West  Riding,  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Dearne,  between  Leeds  and 
Sheffield,  in  the  middle  of  a  coal  district. 
It  is  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the  linen 
industry  and  has  flour  and  sawmills 
chemical  manufacturing,  wire  drawing 
and  glassmaking  plants  and  foundries. 
Pop.  about  52,000. 

BAENTTM,    PHIITEAS    TAYLOE,    an 

American  showman,  born  at  Bethel, 
Conn.,  July  5,  1810;  after  various  un- 
successful business  ventures,  finally  es- 
tablished Barn  urn's  Museum  in  New 
York  (1841),  which  was  twice  burned. 
He  introduced  Tom  Thumb,  Jenny  Lind, 
Commodore  Nutt,  Admiral  Dot,  the 
woolly  horse,  Jumbo,  etc.,  to  the  Ameri- 
can public.  In  1871  he  established  his 
great  circus.  He  was  mayor  of  Bridge- 
port, and  four  times  member  of  the  (Con- 
necticut Legislature.  His  benefactions 
were  large  and  frequent.  He  wrote  "Hum- 
bugs of  the  World"  (1865);  "Struggles 
and  Triumphs"  (1869)  ;  "Lion  Jack,  a 
Story"  (1876);  "Autobiography"  (1855). 
He  was  a  lecturer  on  temperance  and 
other  popular  subjects.  He  died  afc 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  April  7,  1891. 


BAEOCCO 


425 


BAaONET 


BAEOCCO,  or  BAROQUE,  a  terra  ap- 
plied to  the  last  phase  of  the  classic  re- 
\'ival  of  the  fine  arts  in  Italy.  Its  gen- 
eral tendency  was  away  from  the  classic 
refinement  and  restraint,  in  the  direcrlon 
of  ostentation.  Much  of  the  work  is  with- 
out meaning  and  at  times  vulgar.  It 
found  its  expression  chiefly  in  architec- 
ttire,  where  many  examples  still  exist  in 
Italy  and  throughout  Europe. 

BAEODA,  the  second  city  of  Guzerat, 
and  third  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay, 
India;  capital  of  the  native  state  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  248  miles  N.  of  Bom- 
bay, has  several  palaces,  Hindu  and  other 
temples,  contains  the  chief  court  of  the 
state,  a  high  class  school,  and  two  ver- 
nacular schools.  Baroda  occupies  an  im- 
portant situation  between  the  coast  and 
the  interior,  and  its  trade  is  consider- 
able. Pop.  about  100,000.  The  state  has 
an  area  of  8,182  square  mUes  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  over  2.000.000.  The  soil  is 
fertile;  ruined  temples,  deserted  towns 
and  t-anks  half  filled  with  mud  are  a 
witness  of  former  prosperity.  In  the  N. 
division  there  is  a  famous  breed  of  large 
white  cattle;  grain,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sugar-cane,  and  oU  seeds  are  the  chief 
agricultural  products,  and  grow  lux- 
uriantly. 

BAEOMETEE,  an  instrument  used  for 
measuring  the  atmospheric  pressure. 
The  most  common  form  of  barometer  is 
what  is  called  a  cistern  barometer.  It 
consists  essentially  of  a  straight  glass 
tube  about  33  inches  long,  fijfled  with 
mercury,  and  dipping  into  a  cistern  of 
the  same  metal.  It  is  af&xed  to  a  stand, 
on  the  upper  part  of  which  is  a  grad- 
uated scale  to  mark  the  height  in  inches 
at  which  the  mercury  stands.  When 
complete,  a  thermometer  stands  side  by 
side  with  it  to  note  the  temperature  at 
which  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is 
tested.  Gay-Lussac's  barometer  is  in  the 
form  of  a  siphon.  It  has  two  scales  with 
a  common  zero  point,  and  graduated  in 
contrary  directions.  As  the  one  branch, 
the  shorter  one.  corresponds  to  the  cis- 
tern, and  the  other  or  longer  one  to  the 
tube,  the  difl'erence  between  the  two 
levels  is  the  true  height  of  the  mercury. 
A  barometer  is  popularly  termed  a 
weather  glass.  In  order  to  adapt  it  for 
this  purpose  Hooke  devised  what  is  called 
the  wheel  barometer.  It  is  a  siphon  ba- 
rometer, having  in  its  shorter  leg  a  float, 
i  string  from  which  passes  over  a  pul- 
ley, and  is  connected  with  a  weight  some- 
what lighter  than  the  float.  To  the  pul- 
ley is  affixed  a  needle,  which  moves  round 
a  circle  graduated  to  represent  the  dif- 
ferent variations  in  the  weather.  Speak- 
ing broadly,  a  barometer  rises  for  good 


and  falls  for  bad  weather,  but  there  are 

exceptions  to  this  rule. 

BAEOX,  in  the  feudal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  title  baron,  derived 
from  the  Latin  vara,  which  signifies  a 
man,  and,  sometimes,  a  servant,  was 
given,  at  first,  to  the  immediate  tenant 
of  any  superior.  In  old  records,  the 
citizens  of  London  are  so  styled.  This 
title  was  introduced  by  William  the  Con- 
queror into  England,  from  Normandy, 
and  used  to  signify  an  immediate  vassal 
of  the  crown,  who  had  a  seat  and  vote 
in  the  royal  court  and  tribunals,  and, 
sut-sequently,  in  the  House  of  Peers.  It 
was  the  second  rank  of  nobility,  until 
dukes  and  marquises  were  introduced, 
and  placed  above  the  earls,  and  viscounts 
also  set  above  the  barons.  In  Germany, 
the  ancient  barons  of  the  empire  were 
the  immediate  vassals  of  the  crown. 
They  appeared  in  the  imperial  court  and 
diet,  and  belonged  to  the  high  nobility. 
But  these  ancient  feudatories  were  early 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  counts  or  princes. 
The  modem  barons  only  form  a  rank  of 
lower  nobility  after  the  counts.  In  Eng- 
land, baron  is  the  lowest  grade  of  raiJc 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  A  baron  is  styled 
right  honorable,  and  his  children  enjoy 
the  prefix  of  honorable.  In  England, 
too,  the  four  puisne  judges  of  the  Court 
of  Exchequer  bear  the  title  of  baron, 
and  the  chief  judge  that  of  Lord  Chief 
Baron  of  the  Exchequer.  Barons  of  the 
Cinque  Ports:  formerly  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  elected,  two  for  each, 
by   the   seven   Cinque   Ports. 

BAEOXET.  originally  a  term  ap- 
parently in  use  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Edward  III.  for  certain  landed  gentle- 
men not  of  the  dignity  of  lords,  sum- 
moned to  Parliament  to  counterbalance 
the  power  of  the  clergy.  Subsequently 
it  became  the  name  given  to  three  titled 
orders. 

1.  Baronets  of  Great  Britain :  A  titled 
order,  the  lowest  that  is  hereditary. 
Speaking  broadly,  they  rank  in  prece- 
dence next  after  the  younger  sons  of 
viscounts  and  barons:  but  in  reality 
thev  are  inferior  to  the  Knights  of  the 
Oraer  of  St.  George  or  of  the  Garter, 
certain  official  dignitaries,  and  knights- 
banneret  created  on  the  actual  field  of 
battle.  The  order  was  instituted  by 
James  I.,  on  May  22.  1611.  to  raise  money 
by  fee5  paid  for  the  dignity,  and  thus 
obtain  resources  for  the  settlement  of 
L'lster.  The  badge  of  a  baronet  is  sin- 
ister, a  hand  gules  ( =  a  bloody  hand)  in 
a  field  of  argent.  Etiquette  requires  that 
he  be  addressed  as  "Sir  A.  B.,  Bart," 

2.  Baronets  of  Ireland:  A  titled  or- 
der instituted  by  James  I.  in  1619.    It  is 


BARONY 


426 


BABBAGE 


believed  that  this  dignity  has  not  been 
conferred  on  any  one  since  the  union  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  1801. 

3.  Baronets  of  Scotland:  A  titled  or- 
der planned  by  James  I.,  but  actually 
instituted,  not  by  him,  but  by  Charles  I, 
in  1625,  just  after  the  accession  of  the 
latter  monarch  to  the  throne.  The  ob- 
ject aimed  at  in  the  creation  of  the  order 
was  the  planting  of  Nova  Scotia  (New 
Scotland).  Since  the  union  between 
England  and  Scotland  in  1707,  no  bar- 
onets have  been  created  holding  rank  in 
the  latter  country  alone,  but  some  titles 
existing  previously  still  figure  in  the 
British  baronetage. 

BARONY,  the  lordship  or  fee  of  a 
baron,  either  temporal  or  spiritual.  Orig- 
inally every  peer  of  superior  rank  had 
also  a  barony  annexed  to  his  other  titles. 
But  now  the  rule  is  not  universal.  Bar- 
onies in  their  first  creation  emanated 
from  the  King.  Baronies  appertain  also 
to  bishops,  as  they  formerly  did  to  ab- 
bots, William  the  Conqueror  having 
changed  the  spiritual  tenure  of  frank- 
almoyn,  or  free  alms,  by  which  they  held 
their  lands  under  the  Saxon  government, 
to  the  Norman  or  feudal  tenure  by 
barony.  It  was  in  virtue  of  this  that 
they  obtained  seats  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  word  is  common  in  Ireland 
for  a  subdivision  of  a  country. 

BAROTSE,  or  MAROTSE,  an  impor- 
tant Bantu  tribe  inhabiting  the  banks 
and  the  regions  E.  of  the  upper  Zambezi, 
from  about  14°  to  18°  S.  lat.  In  Liv- 
ingstone's time  the  Makololo  were  the 
dominant  tribe  in  these  parts  of  South 
Africa,  but  since  then  they  have  been  al- 
most entirely  annihilated  by  the  Bantus, 
who  now  occupy  the  vast  territory  from 
the  Kabompo  river  to  the  Victoria  Falls. 
Formerly  they  were  inhabitants  of  Ma- 
shonaland,  where  many  of  them  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Matabili,  while  the  others 
retired  into  upper  Zambezi  valley. 

BARR,  AMELIA  EDITH,  an  Anglo- 
American  novelist,  born  in  Ulverton, 
Lancashire,  England,  March  29,  1831. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Huddleston,  and  in  1850  married 
Robert  Barr.  She  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1854,  and  lived  for  some  years 
in  Texas;  but  after  her  husband's  death 
(1867)  removed  to  New  York,  where  her 
first  book,  "Romance  and  Reality,"  was 
published  in  1872.  Her  novels  were  very 
popular.  They  include  "Jan  Vedder's 
Wife"  (New  York,  1885) ;  "A  Daughter 
of  Fife"  (1885)  ;  "A  Bow  of  Orange  Rib- 
bon" (1886);  "A  Border  Shepherdess" 
(1887) ;  "Friend  Olivia"  (1890)  ;  "A  Sis- 
ter to  Esau"  (1891)  ;  "Remember  the 
Alamo"   and  "Prisoners  of  Conscience" 


(1897);  "I,  Thou,  and  the  Other  One' 
(1899);    "All    the    Days    of    My    Life' 
(1912);  "The  Measure  of  Man"  (1915) 
"Three  Score  Years  and  Ten,"  an  Auto 
biography    (1915);   "Christine"    (1917) 
etc.    She  died  in  1919. 

BARR,  ROBERT,  a  Scottish  author, 
born  in  Glasgow,  Sept.  16,  1850;  he  spent 
his  childhood  in  Canada,  drifted  into 
journalism,  joined  the  staff  of  Detroit 
"Free  Press,"  and  wrote  under  the  name 
of  "Luke  Sharp."  He  went  to  London 
in  1881  and  founded  "The  Idler"  with 
Jerome  K.  Jerome,  but  retired  to  devote 
himself  to  fiction.  He  wrote  a  number 
of   novels,    "In    the    Midst    of    Alarms" 

(1894) ;  "The  Face  on  the  Mask"  (1895) ; 
"One  Day's  Courtship"  (1896)  ;  "A  Wo- 
man Intervenes"   (1896) ;  "The  Victors" 

(1901);  "The  Sword  Maker"  (1910); 
"The  Palace  of  Logs"  (1912) ;  etc.  He 
died  in  1912. 

BARRA,  an  Island  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  W.  coast  of  Scotland,  belong- 
ing to  Invernessshire ;  8  miles  long  and 
from  2  to  5  broad,  of  irregular  outline, 
with  rocky  coasts,  surface  hilly,  but  fur- 
nishing excellent  pasture.  On  the  W. 
coast  the  Atlantic  has  hollowed  out  vast 
caves  and  fissures.  Large  herds  of  cat- 
tle and  flocks  of  sheep  are  reared  on  the 
island.  Fishing  is  an  important  indus- 
try.    Pop.  about  2,500. 

BARRACK,  a  hut  or  small  lodge. 
Formerly  a  temporary  building  of  this 
character,  one  of  many  erected  to  shelter 
horsemen.  Then  it  was  extended  to  em- 
brace any  temporary  erection  for  a  sol- 
dier, to  whatever  arm  of  the  service  be- 
longing. The  plural,  barracks,  is  now 
generally  applied  to  a  large  structure, 
for  the  housing  of  troops. 

BARRACKPUR,  a  native  town,  capi- 
tal of  a  subdistrict  in  Bengal,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Hooghly,  and  15  miles  up 
the  stream  from  Calcutta.  Two  Sepoy 
mutinies  have  occurred  here,  the  first 
in  1824,  when  a  regiment  of  Bengal 
infantry  refused  to  go  for  service  in 
the  Burmese  War,  and  again  in  the 
famous  mutiny  of  1857.  Pop.  about 
18,000. 

BARRACUDA,  a  fish — the  sphyrsena 
barracuda — found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Bahamas  and  other  West  Indian  islands. 

BARRAGE,  a  protective  artillery 
fire  laid  down  when  troops  are  advanc- 
ing to  an  assault.  Intensive  bombard- 
ment of  a  trench  or  other  point  destined 
for  attack  is  first  carried  on,  and  when 
the  defenders  are  supposed  to  be  suffi- 
ciently decimated  or  demoralized,  the  sig- 
nal  is   given   for  the   charge.     As   they 


•4 


.S  I  .^i^ar,- 


)/'"'    -'i^'^TI. do  Service 


A   CLUMP   OF   GIANT    BAMBOO    IN    CEYLON 


'-    /I  ,,     ;,    hy   Alfred   Machin 
GATHERING   THE    FRUIT    OF    THE    BAOBAB    TREE    IN    THE    REGION 
OF   THE   UPPER   NILE 


BABRANQUILLA 


427 


SaxwREXi 


advance,  a  barrage  is  laid  down  by  their 
artillery  either  behind  the  threatened 
position,  to  prevent  the  defenders  from 
retreating  or  being  re-enforced,  or  in 
front  of  the  advancing  troops,  to  clear 
their  path.  The  barrage  has  to  be  most 
carefully  calculated,  so  that  the  assail- 
ants themselves  may  not  be  caught  in  the 
fire  destined  for  their  foes. 

BARBANQUILLA  (bar-an-ke'la),  the 
principal  port  of  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia and  capital  of  the  department  of 
Atlantico,  lies  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
main  channel  of  the  Magdalena,  15  miles 
distant  from  the  sea.  A  railway  runs 
to  the  coast;  and  the  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  has  been  improved  so  as  to 
enable  sea-going  vessels  to  pass  up  to 
Barranquilla,  which  possesses  excellent 
wharfage  accommodation.  The  inland 
traffic  by  river  steamers  is  important. 
Pop.  about  65,000. 

BARRAS  (bar-a') ,  PAUL  FRANgOIS 
JEAN  NICOLAS,  COMTE  DE,  a  French 
Jacobin,  born  in  Provence,  in  1755; 
served  as  second  lieutenant  in  the  regi- 
ment of  Languedoc  until  1775.  He  made 
a  voyage  to  the  Isle-de-France,  and  en- 
tered into  the  garrison  of  Pondicherry. 
On  his  return,  he  led  a  dissipated  life 
and  squandered  his  fortune.  When  the 
Revolution  broke  out  he  opposed  the 
Court,  had  a  seat  in  the  tiers-etat, 
while  his  brother  sat  with  the  nobility. 
July  14,  1789,  he  took  part  in  the  attack 
upon  the  Bastille,  and  Aug.  10,  1792, 
upon  the  Tuileries.  In  1792  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Con- 
vention, and  voted  for  the  unconditional 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  He  was  sent,  in 
1793,  to  the  south  of  France,  and  com- 
manded the  left  wing  of  the  besieging 
army  under  Dugommier,  and  it  was  here 
that  he  first  met  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
then  captain  of  artillery.  Robespierre 
was  no  friend  of  his,  and  often  wished 
to  arrest  him.  Barras,  knowing  this,  be- 
came one  of  the  principal  actors  of  the 
9th  Thermidor,  and  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  troops  which  surrounded 
Robespierre  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  In 
1794  he  was  named  one  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  Public  Safety.  In  February,  1795, 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  Conven- 
tion, and,  in  that  capacity,  declared 
Paris  in  a  state  of  siege,  when  the  As- 
sembly was  attacked  by  the  populace. 
Afterward,  when  the  Convention  was  as- 
sailed, Bonaparte,  by  Barras'  advice,  was 
appointed  to  command  the  artillery;  and 
that  general,  on  the  13th  Vendemiaire 
(Oct.  5,  1795),  decisively  repressed  the 
royalist  movement.  For  his  services, 
Barras  was  now  named  one  of  the  Di- 
rectory.    Napoleon's  cmip  d'etat,  on  the 


18th  Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799),  overthrew 
the  power  of  Barras  and  his  colleagues. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  29,  1829. 

BARRE,  ISAAC  (ba-ra'),  a  British 
soldier,  born  at  Dublin  in  1726.  Gaz- 
etted as  an  ensign  in  1746,  he  became 
friendly  with  General  Wolfe,  under 
whom  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel. He  was  wounded  at  Quebec, 
was  beside  Wolfe  when  he  fell,  and  fig- 
ures in  West's  picture  of  "The  Death  of 
Wolfe."  He  entered  Parliament  in  1761, 
and  held  office  successively  under  Lord 
Bute,  Pitt,  Rockingham,  and  Lord  Shel- 
burne.  In  Pitt's  second  administration 
he  exposed  the  corruptions  of  the  min- 
istry, was  a  strong  opponent  of  Lord 
North's  ministry,  and  opposed  the  tax- 
ation of  America.  He  died  in  London, 
July  20,  1802. 

BARRE,  a  city  in  Washington  co., 
Vt.,  on  the  Central  Vermont  and  the 
Montpelier  and  Wells  River  railroads; 
6  miles  S.  E.  of  Montpelier.  Barre  re- 
ceived a  city  charter  in  1894;  and  has 
a  wide  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant seats  of  the  granite  industry  in 
the  United  States.  The  city  contains, 
besides  granite  quarries,  several  indus- 
trial plants  connected  therewith;  several 
banks;  a  library;  opera  house;  Goddard 
Seminary;  Spaulding  High  School;  and 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,734;   (1920)  10,008. 

BARREL,  a  word  having  many  ap- 
plications, including:  I.  Of  anj^hing 
shaped  like  a  cask.  (1)  A  cask;  a  vessel 
bulging  in  the  middle,  formed  of  staves 
surrounded  by  hoops,  and  with  a  bung- 
hole  to  afford  egress  to  the  generally 
liquid  contents.  (2)  The  capacity  of 
such  a  cask,  supposing  it  to  be  of  the 
normal  magnitude.  In  one  for  holding 
liquids  the  capacity  is  usually  from  30  to 
45  gallons. 

II.  Of  anything  hollow  and  cylindrical. 
The  metallic  tube  which  receives  the 
charge  in  a  musket  or  rifle.  With  the 
stock  and  the  lock,  it  comprises  the  whole 
instrument. 

III.  Of  ans^hing  cylindrical,  whether 
hollow  or  not.  A  cylinder,  and  especially 
one  about  which  anything  is  wound. 

Technically. — I.  Measures.  As  much  as 
an  ordinary  barrel  will  hold.  Specially: 
(1)  Liquid  measure.  In  this  sense  the 
several  liquids  have  each  a  different  ca- 
pacity of  barrel.  A  barrel  of  wine  is  31^/^ 
gallons;  a  barrel  of  oil  averages  from  50 
to  53  gallons.  (2)  Dry  measure.  A  bar- 
rel of  flour  contains  196  pounds. 

II.  Mechanics:  The  cylindrical  part  of 
a  pulley. 

III.  Horology:  (1)  The  barrel  of  a 
watch.     The  hollow  cylinder  or  case  in 


BARREN  ISLAND 


428 


BARRETT 


which  the  mainspring  works.  It  is  con- 
nected with  a  chain  by  the  fusee,  by  the 
winding  of  which  the  chain  is  unrolled 
from  the  cylinder,  with  the  effect  of 
winding  the  mainspring.  (2)  The  cham- 
ber of  a  spring  balance. 

IV.  Campanology:  The  sonorous  por- 
tion of  a  bell. 

V.  Anatomy:  Barrel  of  the  ear:  A 
cavity  behind  the  tympanum,  covered 
with  a  fire  membrane.  The  belly  and 
loins  of  a  horse  or  cow  are  technically 
spoken  of  as  the  barrel. 

VI.  Nautical:  (1)  The  main  piece  of  a 
capstan.  (2)  The  cylinder  around  which 
the  tiller-ropes  are  wound. 

VII.  Music :  The  cylinder  studded  with 
pins  by  which  the  keys  of  a  musical  in- 
strument are  moved. 

BARREN  ISLAND,  a  volcano  in  the 
Andaman  Sea,  about  12°  15'  N.  lat.;  93° 
54  E.  long.  Its  diameter  is  about  2  miles. 
There  is  an  ancient  crater  over  a  mile 
in  diameter,  from  the  center  of  which  a 
newer  cone  rises  to  a  height  of  1,015  feet. 
The  volcano  was  active  in  1789  and  1803, 
but  is  now  semi-dormant. 

BARRES,  MAURICE,  a  French  nov- 
elist, born  at  Charmes-sur-Moselle  in 
1862.  His  first  work  was  not  especially 
notable,  but  he  later  developed  remark- 
able powers  of  expression.  These  were 
devoted  chiefly  to  attempts  to  induce  the 
young  men  of  the  nation  to  remain  in  the 
provinces  and  build  up  national  tradi- 
tions. He  was  in  1906  elected  to  the 
Academy.  He  was  for  many  years  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  His 
best  known  works  are  "Les  deracines" 
(1897) ;  "L'Appel  au  soldat"  (1900) ; 
"Leurs  figures"  (1902)  ;  "Le  vovage  de 
Sparte"  (1906)  ;  "En  Italie"  (1912). 

BARRETT,  JOHN,  an  American  di- 
plomatist, born  in  Grafton,  Vt.,  Nov.  28, 
1866;  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1889,  and  the  same  year  went  to 
the  Pacific  coast  and  was  eneaged  in 
journalism  till  1894.  During  1894-1898 
he  was  United  States  Minister  Resident 
and  Consul-General  at  Bangkok,  Siam, 
and,  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office,  represented  several  American 
newspapers  in  Manila,  Philippine  Islands. 
After  the  American  victory  in  Manila 
Bay  he  made  a  special  study  of  condi- 
tions in  the  Philippine  Islands.  In  1903- 
1904  he  was  minister  to  Argentina,  and 
in  1904-1905  held  the  same  post  in  Pan- 
ama. He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in 
establishing  the  Pan-American  Union  in 
1907,  and  was  its  director-general  until 
1920.  when  he  resigned  to  enter  commer- 
cial life.  His  ser\ices  in  behalf  of  a 
better  understanding  between  the  coun- 


tries of  North,  (Central  and  South 
America  were  of  the  greatest  value. 
Among  his  writings  are:  "Admiral 
George  Dewey"  (1909);  and  "Pan-Amer- 
ican  Commerce;  Past,  Present  and 
Future"   (1919). 

BARRETT,  LAWRENCE,  an  Ameri- 
can actor,  born  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  April 
4,  1838.  His  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  was  in  1853.  In  1859  he  supported 
Booth,  Charlotte  Cushman  and  other 
eminent  actors.  He  served  as  a  captain 
in  the  28th  Massachusetts  Infantry  in 
the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War.  Later 
he  acted  at  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
and  at  Winter  Garden,  in  New  York, 
where  he  was  engaged  by  Mr.  Booth  to 
play  Othello  to  his  lago.  After  this  he 
became  an  associate  manager  of  the  Va- 
rieties Theater,  in  New  Orleans,  where 
for  the  first  time  he  played  the  parts  of 
Richelieu,  Hamlet,  and  Shylock.  In  1864 
he  secured  "Rosedale"  from  Lester  Wal- 
lack,  and  starred  in  it.  Manager  of  the 
California  theater,  1867-1870.  In  the 
last  year  he  played  with  Booth  at  Booth's 
Theater.  In  1871-1872  he  was  manager 
of  the  New  Varieties  Theater  in  New 
Orleans,  and  in  December,  1872,  acted 
Cassius  to  Booth's  Brutus  in  New  York. 
During  1873-1874  he  made  tours  through 
the  United  States.  In  1875  he  appeared 
as  Cassius  in  Booth's  Theater,  and  later 
as  King  Lear.  In  1882  he  brought  out 
"Francesca  da  Rimini,"  at  the  Chestnut 
Street  Theater  in  Philadelphia.  In  1887 
he  began  his  first  joint  engagement  with 
Edwin  Booth  in  Buffalo.  Mr.  Barrett's 
last  production  of  a  new  play  was  "Guido 
Ferranti"  by  Oscar  Wilde,  in  1890,  at  the 
Broadway  Theater,  New  York.  His  last 
appearance  was  on  March  18,  1891,  at 
the  Broadway  Theater  as  Adrian  du 
Mauprat  to  the  Richelieu  of  Mr.  Booth. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  March  21, 
1891. 

BARRETT,  WILSON,  an  English 
dramatist,  born  in  Essex,  Feb.  18,  1846; 
son  of  a  farmer;  entered  the  dramatic 
profession  in  1863.  In  1874  he  became 
manager  of  the  Amphitheater  in  Leeds, 
and  later  lessee  of  the  Grand  Theater  in 
Leeds;  in  1879  manager  of  the  Court 
Theater,  London;  and  in  1881,  of  Prin- 
cess' Theater,  London.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1886,  and,  returning  to 
England  in  1887,  became  manager  of  the 
Globe  Theater;  revisited  the  United 
States  in  1888,  and  again  in  1889;  in 
1896  became  manager  of  the  Lyric  Thea- 
ter, London;  and  in  1899,  of  the  Lyceum. 
His  publications  include  "The  Sign  of  the 
Cross,"  "  Pharaoh,"  "  Now-a-Days," 
"Daughters  of  Babylon,"  etc.  He  died 
July  22,  1904. 


BARKIE 


429 


SABROW 


BARBIE,  SIB  JAMES  MATTHEW, 
a  Scottish  author,  born  in  Kirriemuir, 
Forfarshire,  May  9,  1860.  He  graduated 
from  Edinburgh  University  in  1882,  and 
went  to  London  in  1885,  to  engage  in 
journalism.  His  peculiar  talent  for  de- 
picting Scottish  village  life  and  rustic 
characters  brought  him  fame.  "Better 
Dead"  (1887)  and  "When  a  Man's  Sin- 
gle" (1888)  were  followed  by  "Auld  Licht 
Idylls"     (1888)     and    "A     Window    in 


SIR  JAMES   MATTHEW  BARRIE 

Thrums"  (1889),  which  first  made  him 
widely  knovini;  "An  Edinburgh  Eleven" 
(1890);  "My  Lady  Nicotine"  (1890); 
"The  Little  Minister"  (1891) ;  "Senti- 
mental Tommy"  (1896) ;  "Margaret 
Ogilvy"  (1896) ;  "Tommy  and  Grizel" 
(1900) ;  "Peter  Pan  in  Kensington  Gar- 
dens" (1906) ;  "Peter  and  Wendy" 
(1911) ;  etc.  He  has  also  written  numer- 
ous short  sketches  and  the  comedies 
"Walker,  London"  (1892) ;  "Jane  Annie" 
(1893) ;  "The  Professor's  Love  Story" 
(1895) ;  "Quality  Street"  (1903) ;  "Peter 
Fan"  (1904)  ;  "What  Every  Woman 
Knows"  (1908);  "Half  Hours"  (1908); 
"Mary  Rose"   (1920). 

BABRIENTOS,  MARIA,  a  Spanish 
soprano  singer,  born  in  Barcelona,  Spain. 
She  studied  music  in  Madrid  and  first 
appeared  in  public  at  the  age  of  17  in 
Milan.  Gaining  instant  success,  she 
made  tours  in  the  leading  European  and 
South  American  countries.  In  1915  she 
sang  with  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Com- 
pany in  New  York,  of  which  organiza- 
tion she  was  a  member  for  several  years. 


BABBIEB  BEEF,  a  coral  reef  which 
extends  for  1,260  miles  off  the  N.  E. 
coast  of  Australia,  at  a  distance  from 
land  ranging  from  10  to  100  miles. 

BARRON,  JAMES,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Virginia  in  1769; 
became  Lieutenant  in  the  navy  in  1798, 
and  was  soon  promoted  to  Captain.  He 
commanded  the  "Chesapeake"  in  1807, 
and  was  attacked  by  the  British  ship 
"Leopard"  as  a  result  of  his  refusal  to 
allow  th©  "Chesapeake"  to  be  searched 
for  deserters.  The  "Chesapeake,"  which 
was  quite  unprepared,  discharged  one 
gun  previous  to  striking  her  colors.  She 
was  captured  and  three  alleged  deserters 
were  found.  Barron  was  court-martialed 
and  suspended  for  five  years.  Upon  his 
restoration,  as  the  outcome  of  a  long  cor- 
respondence with  his  personal  enemy. 
Commodore  Decatur,  a  duel  was  fought 
and  Decatur  was  killed.  Barron  became 
senior  officer  in  the  navy  in  1839.  and 
died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  April  21,  1851. 

BARROW,  an  artificial  mound  or 
tumulus,  of  stones  or  earth,  piled  up  over 
the  remains  of  the  dead.  Such  erections 
were  frequently  made  in  ancient  times  in 
our  own  land,  and  are  numerous  in  many 
countries.  In  Scotland  they  are  called 
cairns.  Burial  in  barrows  seems  to  have 
been  practiced  as  late  as  the  8th  century 
A.  D.  One  of  the  finest  barrows  in  the 
world  is  Silbury  Hill,  Wiltshire,  near 
Marlborough.  It  is  170  feet  in  perpen- 
dicular height,  316  along  the  slope,  and 
covers  about  five  acres  of  ground. 

BARROW,  a  term  applied  to  three 
prominent  localities  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
in  honor  of  Sir  John  Barrow.  (1)  Point 
Barrow  on  the  N.  coast  of  Alaska,  in  71'' 
23'  N.  lat.  and  156°  31'  W.  long.,  long 
considered  as  the  most  northerly  spot  on 
the  American  mainland.  (2)  Cape  Bar- 
row, on  the  coast  of  Canada,  or  Corona- 
tion Gulf,  is  at  68°  N.  lat.,  111°  W.  long. 
(3)  Barrow  Strait,  the  earliest  of 
Parry's  discoveries,  leading  to  the  W.  out 
of  Lancaster  Sound,  which  Parry's  imme- 
diate predecessor.  Captain,  afterward  Sir 
John  Ross,  had  pronounced  to  be  land- 
locked in  that  direction.  Besides  its 
main  course  to  Melville  Sound,  Barrow 
Strait  throws  off  Prince  Regent's  Inlet 
to  the  S.  and  Wellington  Channel  to  the 
N.  The  passage  averages  about  50  miles 
in  breadth,  extending  nearly  along  the 
parallel  of  74°  N.,  from  85°  to  100°  W. 

BARROW,  a  river  in  the  S.  E.  of 
Ireland,  province  of  Leinster,  rising  on 
the  borders  of  the  King's  and  Queen's 
counties,  and  after  a  southerly  course 
joining  the  Suir  in  forming  Waterford 
harbor.  It  is  the  next  in  importance  to 


BARROW 


430 


BARRYMOBE 


the  Shannon,  and  is  navigable  for  ves- 
sels of  200  tons  for  25  miles  above 
the  sea. 

BARROW,  ISAAC,  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  clei'gyman,  born  in  London, 
in  1630;  studied  at  the  Charterhouse  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  After  a 
course  of  medical  studies  he  turned  to 
divinity,  mathematics,  and  astronomy, 
and  graduated  anew^  at  Oxford  in  1652. 
In  1659  he  was  ordained;  in  1660  elected 
Greek  professor  at  Cambridge;  in  1662 
Professor  of  Geometry  in  Gresham  Col- 
lege; in  1663,  Lucasian  Professor  of 
Mathematics  at  Cambridge.  In  1670  he 
was  created  D.  D.,  in  1672  Master  of 
Trinity  College,  and  in  1675  Vice-Chan- 
cellor  of  Cambridge  University.  He  died 
in  1677.  His  principal  mathematical 
works  (written  in  Latin)  are:  "Elements 
of  Euclid"  (1655)  ;  "Data  of  Euclid" 
(1657)  ;  "Mathematical  Lessons"  (1664- 
1666) ;  "Lessons  in  Geometry"  (1670) ; 
"Works  of  Archimedes";  "Spherics  of 
Theodosius"  (1675).  All  his  English 
works  which  are  theological  were  left 
in  MSS.,  and  published  by  Dr.  Tillotson, 
in  1685.  As  a  mathematician  Barrow 
was  deemed  inferior  only  to  Newton. 

BARROW-IN-FURNESS,  an  English 
seaport  and  county  borough  in  Lanca- 
shire ;  opposite  the  island  of  Walney.  Its 
prosperity  is  due  to  the  mines  of  red 
hematite  iron  ore  which  abounds  in  the 
district.  There  is  an  extensive  trade  in 
timber,  cattle,  grain  and  flour;  and  iron 
ore  and  pig  iron  are  largely  shipped.  It 
has  numerous  blast  furnaces,  and  one  of 
the  largest  Bessemer  steel  works  in  the 
world.  Besides  iron  works  a  large  busi- 
ness is  done  in  ship  building,  the  making 
of  railway  cars  and  rolling  stock,  ropes, 
sails,  bricks,  etc.    Pop.  about  75,000. 

BARROWS,      JOHN      HENRY,      an 

American  educator,  born  in  Medina, 
Mich.,  July  11,  1847;  was  graduated  at 
Olivet  College  in  1867;  subsequently 
studied  in  Yale  College,  Union  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminaries,  and  at 
Gottingen.  Pastor  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  at  Chicago,  for  14  years;  organ- 
ized and  was  president  of  the  World's 
Parliament  of  Religions  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago,  in 
1893.  He  delivered  lectures  on  Christian- 
ity in  universities  in  India,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
in  1896-1897,  and  became  President  of 
Oberlin  College  in  1898.  He  published 
"The  Gospels  are  True  Histories" 
(1891)  ;  "Henry  Ward  Beecher,  the  Pul- 
pit Jupiter"  (1893);  "The  World  Pil- 
grimage"; "History  of  the  Parliament 
of  Religions";  etc.  He  died  June  2, 
1902. 


BARRY,  SIR  CHARLES,  an  English 
architect,  born  in  London,  in  1795.  After 
executing  numerous  important  buildings, 
such  as  the  Reform  Club-house,  London, 
St.  Edward's  School,  Birmingham,  etc., 
he  was  appointed  architect  of  the  new 
Houses  of  Parliament,  at  Westminster, 
with  the  execution  of  which  he  was  occu- 
pied for  more  than  24  years.  He  was 
knighted  in  1852,  and  died  suddenly  in 
1860. 

BARRY,  JOHN,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Tacumshane,  Ireland,  in 
1745.  He  settled  in  Philadelphia  in  1760. 
When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
"Lexington,"  with  which  he  captured  the 
British  tender  "Edward,"  in  1776.  He 
afterward  took  command  of  the  "Ra- 
leigh," which  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish "Experiment";  but  in  his  next 
command,  the  "Alliance,"  he  captured 
the  British  ships  "Atlanta"  and  "Tre- 
passy."  He  was  chosen  to  convey  Lafa- 
yette and  Noailles  back  to  France;  and 
in  1794  was  appointed  commodore.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  13,  1803. 

BARRY,  THOMAS  HENRY,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1855.  He  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1877 
and  was  appointed  2d  lieutenant  in  the 
same  year.  After  promotion  through 
various  grades,  he  became  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  assistant  adjutant-general  in 

1900.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  with 
that  rank  served^  with  the  China  relief 
expedition    and    in    the    Philippines    in 

1901.  He  was  appointed  colonel  and 
assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  regular 
army  in  1902,  brigadier-general  in  1903, 
and  major-general  in  1908.  In  1900  and 
1901  he  was  chief  of  staff  of  the  Division 
of  the  Philippines.  From  1907  to  1909  he 
commanded  the  army  of  Cuban  pacifi- 
cation, and  was  commander  of  the  de- 
partment of  California  until  1910,  when 
he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  He 
was  commander  of  the  Eastern  Depart- 
ment in  1913,  the  Philippine  Department 
in  1915,  and  the  Central  Department 
in  1917.  During  the  training  of  troops 
for  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces, 
he  was  commander  at  Camp  Grant,  and 
was  commander  of  the  86th  Division  of 
the  National  Army  until  February, 
1918,  when  he  became  again  commander 
of  the  Central  Department.  He  died 
Dec.  30,  1919. 

BARRYMORE,  ETHEL  (Mrs.  Russell 
G.  Colt),  an  American  actress,  born  in 
Philadelphia    in    1879,    the    daughter    of 


BARRYMORE 


431 


BARTHOLOMEW 


Maurice  Barrytnore  and  Georgiana 
(Drew)  Barrymore.  She  was  educated 
privately  and  first  appeared  on  the  stage 
in  John  Drew's  company  in  1896.  She 
later  appeared  in  leading  roles  with 
Henry  Irving.  She  first  appeared  as  a 
star  in  1900,  and  later  played  as  star  in 
many  successful  plays.  She  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  American  actresses 
of  her  generation. 

BARRYMORE,  JOHN,  an  American 
actor,  brother  of  Ethel  Barrymore  and 
son  of  Maurice  Barrymore,  born  in  1882. 
He  first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  1903 
and  two  years  later  played  in  London  as 
leading  man  with  great  success.  In 
1919-1920  he  appeared  with  his  brother 
Lionel  Barrymore  in  "The  Jest"  and 
following  this  appeared  as  the  star  in 
a  production  of  "Richard  III."  He  also 
appeared  in  several  moving-picture  plays, 
notably  "Dr.  Jekyl  and  Mr.  Hyde." 

BARRYMORE,  MAURICE,  an  Ameri- 
can actor,  whose  real  name  was  Herbert 
Blythe,  born  in  India  in  1847.  He  was 
educated  in  Cambridge  University,  and 
entering  upon  a  stage  career,  removed 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  quickly 
rose  to  eminence  in  his  profession.  In 
1876  he  married  Georgiana  Drew  of  the 
famous  family  of  actors.  He  acted  as 
leading  man  for  Modjeska,  for  Mrs. 
Langtry,  for  Olga  Nethersole,  and  for 
Mrs.  Fiske.  Barrjnnore  was  considered 
one  of  the  most  finished  and  accom- 
plished actors  Qf  his  day.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral plays,  including  "Nadjeska,"  in 
which  Mme.  Modjeska  appeared  in  1884. 
He  died  in  1905. 

BARSABAS,  JOS'EPH,  surnamed  "the 
Just,"  one  of  Christ's  early  disciples, 
and  probably  one  of  the  70.  He  was  one 
of  the  two  candidates  nominated  to  fill 
the  vacancy  left  by  Judas  Iscariot  in  the 
apostleship  (Acts  i). 

BAR-SXJR-AUBE  (bar-siir-ob'),  a 
town  in  the  department  of  Aube,  France ; 
30  miles  E.  of  Troyes;  notable  as  the 
scene  of  a  victory  of  the  allied  forces, 
commanded  by  Schwarzenberg,  over  the 
French,  commanded  by  Macdonald  and 
Oudinot,  Feb.  27,  1814.  The  council 
which  decided  the  plan  of  campaign  of 
the  allies  was  held  here  before  the  battle, 
Feb.  25.     Pop.  about  5,000. 

BART,  BARTH,  or  BAERT  (bart), 
JEAN,  a  French  sailor,  born  at  Dun- 
kirk, 1650,  the  son  of  a  poor  fisherman. 
He  became  captain  of  a  privateer,  and 
was  appointed  captain  in  the  Royal  Navy 
and  for  exceptional  service  was  made 
commodore  and  ennobled.  He  made  the 
French  navy  everywhere  respected,  and 


furnished^  some  of  the  most  striking 
chapters  in  the  romance  of  naval  war- 
fare. After  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  he 
lived  quietly  at  Dunkirk,  and  died  there 
in  1702. 

BARTHELEMY,  JEAN  JACQUES, 
a  French  antiquarian,  born  at  Cassis, 
Provence,  Jan.  20,  1716;  won  European 
fame  with  his  "Travels  of  Young  Ana- 
charsis  in  Greece"  (1788),  a  fascinating 
picture  of  domestic  and  social  life  in 
ancient  Greece.  As  a  romancer  he  wrote 
"The  Loves  of  Carites  and  Polydorus" 
(1760).  He  died  in  Paris,  April  30, 
1795. 

BARTHOLDI,  FREDERIC  AUGUSTE 

(bar-tol-de'),  a  French  sculptor,  bom  in 
Colmar,  Alsace,  April  2,  1834;  received 
the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1865 ; 
principal  works:  the  "Lion  of  Belfort"; 
statue  of  Lafayette,  in  Union  Square, 
New  York;  bronze  group  of  Lafayette 
and  Washington,  in  Paris  (1895)  ;  and 
the  colossal  figure  in  New  York  harbor, 
"Liberty  Enlightening  the  World."  He 
died  Oct.  4,  1904. 

BARTHOLOMEW  FAIR,  or  BAR- 
TLEMY  FAIR,  a  celebrated  fair,  which 
was  long  held  in  Smithfield  at  Bartholo- 
mew-tide. The  charter  authorizing  it 
was  granted  by  Henry  I.  in  1153,  and  it 
was  proclaimed  for  the  last  time  in  1855. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  MASSACRE  OF 
ST.,  the  massacre  of  French  Protestants 
which  began  in  Paris.  In  1572,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IX.,  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal French  Protestants  were  invited 
to  Paris,  under  a  solemn  pledge  of  safety, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the 
King  of  Navarre,  afterward  Henry  IV., 
with  the  French  King's  sister.  Though 
doomed  to  destruction,  they  were  treated 
for  seven  months  with  every  possible 
mark  of  courtesy  and  confidence.  Mean- 
while the  warrant  for  their  destruction 
was  issued  by  their  sovereign,  on  whose 
word  they  had  relied.  This  horrible 
butchery  began  on  Aug.  24,  that  being 
St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  on  which,  and 
the  two  following  days,  more  than  10,000 
Protestants  were  murdered  in  Paris.  A 
like  carnage  ensued  in  the  provinces, 
where  upward  of  25,000  more  were  de- 
stroyed by  other  bloodthirsty  fanatics. 
Sully  says  that  the  number  massacred 
throughout  the  kingdom  amounted  to 
70,000.  This  deed  was,  however,  ap- 
plauded in  Spain;  at  Rome,  solemn 
thanksgivings  were  offered  to  God  for  its 
success,  and  medals  were  struck  at  Pans 
in  honor  of  it;  while,  as  a  mark  of 
Protestant  detestation,  Elizabeth  and  the 
English  court  put  on  dpep  mourning,  and 
received  the  French  enibassy  in  solemn 
silence. 


BARTHOLOMEW,  ST. 


432 


BARTLETT 


BARTHOLOMEW,  ST.,  the  apostle, 
probably  the  same  person  as  Nathanael, 
mentioned,  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
as  an  upright  Israelite,  and  one  of  the 
first  disciples  of  Jesus.  He  is  said  to 
have  taught  Christianity  in  the  south  of 
Arabia,  and  to  have  carried  there  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  in  the  Hebrew 
language,  according  to  Eusebius.  Chry- 
sostom  mentions  that  he  preached  in 
Armenia  and  Natolia.  The  ancient 
church  had  an  apocryphal  Gospel  bear- 
ing his  name,  of  which  nothing  has  been 
preserved.  The  Catholic  Church  cele- 
brates a  feast  in  his  honor,  on  the  24th 
of  August. 

BARTHOU,  LOUIS,  a  French  states- 
man, born  in  1862.  He  entered  public 
life  at  an  early  age  and  occupied  many 
important  positions  in  the  French  Gov- 
ernment, including  service  as  Minister 
of  Public  Works  and  Minister  of  the 
Interior.  He  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Justice  in  the  first  cabinet  of  President 
Poincard  in  1913.  On  the  fall  of  this 
ministry  in  Ma,rch  of  the  same  year,  he 
was  appointed  Premier  and  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  figures  in  the  controversy  between 
the  French  Government  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  on  the  question  of  the 
separation  of  church  and  state  and  was 
especially  zealous  in  carrsdng  out  the 
legislation  passed  in  order  to  effect  this 
separation. 

BARTLESVILLE,  i  city  of  Oklahoma, 
the  county-seat  of  Washington  co.  It  is 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
and  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  rail- 
roads. It  is  in  the  Mid-Continent  Oil 
Field,  the  growth  of  which  has  been  the 
most  notable  phase  of  the  petroleum  in- 
dustry in  recent  years.  The  town  has 
a  kbrary,  a  court  house,  an  Elks  Home, 
city  hall,  and  other  public  buildings. 
There  are  smelters  of  zinc  and  deposits 
of  natural  gas.  Pop.  (1910)  6,181; 
(1920)    14,417. 

BARTLETT,  SIR  ELLIS  ASHMEAD, 
an  English  politician,  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  of  American  parents,  in  1849; 
graduated  at  Christ  Church  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1872;  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1877 ;  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from 
Eye  division  of  Suffolk  in  1880-1885;  and 
from  Ecclesall  division  of  Suffolk  since 
1895;  was  Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
in  1885-1886,  and  1886-1892.  He  is  the 
author  of  "The  Battlefields  of  Thessaly" 
(1897).    He  died  in  London,  1902. 

BARTLETT,  FREDERICK  ORIN,  an 

American  writer,  born  in  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  in  1876.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  and  at  Harvard  Univer- 


sity. For  several  years  he  was  engaged 
in  newspaper  work.  His  best  known 
books  are  "The  Web  of  the  Golden 
Spider"  (1909) ;  "The  Lady  of  the  Lane" 
(1912);  "The  Triflers"  (1917).  He  was 
a  frequent  contributor  of  short  stories 
to  magazines. 

BARTLETT,  JOHN,  an  American  au- 
thor and  publisher,  born  in  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  June  14,  1820;  became  a  publisher 
in  Cambridge  in  1836,  and  senior  partner 
in  the  Boston  publishing  house  of  Little, 
Brown  &  Co.,  in  1878.  His  works  include 
"Familiar  Quotations"  (1854);  "The 
Shakespeare  Phrase-Book"  (1882) ;  "Cat- 
alogue of  Books  on  Angling,  Including 
Ichthyology,  Pisciculture,  etc."  (1882)  ; 
"The  Shakespeare  Index";  "The  Com- 
plete Concordance  to  Shakespeare's  Dra- 
matic Works"  (1894);  and  "Poems." 
He  died  Dec.  3,  1905. 

BARTLETT,   PAUL   WAYLAND,    an 

American  sculptor,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1865.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  Haven  and  Boston 
and  studied  sculpture  in  Paris.  At  the 
age  of  14  he  exhibited  a  bust  of  his 
grandmother  in  the  Paris  salon.  He  made 
many  notable  pieces  of  sculpture,  in- 
cluding the  statue  of  General  Joseph 
Warren  m  Boston,  the  statue  of  Lafa- 
yette in  Paris,  which  was  a  gift  to 
France  from  the  school  children  of  the 
United  States,  a  statue  of  Columbus  in 
the  Congressional  Library,  six  statues 
on  the  front  of  the  New  York  Public 
Library,  and  a  statue  of  Benjamin 
Franklin.  His  works  are  found  in  many 
of  the  leading  art  galleries  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad.  He  was  a  member  of 
several  societies,  including  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

BARTLETT,  ROBERT  ABRAM,  an 

American  explorer,  born  at  Brigus,  New- 
foundland, in  1875.  After  several  years 
spent  at  sea  he  took  part  in  the  Peary 
expedition  of  1897-1898  as  commander  of 
the  vessel.  This  was  followed  by  sev- 
eral other  trips,  including  the  journey 
with  Peary  in  1905-1909,  which  ended  in 
the  discovery  of  the  North  Pole.  He  fol- 
lowed this  with  several  other  expeditions 
to  the  Arctic  regions,  including  the 
Crocker  Land  Relief  Expedition  to  North 
Greenland  in  1917.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  marine  superintendent  of 
the  Army  Transport  Service.  He  was 
awarded  several  medals  for  his  services 
in  explorations  and  received  an  honorary 
degree  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1920. 

BARTLETT,  SAMUEL  COLCORD,  an 
American   educator,   born   in    Salisbury.  ^ 
N.  H.,  Nov.  25,   1817;   was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  College,  teaching  there  and 


BABTON 


433 


BAEUCH 


at  Andover;  was  pastor  of  a  church  at 
Monson,  Mass.;  subsequently  Professor 
of  Philosophy  in  Western  Reserve  Uni- 
versity, Ohio.  He  afterward  became 
pastor  of  a  church  at  Manchester,  N.  H., 
and  later  of  the  New  England  Church  in 
Chicago.  In  1858  he  was  made  Professor 
of  Biblical  Literature  in  the  Chicago 
Theological  Seminary,  where  he  remained 
until  1873.  In  1877  he  became  president 
of  Dartmouth  College,  resigning  in  1892, 
He  was  author  of  "From  Egypt  to  Pales- 
tine" (1879),  and  also  wrote  a  part  of 
"Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible."  He 
died  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Nov.  16,  1898. 

BARTON,  CLARA,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  Oxford,  Mass.,  in 
1830;  was  educated  at  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
and  early  became  a  teacher,  and  founded 
at  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  a  free  school,  open- 
ing it  with  six  pupils.  In  1854  it  had 
grown  to  600,  when  she  became  a  clerk 
in  the  Patent  office  in  Washington.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  she  be- 
came a  volunteer  nurse  in  the  army  hos- 
pitals and  on  the  battle-field.  In  1864  she 
was  appointed  by  General  Butler  to  the 
charge  of  the  hospitals  at  the  front  of 
the  Army  of  the  James.  She  was  present 
at  several  battles,  and  in  1865  went  to 
Andersonville,  Ga.,  to  identify  and  mark 
the  graves  of  Union  prisoners  buried 
there,  and  was  placed  by  President  Lin- 
coln in  charge  of  the  search  for  missing 
men  of  the  Union  armies.  She  lectured 
on  her  war  experiences  in  1866-1867.  In 
the  Franco-Prussian  War,  in  1870,  she 
aided  the  Grand  Duchess  of  Baden  in 
preparing  military  hospitals,  assisted  the 
Red  Cross  Society,  superintended  the 
distribution  of  work  to  the  poor  of  Stras- 
burg,  in  1871,  after  the  siege,  and  in  1872 
in  Paris.  She  was  decorated  with  the 
Golden  Cross  of  Baden  and  the  Iron 
Cross  of  Germany.  On  the  organization 
of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society  in 
1881,  she  was  made  its  President,  and  in 
1884  had  charge  of  the  relief  of  sufferers 
from  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  floods. 
She  was  Special  Commissioner  for  For- 
eign Exhibits  at  the  New  Orleans  Ex- 
position in  1883,  represented  the  United 
States  at  the  Red  Cross  Conference  in 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  1884,  and  was 
delegate  to  the  International  Peace  Con- 
ference in  Geneva  the  same  year.  In  1889 
she  had  charge  of  relief  of  sufferers  from 
the  floods  at  Johnstown,  Pa.;  in  1892  dis- 
tributed relief  to  the  Russian  famine 
sufferers;  in  1896,  personally  directed 
relief  measures  at  the  scenes  of  the 
Armenian  massacres;  in  1898,  at  the 
request  of  President  McKinley,  took 
relief  to  the  Cuban  reconcentrados,  and 
performed  field  work  during  the  war 
with   Spain;    and   in   1900   undertook  to 


direct  the  relief  of  sufferers  at  Galveston. 
In  1904  she  resigned  her  presidency  of 
the  Red  Cross  Society.  Her  published 
works  include :  "Story  of  the  Red  Cross" 
(1904) ;  "Story  of  My  Childhood"  (1907). 
Miss  Barton  died  in  1912. 

BARTOISr,  JAMES  LEVI,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  in  Charlotte,  Vt.,  in 
1855.  He  graduated  from  Middlebury 
College  in  1881,  and  from  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary  in  1885.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  ordained  to  the  Con- 
gregational ministry.  He  served  as  mis- 
sionary at  Harpoot,  Turkey,  from  1885 
to  1892.  In  1893  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  Euphrates  College  at  Har- 
poot. He  served  as  a  member  of  mis- 
sionary deputations  to  Japan,  India,  and 
China.  He  wrote  much  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  missionary  work.  The  best 
knovim  of  his  books  are  "The  Missionary 
and  His  Critics";  "Daybreak  in  Turkey"; 
"Human  Progress  Through  Missions"; 
"Educational  Missions." 

BARTON,  WILLIAM  ELEAZAR,  an 
American  clergyman  and  writer,  born  in 
Sublette,  111.,  in  1861.  He  graduated 
from  Berea  College  in  1885  and  from  the 
Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  in  1890. 
In  1885  he  was  ordained  to  the  Congre- 
gational ministry  and  filled  pastorates 
in  Ohio  and  Boston  and  Chicago,  until 
1899.  He  served  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
several  religious  papers  and  was  lecturer 
of  applied  practical  theology  at  the  Chi- 
cago Theological  Seminary  from  1905  to 
1909.  From  1911  he  lectured  at  the  same 
institution  on  ecclesiastical  law.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
"Youth's  Companion"  and  was  an  officer 
of  many  theological  and  missionary  so- 
cieties. He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  re- 
ligious and  historical  topics.  Among  his 
works  are  "A  Hero  in  Homespun" 
(1897);  "The  Psalms  and  Their  Story" 
(1898);  "I  Go  A-Fishing"  (1901); 
"Bible  Classics"  (1911);  "Into  All  the 
World"  (1911). 

BARTRAM,  JOHN,  an  American 
botanist,  born  in  Chester  co.,  Pa.,  March 
23,  1699;  was  called  the  "father  of 
American  botany,"  and  founded  at 
Kingsessing  the  first  botanical  garden 
in  America.  Linnaeus  termed  him  "the 
greatest  natural  botanist  in  the  world." 
He  published  "Observations  on  the  In- 
habitants, Climate,  Soil,  Diverse  Produc- 
tions, Animals,  etc..  Made  in  His  Travels 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Lake  Ontario,"  and 
a  similar  volume  on  eastern  Florida 
(1766).  He  died  at  Kingsessing,  near 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  22,  1777. 

BARTTCH,  BERNARD  MANNES,  an 
American  financier  and  public  official.  He 
graduated  from  the  College  of  the  City 


BARUCH 


434 


BARYTA 


of  New  York  in  1899.  For  many  years 
he  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  and  acquired  a  large  fortune. 
In  1915  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Wilson  a  member  of  the  Advisory  Com- 
mission of  the  Council  of  National  De- 
fense. He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Commission  on  Raw  Materials,  Minerals 
and  Metals,  and  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission in  charge  of  purchases  for  the 
War  Industries  Board.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chairman  of  the  War  Industries 
Board  in  1918.  During  the  negotiations 
of  the  peace  treaty  in  Paris  he  acted  as 
financial  adviser  to  the  American  dele- 
gates. 

BARUCH,  SIMON,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  at  Schwersenz,  Germany,  in 
1840.  He  received  his  early  education 
in  Germany.  Removing  to  the  United 
States  he  graduated  from  the  Medical 
College  of  Virginia  in  1862.  He  was 
surgeon  in  the  Confederate  Army  until 
1865,  and  was  captured  during  this  serv- 
ice. Following  the  war,  he  practiced 
medicine  in  Camden,  S.  C,  until  1881, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York  and  be- 
came consulting  physician  on  chronic 
diseases.  He  diagnosed  the  first  recorded 
case  of  perforating  appendicitis  and  suc- 
cessfully operated  on  it.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  introducing  free  municipal 
baths  in  New  York  City.  For  many 
years  he  was  on  the  medical  staff  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  at 
Columbia,  and  was  one  of  the  most  noted 
physicians  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
the  author  of  "Uses  of  Water  in  Modem 
Medicine"  (1892) ;  "The  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Hydrotherapy."  In  1913  a 
hospital  was  erected  in  his  honor  at 
Camden,  S.  C. 

BARUS,  CARL,  an  American  physi- 
cist, born  in  Cincinnati  in  1856.  He  was 
educated  at  Columbia  University  and  in 
Germany,  and  he  took  post-graduate 
courses  at  Brown  and  Clark  universities. 
He  served  in  various  departments  of  the 
United  States  Government  as  physicist 
and  became,  in  1895,  professor  of  physics 
at  Brown  University.  From  1903  he  was 
dean  of  the  graduate  department  of  that 
university.  He  was  awarded  the  Rum- 
ford  Medal  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  for  researches  in  heat. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  important 
commissions  on  chemical  subjects,  and 
was  a  member  also  of  many  scientific  so- 
cieties. His  writings  include  "Compressi- 
bility of  Liquids"  (1892) ;  "Condensation 
of  Atmospheric  Moisture"  (1895) ;  "Dif- 
fusion of  Gases  through  Liquids" 
(1913). 

BARYE,  ANTOINE  LOUIS,  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1795. 


He  studied  engraving  with  Fourrier  and 
a  goldsmith  named  Beinnais;  in  1812, 
was  a  topographical  engineer;  in  1816 
studied  drawing  with  the  painter  Gros, 
and  sculpture  with  Basio;  and,  in  1819, 
took  the  second  prize  for  a  "Milo  di  Cro- 
tona,"  which  was  awarded  him  at  the 
Concours  of  the  Beaux  Arts.  From  1823 
till  1831  he  worked  under  Fauconnier, 
jeweler  to  the  Duchesse  d'Angouleme.  In 
1831  he  exhibited  the  celebrated  "Tiger 
Devouring  a  Crocodile."  He  was  an  of- 
ficer of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  a  member 
of  the  Institute,  and  a  professor  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.  He  died  in  Paris, 
June  25,  1875. 

BARYTA,   or  BARYTES,   or  OXIDE 
OF    BARIUM,    symbol    BaO — ^the   earth 
present  in  the  minerals  witherite   (car- 
bonate    of     barium)      and  heavy     spar 
(sulphate  of  barium).     Baryta   belongs 
to  the  group  of  alkaline  earths,  and  has 
the  property  of  acting  like  an  alkali  on 
coloring  matters.     It  has  a  very  harsh 
taste,    is    highly    caustic,  and    is    very 
poisonous.  The  presence  of  carbonic  acid 
gas    may    be    detected    by    exposing    a 
solution  of  baryta  to  the  air,  when  car- 
bonic acid  combines  with  the  baryta  and 
forms  a  film  of  white  carbonate  of  ba- 
rium, BaCOa.     Barjrta  exposed  to  air  or 
oxygen  absorbs  oxygen,  forming  peroxide 
of  barium.    On  this  being  heated  oxygen 
is  liberated  and  baryta  again  produced. 
The  sulphate  of  baryta,  BaS04,  otherwise 
called  ponderous  or  heavy  spar,  is  found 
in  fissures  or  cracks  in  other  rocks.     It 
is   crystalline,   and   is   sometimes   found 
pure  and  white,  but  generally  presents 
a  flesh-red  color,  from  the  red  oxide  of 
iron  (rust)  incorporated  in  it.    The  rust 
can  be  got  quit  of  by  reducing  the  sul- 
phate of  baryta  to  a  fine  powder  under 
rollers  or  traveling  wheels,  and  subject- 
ing the  pulverized  material  to  the  action 
of    dilute    sulphuric    acid,    which    dis- 
solves   the    oxide    of    iron,    and    leaves 
the  sulphate  of  baryta  as  a  white,  dense 
powder.      The    principal    use    of    heavy 
spar  is  as  a  pigment  under  the  name  of 
permanent     white;     but     having     little 
opacity,  it  cannot  be  employed  by  itself, 
but    only    when    mixed    with    ordinary 
white   lead.      Several    mixtures    of    sul- 
phate   of    baryta    and    white    lead    are 
manufactured,   and   are   known   in   com- 
merce.    Venice  white  contains  one  part 
sulphate   of  baryta   and  one  part  white 
lead.       Hamburg    white     contains     two 
parts  sulphate  of  baryta  and  one  part  of 
white  lead.     Dutch  white  contains  three 
parts   sulphate  of  baryta  and   one   part 
white     lead.       The    native    sulphate    of 
baryta   has   been   employed   by  the  cele- 
brated potter  Wedgewood  in  the  manu- 


BASALT 


435 


BASEBALL 


facture    of    jasper    ware,    and    for    the 
formation  of  white  figures,  etc. 

BASALT,  a  word  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  an  African  word,  and  to 
have  meant  basaltoid  syenite,  from 
Ethiopia  or  upper  Egypt.  In  general  the 
name  is  given  to  any  trap  rock  of  a 
black,  bluish,  or  leaden  gray  color,  and 
possessed  of  a  uniform  and  compact  tex- 
ture. 

In  a  special  sense  it  is  a  trap  rock 
consisting  of  augite,  feldspar  and  iron 
intimately  blended,  olivine  also  being  not 
unfrequently  present.  The  augite  is  the 
predominant  mineral;  it  is,  sometimes, 
however,  exchanged  for  hornblende,  to 
which  it  is  much  akin.  The  iron  is  usu- 
ally magnetic,  and  is,  moreover,  often 
conjoined  with  titanium.  Other  minerals 
are  also  occasionally  present,  one  being 
labradorite.  It  is  distinguished  from 
doleryte  or  dolerite  by  its  possessing 
chlorine  disseminated  through  it  in 
grains.  It  is  of  a  very  hard,  endurable 
nature,  and  may  be  used  to  advantage  in 
macadamizing  roads. 

The  specilic  gravity  of  basalt  is  3.00. 
There  are  fine  columnar  basalts  at  the 
Giant's  Causeway  in  the  N.  of  Ireland; 
in  Scotland  at  Fingal's  Cave  and  other 
parts  of  the  Island  of  Staff  a;  and  along 
the  sides  of  many  hills  in  the  old  volcanic 
district  of  western  and  central  India. 
At  West  Orange,  N.  J.,  the  face  of  the 
First  Mountain  exhibits  basaltic  forma- 
tions, the  lines  being  diagonal  and  sug- 
gesting a  huge  open  fan,  with  its  ribs 
converging  near  the  ground. 

BASEBALL,  a  field  game  played  prin- 
cipally in  the  United  States.  It  origi- 
nated in  the  English  school-boy  game 
of  "rounders."  It  is  played  by  two  teams 
of  nine  men  each.  There  are  four  bases, 
90  feet  apart,  forming  a  perfect  square, 
which  is  called  the  diamond.  The  home 
plate,  or  starting  point,  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  first  and  third  bases, 
with  the  second  base  on  a  straight  line 
from  the  home  plate,  and  127  ft.  3%  in. 
distant.  The  pitcher  is  placed  behind  a  line 
60  ft.  6  in.  away  from  the  home  plate,  and 
on  a  straight  imaginary  line  with  the 
home  and  second  base.  The  catcher 
must  be  within  10  ft.  of  home  base  when- 
ever the  pitcher  delivers  the  ball  to  the 
bat,  nor  may  he  leave  his  position  directly 
back  of  the  plate  for  the  purpose  of  aid- 
ing the  pitcher  to  give  intentionally  a 
base  on  balls.  A  player  is  stationed 
at  each  one  of  the  three  bases,  and  desig- 
nated first,  second  and  third  basemen. 
Another  man  known  as  the  shortstop,  is 
stationed  midway  between  second  and 
third  bases,  while  the  three  men  in  the 
outfield  are  called  the  right,  center  and 

29— Vol.  I  — Cyc 


left  fielders.  Lines  are  drawn  from  the 
home  plate  to  first  and  third  bases  re- 
spectively, and  extended  to  the  boun- 
daries of  the  field,  or  to  a  point  where 
a  flag  is  stationed,  and  known  as  the  foul 
flag.  All  balls  hit  within  these  lines  are 
fair,  and  all  those  which  are  not,  are 
foul.  The  umpires  are  the  sole  judges  on 
all  questions  during  the  progress  of  the 
game.  All  fair  or  foul  balls  caught  on 
the  fly  are  out,  and  when  three  men  are 
out  all  are  out. 

The  game  consists  of  nine  full  innings, 
unless  the  side  last  at  bat  has  made  more 
runs  at  the  conclusion  of  the  eighth  in- 
ning than  the  opposing  side  scored  at  the 
end  of  their  ninth.  Besides  putting  the 
side  out  on  fly-ball  catches,  they  are  also 
put  out  at  first  base  on  balls  thrown  to 
that  point  by  any  of  the  in  or  out  field- 
ers, before  the  batsman,  who  becomes  a 
base  runner  the  moment  he  hits  the  ball, 
reaches  that  point,  and  when  the  bats- 
man strikes  three  times  at  the  ball  with- 
out hitting  it.  They  can  also  be  put  out 
before  they  reach  the  other  three  bases, 
but  must  be  touched  with  the  ball  by  a 
player  on  the  opposing  team.  The  game 
is  one  of  great  chance,  which  is  the  se- 
cret of  its  wide  popularity.  A  regulation 
ball  and  bat  are  used.  The  ball  weighs 
not  less  than  5  nor  more  than  5  M  ounces, 
avoir.,  and  measures  not  less  than  9 
nor  more  than  9^/4  in.  in  circumfer- 
ence. It  has  wrapped  cork  or  rubber 
core  covered  with  horsehide.  The  bat  is 
round,  made  of  wood,  not  to  exceed  42  in. 
in  length,  and  does  not  exceed  2%  in.  in 
diameter  in  the  thickest  part.  The  game 
has  been  developed  into  such  a  scientific 
state  that  the  average  time  for  playing 
is  only  two  hours,  while  many  games  are 
played  in  an  hour  and  a  half. 

The  sport  has  had  an  immense  develop- 
ment in  the  present  century.  There  is 
hardly  a  town  or  village  in  the  country 
without  its  local  team.  In  the  great 
cities,  baseball  has  become  a  great  busi- 
ness enterprise  with  the  highly  paid 
teams,  great  crowds  of  spectators  and 
receipts  running  into  the  millions.  De- 
spite the  commercial  features  of  the 
game,  however,  it  has  been  kept  remark- 
ably clean  from  any  suspicion  of  unfair 
play.  The  sporadic  instances  that  have 
cropped  up  of  players  betting  on  games 
or  throwing  games  have  been  instantly 
and  severely  dealt  with.  In  the  autumn 
of  1920  startling  evidence  was  disclosed 
of  the  deliberate  "throwing"  of  games  in 
the  world  championship  series  of  1919. 
Drastic  measures  were  at  once  taken  to 
remedy  these  conditions.  The  first  pro- 
fessional team  of  paid  players  was 
the  Cincinnati  Red  Stockings  organized 
in  1869.     They  had  a  remarkable  series* 


BASEL 


436 


BASEL,  COUNCIL  OP 


of  successes,  going  through  their  first 
season  without  losing  a  game.  Following 
this,  various  leagues  and  associations 
were  formed,  composed  of  teams  in  dif- 
ferent cities  who  played  a  series  of  games 
with  each  other,  the  winner  of  the  most 
games  at  the  end  of  the  season  being 
styled  the  champion,  privileged  to  fly  a 
championship  pennant.  At  present,  there 
are  a  large  number  of  leagues,  but  the 
leading  ones,  attracting  the  most  interest 
and  comprised  of  the  best  players  in  the 
country,  are  the  National  and  the  Ameri- 
can, the  so-called  Major  Leagues.  Each 
has  a  circuit  of  eight  cities.  At  the  end 
of  each  season  the  leaders  in  their  re- 
spective leagues  play  a  series  of  games 
with  each  other  for  the  title  of  World's 
champions.  The  record  of  the  World's 
Series  games  from  1905  to  1920,  inclu- 
sive, follow: 


comes  navigable  and  at  the  terminus  of 
the  French  and  German  railways,  has 
made  it  the  emporium  of  a  most  impor- 
tant trade.  At  Basel  was  signed  the 
treaty  of  peace  between  France  and 
Prussia,  April  5,  and  that  between 
France  and  Spain,  July  22,  1795.  Pop. 
about  135,000. 

BASEL,  CONFESSION  OF,  a  Calvin- 
istic  confession  introduced  by  CEcolam- 
padius  at  the  opening  of  the  Synod  of 
Basel  (1531).  It  was  adopted  by  the 
Protestants  of  Basel  in  1534. 

BASEL,  COUNCIL  OF,  a  celebrated 
Ecumenical  council  of  the  Church,  con- 
voked by  Pope  Martin  V.  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Eugenius  IV.  It  was  opened 
Dec.  14,  1431,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Cardinal  Legate  Juliano  Cesarini  of  St. 
Angelo.    The  objects  of  its  deliberations 


Year  and  Winning  Club 

Games 

Runs 

Year  and  Losing  Club 

Games 

Runs 

1905 — New  York  Nationals.  .  .  . 

4 

15 

1905 — Philadelphia  Americans. 

1 

3 

1906 — Chicago  Americans 

4 

22 

1906 — Chicago  Nationals 

2 

18 

*1907 — Chicago  Nationals 

4 

19 

♦1907 — Detroit  Americans 

0 

6 

1908 — Chicago  Nationals 

4 

24 

1908 — Detroit  Americans 

1 

15 

1909 — Pittsburgh  Nationals.  .  . 

4 

34 

1909 — Detroit  Americans 

3 

28 

1910 — Philadelphia  Americans. 

4 

35 

1910 — Chicago  Nationals 

1 

15 

1911 — Philadelphia  Americans. 

4 

27 

1911 — New  York  Nationals.  .  .  . 

2 

13 

♦1912 — Boston  Americans 

4 

25 

♦1912 — New  York  Nationals.  .  .  . 

3 

31 

1913 — Philadelphia  Americans. 

4 

23 

1913 — New  York  Nationals 

1 

15 

1914 — Boston  Nationals 

4 

16 

1914 — Philadelphia  Americans. 

0 

6 

1915 — Boston  Americans 

4 

12 

1915 — Philadelphia  Nationals.  . 

1 

10 

1916 — Boston  Americans 

4 

21 

1916 — Brooklyn  Nationals 

1 

13 

1917 — Chicago  Americans 

4 

21 

1917 — New  York  Nationals.  .  .  . 

2 

17 

1918 — Boston  Americans 

4 

9 

1918 — Chicago  Nationals 

2 

10 

1919 — Cincinnati  Nationals.  .  .  . 

5 

35 

1919 — Chicago  Americans 

3 

20 

1920 — Cleveland  Americans  .... 

5 

21 

1920 — Brooklyn     Nationals.... 

2 

8 

*Tie   game. 


American  League 
National  League 


SUMMARY 

Series 

Won 

10 

6 


Series 
Lost 


Games 
Won 

49 
42 


Games 
Lost 

42 
49 


eague.;;. '.'..!! 6  10  42  49 

Total   series,   16;   total   games,   91,   including  two  tie  games;  total  runs,  587 


Runs 
294 
293 


BASEL  (ba-zel) ,  BASLE,  or  BALE,  a 

canton  and  city  of  Switzerland.  The  can- 
ton borders  on  Alsace  and  Baden,  has  an 
area  of  163  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  225,000,  nearly  all  speaking 
German.  It  is  divided  into  two  half-can- 
tons, Basel  city  (Basel-Stadt)  and  Basel 
country  (Basel-Landschaft).  The  former 
consists  of  the  city  and  its  precincts,  the 
remainder  of  the  canton  forming  Basel- 
Landschaft,  the  capital  of  which  is  Lie- 
stal.  The  city  of  Basel  is  43  miles  N.  of 
Bern,  and  consists  of  two  parts  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  Rhine,  has  an  ancient 
cathedral,  founded  1010,  containing  the 
tombs  of  Erasmus  and  other  eminent  per- 
sons; a  university,  founded  in  1459,  with 
an  important  library,  a  museum  contain- 
ing the  valuable  public  library,  pictures, 
etc.  The  industries  embrace  silk  ribbons, 
tanning,  paper,  aniline  dyes,  brewing, 
etc.;  and  the  advantageous  position  of 
Basel,  a  little  below  where  the  Rhine  be- 


were  to  extirpate  heresies  (that  of  the 
Hussites  in  particular), to  unite  all  Chris- 
tian nations  under  the  Catholic  Church, 
to  put  a  stop  to  wars  between  Christian 
princes,  and  to  reform  the  Church.  But 
its  first  steps  toward  a  peaceable  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Hussites  were  displeas- 
ing to  the  Pope,  who  authorized  the  Car- 
dinal Legate  to  dissolve  the  Council. 
That  body  opposed  the  pretensions  of  the 
Pope,  and,  notwithstanding  his  repeated 
orders  to  remove  to  Italy,  continued  its 
deliberations  under  the  protection  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund,  of  the  German 
princes,  and  of  France.  On  the  Pope 
continuing  to  issue  bulls  for  its  dissolu- 
tion the  Council  commenced  a  formal 
process  against  him,  and  cited  him  to  ap- 
pear at  its  bar.  On  his  refusal  to  com- 
ply with  this  demand  the  Council  de- 
clared him  guilty  of  contumacy,  and,  af- 
ter Eugenius  had  opened  a  counter  synod 
at  Ferrara,  decreed  his  suspension  from 


BASHAN 


437 


BASILICA 


the  papal  chair  (Jan.  24,  1438).  The  re- 
moval of  Eugenius,  however,  seemed  so 
impracticable,  that  some  prelates,  in- 
cluding the  Cardinal  Legate  Juliano,  left 
Basel,  and  went  over  to  the  party  of 
Eugenius.  The  Archbishop  of  Aries, 
Cardinal  Louis  Allemand,  was  now  made 
First  President  of  the  Council.  In  May, 
1439,  it  declared  Eugenius  a  heretic  and 
formally  deposed  him.  Excommunicated 
by  Eugenius,  they  elected  the  Duke  Am- 
adeus  of  Savoy  to  the  papal  chair.  Felix 
V. — the  name  he  adopted — was  acknowl- 
edged by  only  a  few  princes,  cities,  and 
universities.  After  this  the  moral  power 
of  the  Council  declined;  it  was  dissolved 
May  7,  1449,  when  it  gave  in  its  adhe- 
sion to  Nicholas  V.,  the  successor  of  Eu- 
genius. The  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Basel  are  admitted  into  none  of  the  Ro- 
man collections.  They  are  regarded, 
however,  as  of  authority  in  points  of 
canon  law  in  France  and  Germany,  as 
their  regulations  for  the  reformation  of 
the  Church  have  been  adopted  in  the 
pragmatic  sanctions  of  both  countries. 

BASHAN,  a  rich,  hilly  district,  lying 
E.  of  the  Jordan,  and  between  the  moun- 
tains of  Hermon  on  the  N.,  and  those  of 
Gilead  and  Ammon  on  the  S  The  coun- 
try takes  its  name  ("fat,"  "fruitful") 
from  its  soft  and  sandy  soil.  It  is  cele- 
brated in  Scripture  for  its  stately  oaks, 
fine  breeds  of  cattle,  and  rich  pasturage. 
Modern  travelers  describe  the  country  as 
still  abounding  with  verdant  and  fertile 
meadows.  Bashan  was  assigned,  after 
the  conquest  of  Og  and  his  people,  to 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  From  it 
came  the  Greek  name  Batanaea,  in  mod- 
ern Arabic  El-Bottein.  But  this  latter 
only  included  its  S.  part.  The  ancient 
Bashan  covered  the  Roman  provinces 
named  Gaulonites,  Trachonites,  Auran- 
ites,  Batanaea,  and  Iturasa. 

BASHKIRTSEFF,      MARIE       (bash- 

kerts'ef),  a  Russian  author,  born  in 
Russia  in  1860;  came  of  a  noble  and 
wealthy  family,  went  to  Italy  to  study 
singing,  and  to  Paris  to  study  art.  Her 
fame  rests  on  her  private  "Journal," 
begun  in  her  thirteenth  year,  which 
seems  to  have  been  written  with  ultimate 
publication  in  view.  She  died  in  Paris 
in  1884. 

BASIC  SLAG,  the  slag  or  refuse 
matter  which  is  obtained  in  making  basic 
steel,  and  which  from  the  phosphate  of 
lime  it  contains  is  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

BASIL,  a  labiate  plant,  ocymum 
hasiliciim,  a  native  of  India,  much  used 
in  cookery,  especially  in  France,  and 
known  more  particularly  as  sweet  or 
common  basil.     Bush  or  lesser  basil  is 


O.  minimum;  wild  basil  belongs  to  a  dif- 
ferent genus,  being  the  calamintha  clino- 
podium. 

BASIL  I.,  The  Macedonian,  Emperor 
of  the  East,  was  of  low  origin,  but  ob- 
tained employment  at  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Michael  III.,  became  his  cham- 
berlain, murdered  his  rival,  Bardas,  then 
Michael,  and  succeeded  him  in  867.  He 
governed  wisely,  and  compiled  a  body  of 
laws  called  the  Basilica^  which,  aug- 
mented by  his  son  and  successor,  Leo  the 
Philosopher,  were  in  force  till  the  fall 
of  the  empire.  Basil  I.  deprived  Photius 
of  the  See  of  Constantinople,  and  re- 
stored Ignatius,  on  whose  death  he 
recalled  Photius.  He  successfully  car- 
ried on  war  with  the  Saracens.  Died 
in  886. 

BASIL  II.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was 
son  of  Romanus  II.,  and  with  his  brother, 
Constantine,  was  first  associated  in  the 
empire  by  John  Zimisces,  and  succeeded 
him  in  976.  His  long  reign  was  a  series 
of  wars  with  his  rivals,  Bardas,  Scler- 
nus,  and  Phocas,  with  the  Saracens  and 
Bulgarians.  The  war  ended  in  1019,  by 
the  complete  conquest  of  Bulgaria.  Died 
in  1025. 

BASIL,  ST.,  surnamed  The  Great, 
Bishop  of  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia,  where 
he  was  born  about  326.  He  was  study- 
ing at  Athens  in  355.  After  extensive 
travels,  St.  Basil  retired  to  the  Desert  of 
Pontus,  and  there  founded  an  order  of 
monks.  He  succeeded  Eusebius  in  the 
See  of  Caesarea  in  370,  and  by  his  oppo- 
sition to  Arian  doctrines  greatly  offended 
the  Emperor  Valens.    He  died  in  380. 

BASILAN,  the  largest  island  of  the 
Sulu  Archipelago,  Philippine  Islands. 
Basilan  is  about  36  miles  long  and  sit- 
uated S.  of  Mindanao.  It  is  separated 
from  Mindanao  by  a  strait  only  9  miles 
wide.  This  island  is  very  mountainous, 
and  most  of  it  is  covered  by  virgin  for- 
ests. The  soil  is  extremely  rich  and  pro- 
duces cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  chocolate,  to- 
bacco, indigo,  and  spices  of  all  sorts. 
Pop.  about  8,000.  The  name  Basilan  is 
also  applied  to  the  whole  group  of  34 
adjacent  islets.  The  leading  port  is 
Isabela,  on  Basilan  Strait. 

BASILICA,  originally  the  hall  or 
court-room  in  which  the  King  admin- 
istered the  laws  made  by  himself  and 
the  chiefs  who  formed  his  council.  When 
the  Christian  religion  was  made  the  state 
religion  in  Rome  many  of  these  build- 
ings were  given  up  to  the  new  sect;  the 
arrangement  of  that  portion  of  the  in- 
terior where  the  official  business  was 
conducted  easily  lending  itself  to  tha 
Christian  ritual.    In  some  of  the  oldest 


BASILICATA 


438 


BASQUES 


basilicas  in  Rome,  e.  g.,  in  the  subter- 
ranean Church  of  San  Clemente,  the 
early  development  of  the  Christian  ar- 
rangement from  the  Roman  is  still  to  be 
seen.  Many  of  the  oldest  and  most  splen- 
did of  the  Roman  churches  are  built  on 
the  plan  of  the  basilica,  and  are  called 
basilicas  in  consequence. 

BASILICATA,  the  ancient  Lucania, 
in  south  Italy,  composed  solely  of  the 
province  of  Potenza;  so  called  after  the 
Emperor  Basilius  II.,  who  reconquered  it 
from  the  Saracens  and  Lombards  in  the 
11th  century.  It  is  mountainous,  several 
peaks  rising  to  upward  of  4,500  feet 
(Monte  Pollino,  7,375  feet).  The  Apen- 
nines here  divide  into  two  parts,  which 
branch  off  to  the  E.  and  W.  From  these 
the  rivers  Bradano,  Basento,  Salan- 
drella,  Agri,  and  Sinni,  take  their 
source,  and,  after  draining  this  fertile 
district,  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Taranto 
in  the  Ionian  Sea,  There  are  also  many 
lakes,  some  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
chief  are  Monticchio,  Pesole,  Maorno, 
and  Santa  Palagina.  The  bulk  of  the 
people  are  poor  and  ignorant,  and  talk  a 
dialect  called  basilisco.  Its  coast  line  is 
for  the  most  part  marshy,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, unhealthf  ul.  The  products  are 
varied.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Apennines, 
forests  and  pasture  grounds  are  numer- 
ous, and  the  chestnuts  plentiful.  In  the 
vast  plains  that  extend  to  Apulia  and 
Calabria  wheat  is  the  principal  product, 
while  toward  Melfi  and  the  neighborhood 
of  Melfi  it  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wine. 
The  orange  and  lemon  grow  well  nearer 
the  coast.  Among  other  products  are 
cotton,  flax,  silk,  honey,  wax,  liquorice, 
dried  fruit,  saffron,  tobacco,  etc.  There 
are  marble  quarries  at  Avigliano,  La- 
tronico,  Muro,  Lucano,  and  Picerno; 
chalk  at  Mauro  Forte  and  Montemuro; 
transparent  quartz  at  Lagorgero;  tufa 
at  Matera;  and  excellent  lignite  at  San 
Chirico  Raparo  and  Rotonda.  Capital, 
Potenza  (pop.  20,000).  Area,  3,855 
square  miles.    Pop.  about  500,000. 

BASILICON,  a  name  of  several  oint- 
ments, the  chief  ingredients  of  which  are 
wax,  pitch,  resin,  and  olive  oil. 

BASILISCUS,  an  Emperor  of  the 
East;  lived  in  the  5th  century.  He  was 
the  brother  of  Leo's  wife,  Verina.  As 
commander  of  a  large  armament  sent 
against  the  Vandals,  he  was  defeated 
(468)  by  Genseric.  In  474  he  usurped 
the  throne;  but  in  476  was  defeated,  de- 
posed, and  imprisoned  by  Zeno. 

BASKERVILLE,  CHARLES,  an  Amer- 
ican chemist,  born  in  Noxubee  co.,  Miss., 
in  1870.  He  graduated  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia  in  1890  and  carried 


on  post-graduate  courses  in  Germany. 
He  filled  various  chairs  in  the  department 
of  chemistry  in  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  from  1891  to  1904,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  appointed  professor  of 
chemistry  and  director  of  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York.  He  was  the  dis- 
coverer of  several  new  elements  includ- 
ing carolinium  and  berzellum,  and  car- 
ried on  important  investigations  in  the 
chemistry  of  anesthetics.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  chemical  societies.  His 
writings  on  chemical  subjects  include 
"School  Chemistry"  (1898);  "Radium 
and  Its  Application  in  Medicine"  (1909) ; 
"Municipal  Chemistry";  and  many  ar- 
ticles in  scientific  magazines.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  several  processes  for  the 
refining  of  oil. 

BASKET,  originally  a  light  and  airy 
vessel  made  of  plaited  osiers,  twigs,  or 
similar  flexible  material,  much  used  in 
domestic  arrangements.  The  baskets 
made  by  the  old  inhabitants  of  Great 
Britain  were  so  good  that  they  became 
celebrated  at  Rome. 

BASKET  BALL,  an  indoor  game 
played  upon  a  circumscribed  space  on  a 
floor,  usually  by  five  players  on  each  side. 
At  each  end  of  this  playing  space  a  bas- 
ket is  placed  at  a  height  of  about  10  feet. 
The  ball  is  round,  somewhat  lighter  than 
a  football,  and  is  passed  from  one  player 
to  another  by  throwing,  or  striking  with 
the  hands  only;  the  ultimate  object  being 
to  lodge  it  in  the  opponent's  basket,  which 
action  counts  one  point.  The  rules  as  to 
interference,  playing  out  of  bounds,  etc., 
are  adapted  from  those  of  football. 

BASLE.    See  BASEL. 

BASQUES,  or  BISCAYANS  (in  their 
own  language,  Euscaldunac) ,  a  remark- 
able race  of  people  dwelling  partly  in  the 
S.  W.  corner  of  France,  but  mostly  in  the 
N.  of  Spain  adjacent  to  the  Pyrenees. 
They  are  probably  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Iberi,  who  occupied  Spain  before 
the  Celts.  They  preserve  their  ancient 
language,  former  manners,  and  national 
dances,  and  make  admirable  soldiers,  es- 
pecially in  guerrilla  warfare.  Their  lan- 
guage is  highly  polysynthetic,  and  no 
connection  between  it  and  any  other  lan- 
guage has  as  yet  been  made  out.  There 
are  four  principal  dialects,  which  are  not 
only  distinguished  by  their  pronuncia- 
tion and  grammatical  structure,  but  dif- 
fer even  in  their  vocabularies.  The 
Basques  (about  700,000)  occupy  in 
Spain  the  provinces  of  Biscay,  Guipuz- 
coa,  and  Alava;  in  France  parts  of  the 
departments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Pyrenees,  Ariege,  and  Upper  Garonne. 
Sone  200,000  are  said  to  have  emigrated 


BASRA 


439 


BASSEIN 


during  the  second  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury to  South  America. 

BASRA.  See  BassoRA. 

BASS,  in  music.  (1)  The  string 
which  gives  a  bass  sound.  (2)  An  in- 
strument which  plays  the  bass  part;  es- 
pecially of  the  violoncello  or  bass-viol, 
and  the  contrabasso  or  double  bass.  Both 
this  and  the  previous  sense  are  found  in 
the  following  example:  (3)  The  lowest 
of  the  principal  human  voices;  those 
higher  in  pitch  being,  respectively,  bari- 
tone, tenor,  alto  or  contralto,  mezzo- 
soprano,  soprano.  (4)  The  portion  of  a 
choir  singing  the  bass  part ;  also  the  por- 
tion of  string  band  playing  the  bass  part. 
(5)  The  lowest  instrument  of  any  class 
or  family  of  instruments;  as  bass  clario- 
net, bass  flute,  bass  horn,  bass  trombone;, 
bass  tuba,  bass  viol  or  base  viol.  (6) 
The  string  of  lowest  pitch  on  a  string 
instrument  having  deep  sounds.  (7) 
Bass  clef:  The  lowest  sign  of  absolute 
pitch  used  in  music;  the  F  clef. 

A  fundamental  bass:  The  supposed 
generator  or  foundation  of  any  har- 
monic combination.  Thus  C  is  said  to 
be  the  fundamental  base  of  the  chord 
G,  C,  E. 

Thorough  or  continuous  bass:  Origin- 
ally the  bass  part  figured  for  the  player 
on  a  harpsichord  or  organ.  Hence,  the 
art  of  adding  chords  to  a  figured  bass; 
the  art  of  harmony. 

BASS,  the  name  of  a  number  of  fishes 
of  several  genera„  but  originally  belong- 
ing to  a  genus  of  sea  fishes  (labrax)  of 
the  perch  family,  distinguished  from  the 
true  perches  by  having  the  tongue  cov- 
ered by  small  teeth  and  the  preopercu- 
lum  smooth.  L.  lupus,  the  only  British 
species,  called  also  seadace,  and  from  its 
voracity  sea-wolf,  resembles  somewhat 
the  salmon  in  shape,  and  is  much  es- 
teemed for  the  table,  weighing  about  15 
pounds.  L.  lineatus  (roccua  lineatus),, 
or  striped  bass,  an  American  species, 
weighing  from  25  to  30  pounds,  is  much 
used  for  food,  and  is  also  known  as  rock- 
fish.  Two  species  of  black  bass  (micyrop- 
terus  salmonides  and  M.  dolomieu), 
American  fresh  water  fishes,  are  ex- 
cellent as  food  and  give  fine  sport  to  the 
angler.  The  former  is  often  called  the 
large  mouthed  black  bass,  from  the  size 
of  its  mouth.  Both  make  nests  and  take 
great  care  of  their  eggs  and  young.  The 
centropristis  nigricans,  an  American 
sea  fish  of  the  perch  family,  and 
weighing  two  to  three  pounds,  is  known 
as  the  sea  bass. 

BASS,  JOHN  FOSTER.  American 
war  correspondent,  born  in  Chicago, 
1866;  graduated  at  Harvard  University, 


1891.  He  served  as  a  newspaper  cor- 
respondent during  the  Cretan  insurrec- 
tion (1895);  traversed  the  country 
where  the  Armenian  massacres  took 
place  (1896);  was  at  the  front  in  the 
Greek  war  of  1898,  and  in  the  Spanish- 
American  war  of  the  same  year.  He 
was  in  China  during  the  Boxer  rebellion 
in  1900,  and  was  for  several  months 
with  Kuroki's  army  in  the  Russo-Jap- 
anese war  of  1904.  During  the  World 
War  he  followed  the  Russian  campaigns 
of  1914-1915,  was  on  the  French  and 
Balkan  fronts  1915-1917,  and  covered  the 
Italian  military  operations  in  1918. 


BASS 
A.  Striped  Bass.        B.  Black  Bass.        C.  Rock  Bass. 

BASSANO  (bas-a'no),  a  commercial 
city  of  north  Italy,  province  of  Vicenza, 
on  the  Brenta.  It  nas  lofty  old  walls, 
an  old  castle,  various  industries,  and  an 
active  trade.  Near  Bassano,  Sept.  8, 
1796,  Bonaparte  defeated  the  Austrians. 
Pop.  about  20,000, 

BASSEIN.  (1)  A  thriving  town  in 
Burma,  India,  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bas- 
sein  river,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Ira- 
wadi,  90  miles  from  the  sea,  but  ac- 
cessible to  the  largest  ships.  It  is  an 
important  center  of  the  rice  trade,  has 
considerable  trade  with  Madras,  and  in 
a  military  view  also  is  important,  as  it 
completely  commands  the  navigation  of 


BASSES- ALPES 


440 


BASTABD 


the  stream.  It  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish in  1852.  Pop.  about  40,000.  The 
district  of  Bassein  has  an  area  of  4,127 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  500,000. 
(2)  Bassein,  a  decayed  town  of  about 
10,000  inhabitants,  28  miles  N.  of  Bom- 
bay. Ceded  to  the  Portuguese  m  1534, 
it  was  a  place  of  much  importance  as  late 
as  1720;  its  remains  still  point  to  former 
splendor.  In  1765  it  was  wrested  from 
the  Portuguese  by  the  Mahrattas,  and  in 
1780  surrendered  to  the  British,  after  a 
12  days'  siege. 

BASSES- ALPES  (bas-alp),  (Lower 
Alps).  See  Alpes,  Basses. 

BASSES-PYRENEES  (bas-per-na'), 
(Lower  Pyrenees).  See  Pyrenees, 
Basses. 

BASSET,  a  game  at  cards,  played 
somewhat  similar  to  the  modem  faro. 
It  is  of  Venetian  invention,  and  was  for- 
merly much  played  in  France. 

BASSE-TERRE  (bas-tar),  (French, 
lowland),  the  name  of  the  capitals  of  St. 
Christopher  island,  British  West  Indies 
(pop.  about  9,000),  and  of  Guadeloupe, 
the  French  West  Indian  island  (pop. 
about  8,000). 

BASSET-HORN,  a  musical  instru- 
ment, the  tenor  of  the  clarionet  family, 
having  more  than  three  octaves  in  its 
compass,  extending  upward  from  F  be- 
low the  bass  stave.  Unlike  the  clarionet 
it  has  a  bell-mouth  of  metal. 

BASSETT,      JOHN      SPENCER,      an 

American  historian,  born  in  Tarboro, 
N.  C,  Sept.  10,  1867;  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Durham,  N.  C,  in  1888,  and 
took  a  Ph.  D.  at  Johns  Hopkins  m 
1894.  He  became  professor  of  history 
at  Trinity  College,  and  later  at  Smith 
College.  His  works  include  "Consti- 
tutional Beginnings  in  North  Carolina, 
"Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony 
of  North  Carolina,"  "Anti-SlaVery 
Leaders  of  North  Carolina,"  "Slavery 
In  the  State  of  North  Carolina,"  "The 
War  of  the  Regulation,"  "The  Federalist 
System"  (1906);  "Life  of  Andrew 
Jackson"  (1911) ;  "Short  History  U.  S. 

(1916);    "Story    of    the    Great    War 

(1920);   etc. 

BASSORA,  or  BASRA,  a  town  of 
former  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  capital  of 
the  vilayet  of  the  same  name  (area, 
53,580  square  miles;  pop.  about  785,000), 
on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  here 
called  the  Shat-el-Arab,  56  miles  from 
its  mouth  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
river  is  divided  into  a  number  of  chan- 
nels, and,  by  evaporation  and  frequent 
overflowing,  makes  the  climate  very  un- 


healthful.  Most  of  the  houses  are  low 
huts,  built  of  unburned  bricks.  The 
population,  which  had  sunk  to  a  few 
thousand,  greatly  increased  when  the 
British  established  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates  Steamship  Company  and  is  now 
about  60,000.  A  good  business  is  done 
in  the  exchange  of  the  productions  of 
Turkey  and  Persia  for  Indian  and 
European  goods,  particularly  articles  of 
British  manufacture.  The  town  has 
become  the  principal  port  of  Meso- 
potamia. Bassora  was  founded  in  636 
by  the  Caliph  Omar,  and  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  famous  and  opulent 
cities  of  the  East.  The  possession  of  it 
has  been  the  subject  of  many  contests 
between  the  Turks  and  the  Persians.  On 
Nov.  23,  1914,  British  forces  defeated 
and  routed  the  Turks  near  the  city  and 
occupied  Basra.  As  a  result  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Turkey  Basra 
became  part  of  the  independent  State 
of  Mesopotamia  under  a  British  man- 
date. 

BASS  ROCK,  a  remarkable  island  rock 
of  Haddingstonshire,  Scotland,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  2  miles 
from  Canty  Bay,  and  3^/4  miles  E.  N.  E. 
of  North  Berwick.  Composed  of  volcanic 
greenstone  and  trap  tuff,  it  is  about  a 
mile  in  circumference,  nearly  round,  and 
313  feet  high.  It  is  inaccessible  on  all 
sides  except  the  S.,  where  it  shelves  down 
to  the  water.  It  is  inhabited  by  count- 
less numbers  of  solan  geese  and  other 
birds.  A  cavern  tunnels  the  rock  from 
W.  to  E.,  and  is  accessible  at  low  tide. 
In  756  St.  Balthere  or  Baldred  died  in 
a  hermitage  on  the  Bass  Rock;  in  1316 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Lauder 
family.  In  1671  Charles  II.  purchased 
it  for  £4,000,  and  within  its  dreary  dun- 
geons many  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Covenanters  were  confined  during  his 
and  James  II. 's  reign.  The  Bass  was 
the  last  spot  in  the  British  Islands  which 
held  out  for  the  Stuarts,  being  captured 
only  in  1694.  In  1701  the  fortifications 
were  demolished.  In  1902  a  lighthouse 
was  established  there. 

BASS  STRAIT,  a  channel  beset  with 
islands,  which  separates  Australia  from 
Tasmania,  185  miles  long  and  from  80 
to  150  milep  broad,  discovered  by  George 
Bass,  a  surgeon  in  the  Royal  navy,  in 
1798. 

BASTARD,  a  child  begotten  and  born 
out  of  wedlock;  an  illegitimate  child.  By 
the  civil  and  canon  laws,  and  by  the  law 
of  Scotland  (as  well  as  some  States  of 
the  United  States),  a  bastard  becomes 
legitimate  by  the  intermarriage  of  the 
parent?  at  any  future  time.  But,  by  the 
laws   of  England,   a  child,  to  be  legiti- 


BASTIA 


441 


BASTILLE 


mate,  must  at  least  be  born  after  the 
lawful  marriage;  it  does  not  require  that 
the  child  shall  be  begotten  in  wedlock, 
but  it  is  indispensable  that  it  should  be 
born  after  marriage,  no  matter  how  short 
the  time,  the  law  presuming  it  to  be  the 
child  of  the  husband.  The  only  in- 
capacity of  a  bastard  is  that  he  can- 
not be  heir  or  next  of  kin  to  anyone 
save  his  own  issue.  In  England  the 
niaintenance  of  a  bastard  in  the  first 
instance  devolves  on  the  mother,  while 
in  Scotland  it  is  a  joint  burden  upon 
both  parents.  The  mother  is  entitled 
to  the  custody  of  the  child  in  preference 
to  the  father. 


Charles  V.,  between  1370  and  1383,  by 
Hugo  Aubroit,  Provost  of  Paris,  at  Porte 
St.  Antoine,  as  a  defense  against  the 
English.  Afterward  it  was  provided  vsith 
vast  bulwarks  and  ditches.  On  each  of 
its  longer  sides  the  Bastille  had  four 
towers,  of  five  stories  each,  over  which 
there  ran  a  gallery,  which  was  armed 
with  cannon.  It  was  partly  in  these 
towers,  and  partly  in  cellars  xmder  the 
level  of  the  ground,  that  the  prisons 
were  situated.  The  Bastille  was  capable 
of  containing  70  to  80  prisoners.  On 
July  14,  1789.  it  was  surrounded  by  an 
armed  mob  enraged  by  the  reactionary 
policy  of  the  court.     The  garrison  con- 


^sa 


,^p^ 


THE  BASTILLE 


BASTIA.  the  former  capital  of 
Corsica,  in  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  island, 
95  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Ajaccio.  Antimony 
raining,  boat  building,  iron  founding, 
tunny  and  coral  fishing  are  carried  on; 
besides,  there  is  some  trade  in  oil,  wine, 
and  fruit.  Population  about  30,000. 
Bastia  was  founded  in  1388  by  the  Gen- 
oese Leonello  Lomellino,  and  was  the 
seat  of  the  Genoese  governors  for  400 
years.  It  has  several  times  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  English,  who,  under  Ad- 
miral Hood,  last  captured  the  town  in 
1794. 

BASTILLE  (bas-tel'),  formerly,  in 
France,  a  general  term  for  a  strong  for- 
tress defended  by  towers  or  bastions, 
and  in  this  sense  it  was  used  in  England 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  The  famous 
prison  to  which  the  name  was  latterly 
appropriated  was  originally  the  Castle 
of    Paris,   and   was    built    by   order    of 


sisted  of  82  old  soldiers  and  33  Swiss. 
Negotiations  with  the  governor  of  the 
prison  having  failed,  the  mob  cut  the 
chains  of  the  drawbridge  and  a  contest 
took  place,  in  which  one  of  the  besieged 
and  150  of  the  people  were  killed  or  se- 
verely wounded.  The  arrival  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  troops  which  had  already 
joined  the  people,  with  four  field-pieces, 
turned  the  fortune  of  the  conflict  in 
favor  of  the  besiegers.  Delaunay,  the 
governor — who  had  been  prevented  by 
one  of  the  officers  when  on  the  point  of 
blowing  the  fortress  into  the  air — per- 
mitted the  second  drawbridge  to  be  low- 
ered, and  the  people  rushed  in,  killing 
Delaunay  himself  and  several  of  his  offi- 
cers. The  destruction  commenced  on 
the  following  day,  amid  the  thunder  of 
cannon  and  the  pealing  of  the  Te  Deunu 
This  event,  in  itself  apparently  of  no 
great   moment,  leading   only  to  the  re- 


BASTION 


442 


BATAVIA 


lease  of  three  prisoners,  broke  the  spirit 
of  the  court  party  and  changed  the  cur- 
rent of  events  in  France.  The  anniver- 
sary of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  has  been 
regularly  observed  since  France  last  be- 
came a  Republic. 

BASTION,  a  projecting  mass  of  earth 
or  masonry  at  the  angle  of  a  fortifica- 
tion, having  two  faces  and  two  flanks, 
and  so  constructed  that  every  part  of  it 
may  be  defended  by  the  flank  fire  of 
some  other  part  of  the  fort.  The  flanks 
of  adjacent  bastions  are  connected  by  a 
curtain.  The  distance  between  two  such 
flanks  is  termed  the  gorge.  A  detached 
bastion  is  called  a  lunette.  Also:  (a) 
A  composed  bastion  is  one  which  has  two 
sides  of  the  interior  polygon  very  irregu- 
lar, with  the  effect  of  making  the  gorges 
also  irregular,  (b)  A  cut  bastion  is  one 
which  has  a  re-entering  angle  instead 
of  a  point,  (c)  A  deformed  bastion  is 
one  in  which  the  irregularity  of  the  lines 
and  angles  prevents  the  structure  from 
having  a  regular  form.  (d)  A  demi- 
bastion  is  a  bastion  composed  of  one  face 
only,  with  but  a  single  flank  and  a  demi- 
gorge.  (e)  A  double  bastion  is  a  bastion 
raised  on  the  plane  of  another  one.  (f )  A 
flat  bastion  is  one  erected  in  the  middle 
of  a  curtain  when  the  latter  is  too  long 
to  be  protected  by  the  bastions  at  its 
ends,  (g)  A  hollow  bastion  is  one  hollow 
in  the  interior,  (h)  A  regular  bastion  is 
one  so  planned  as  to  possess  the  true  pro- 
portion of  its  faces,  flanks,  and  gorges, 
(i)  A  solid  bastion  is  one  solid  through- 
out its  entire  structure. 

BASUTOLAND,  a  native  province  and 
British  South  African  territory,  between 
the  provinces  of  Orange  Free  State, 
Natal  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
Basutos  belong  chiefly  to  the  great  stem 
of  the  Bechuanas,  and  have  made  greater 
advances  in  civilization  than  perhaps  any 
other  South  African  race.  In  1866  the 
Basutos,  who  had  lived  under  a  semi- 
protectorate  of  the  British  since  1848, 
were  proclaimed  British  subjects,  their 
country  placed  under  the  government  of 
an  agent,  and  in  1871  it  was  joined  to 
Cape  Colony.  In  1879  the  attempted  en- 
forcement of  an  act  passed  for  the  dis- 
armament of  the  native  tribes  caused  a 
revolt  under  the  chief  Moirosi,  which  the 
Cape  forces  were  unable  to  put  down. 
When  peace  was  restored  Basutoland 
was  disannexed  from  Cape  Colony 
(1884),  and  is  now  governed  by  a  resi- 
dent commissioner  under  the  High  Com- 
missioner for  South  Africa.  Basutoland 
has  an  area  of  about  11,700  square  miles, 
much  of  it  covered  wilh  grass  and 
there  is  but  little  wood.  The  climate  is 
pleasant.      Capital,   Maseru,     The  chief 


products  are  wool,  wheat,  mealies,  and 
Kafiir  com.  The  natives  keep  large 
herds  of  cattle.  The  revolt  in  Basuto- 
land led  by  Masupha  came  to  an  end 
Feb.  1,  1898.  In  1903  it  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  South  African  Customs 
Union.     Pop.  about  405,000. 

BAT,  the  common  name  of  all  animals 
of  the  class  mammalia  which  are  fur- 
nished with  true  wings,  and  so  are  ca- 
pable of  really  flying  or  propelling  them- 
selves in  the  air.  Bats  are  now  generally 
placed  by  naturalists  in  the  order  chei- 
roptera, although,  like  many  other  ani- 
mals of  that  great  order,  most  of  them 


LONG-EARED   BAT 

are  by  no  means  exclusively  carnivorous. 
Upward  of  130  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, and  there  is  great  probability 
that  the  actual  number  existing  is  very 
much  greater.  Bats  walk  or  creep  awk- 
wardly upon  the  ground,  one  side  of  the 
body  being  jerked  forward,  and  then  the 
other;  yet  they  run  with  considerable 
celerity.  Bats  commonly  produce  one  or 
two  young  at  a  birth.  Fossil  remains  of 
cheiroptera  are  occasionally  found  in 
Eocene  rocks. 

BATANGAS  (ba-tan'gas),  a  province 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Luzon  Island,  Philip- 
pines; also  the  name  of  the  capital  of  the 
province.  The  city  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  prior  to  the  war  between  the 
United  States  and  Spain  was  the  seat  of 
a  large  commerce.  The  province  is  one 
of  the  richest  sugar  growing  districts  in 
the  Philippines.  It  is  also  notable  for  its 
large  production  of  cocoanut  oil,  the 
larger  part  of  which  is  used  for  domestic 
purposes,  chiefly  lamp  oil  and  lubri- 
cating machinery.  Pop.  of  city  about 
40,000.  Province:  area,  1,108  square 
miles;   pop.   about  275,000. 

BATAVIA,  properly  the  name  of  the 
island  occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi, 
became  at  a  later  date  the  Latin  name 
for  Holland  and  the  whole  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands.  The  name  Batavian 
Republic  was  given  to  the  Netherlands 
on  their  new  organization.  May  16,  1795, 
and  they  continued  to  bear  it  until  they 
were  converted  into  the  kingdom  of  Hol- 
land, under  Louis  Bonaparte,  June  8, 
1806. 


SATAVIA 


443 


BATES 


BATAVIA,  a  city  and  seaport  of 
Java,  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  the 
capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  It 
is  situated  on  a  wide,  deep  bay,  the 
principal  warehouses  and  the  offices  of 
the  Europeans  being  in  the  old  town, 
which  is  built  on  a  low,  marshy  plain 
near  the  sea  and  very  unhealthful;  while 
the  Europeans  reside  in  a  much  healthier 
quarter.  Batavia  has  a  large  trade, 
sugar  being  the  chief  export.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Dutch  in  1619,  and  at- 
tained its  greatest  prosperity  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  Its  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  Malay.  Pop.  (1917) 
about  180,000  natives,  about  30,000 
Chinese,  Arabs  and  other  Orientals,  and 
about  24,000  Europeans. 

BATAVIA,  a  village  and  county-seat 
of  Genesee  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Tonawanda 
creek  and  several  railroads;  37  miles  E. 
of  Buffalo.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  re- 
gion; contains  manufactories  of  ploughs 
and  harvesters,  carriage  wheels,  shoes, 
guns  and  forg^ings,  and  other  industries; 
and  has  the  State  Institution  for  the 
Blind,  the  Dean  Richmond  Memorial  Li- 
brary, a  National  bank,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  11,613;  (1920) 
13,541. 

BATCHELLEB,  GEORGE  SHERMAN, 
an  American  jurist,  born  in  Batcheller- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  July  25,  1837.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  University;  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1858 ;  entered  the  Union 
Army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War; 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Harper's  Ferry, 
and  exchanged  in  1863 ;  was  then  appoint- 
ed Deputy  Provost-Marshal-General  of 
the  Department  of  the  South;  and,  in 
1865-1870,  was  Inspector-General  on  the 
staff  of  Governor  Fenton  of  New  York.  In 
1858,  1872,  and  1873  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Assembly;  and,  in  1875,  was 
appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  the  newly 
organized  Supreme  Court  of  Egypt  for 
a  term  of  five  years.  In  1883  he  became 
President  of  the  International  Tribunal 
of  Egypt;  in  1889,  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  United  States  Treasury;  in  1890, 
United  States  Minister-Resident,  and 
Consul-General  to  Portugal;  and  in  1897, 
again  a  member  of  the  International 
Tribunal  of  Egypt.  In  the  last  year  he 
received  from  King  Humbert  the  deco- 
ration of  the  great  cordon  of  the  Order 
of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  in  recognition  of 
his  services  as  President  of  the  Uni- 
versal Postal  Congress  which  met  in 
Washington  in  May,  1897.  He  died 
July  2,  1908. 

BATCHIAN,  or  BATJAN,  one  of  the 
Moluccas,  W.  of  the  southern  peninsula 
of  the  island  of  Gilolo.  Area,  914  square 
miles;  pop.  about  13,000.     It  belongs  to 


the  Dutch  residency  of  Ternate,  consists 
of  two  peninsulas  joined  by  a  narrow 
isthmus,  and  has  many  mountains. 
Batchian  produces  gold,  copper,  much 
coal,  sago,  cocoanut  trees,  rice,  cloves, 
and  fine  timber. 

BATES,  ARLO,  an  American  author, 
born  in  East  Machias,  Me.,  Dec.  16,  1850. 
He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  in  1876, 
when  he  engaged  in  literary  work  in  Bos- 
ton, and  afterward  became  Professor  of 
English  Literature  in  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.  He  is  author  of 
poems  and  novels,  including  "The  Pa- 
gans" (New  York,  1884)  ;  "A  Lad's 
Love";  "The  Philistines"  (1888);  "Ber- 
ries of  the  Brier"  (1886),  poems;  "Talks 
on  Writing  English";  "Talks  on  the 
Study  of  Literature"  (1897) ;  "The  Puri- 
tans"; "Under  the  Beech  Tree";  "Diary 
of  a  Saint"  (1902) ;  "The  Intoxicated 
Ghost"  (1908) ;  etc.    He  died  in  1918. 

BATES,  BLANCHE,  an  American 
actress,  born  in  Portland,  Ore.,  in  1873. 
She  removed  in  1876  with  her  parents  to 
San  Francisco  and  was  educated  at  the 
public  schools  at  that  city.  Her  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage  was  made  in  San 
Francisco  in  1894  and  in  the  following 
year  she  starred  in  "The  Senator."  After 
playing  leading  parts  in  various  com- 
edies, she  appeared  in  Shakespearean 
roles  in  Augustin  Daly's  Company  in 
New  York.  She  achieved  great  success 
in  the  title  role  of  Cigarette  in  "Under 
Two  Flags,"  and  played  the  leading  parts 
in  "The  Darling  of  the  Gods"  and  "The 
Girl  of  the  Golden  West."  In  1920  she 
appeared  in  "The  Famous  Mrs.  Fair." 
In  1912  she  married  George  Creel. 

BATES,  JOHN  COALTER,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  St.  Charles 
CO.,  Mo.,  Aug.  26,  1842;  educated  at 
Washington  University,  St.  Louis;  en- 
tered the  regular  army  as  a  Lieutenant 
in  the  11th  United  States  Infantry,  May 
14,  1861 ;  served  on  the  staff  of  General 
Meade  from  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  to 
the  close  of  the  war;  promoted  Captain, 
May  1,  1863;  Major,  May  6,  1882;  and 
Colonel  of  the  2d  United  States  Infantry, 
April  25,  1892.  On  May  4,  1898,  he  was 
appointed  a  Brigadier-General  of  Volun- 
teers; on  July  8  was  promoted  to  Major 
General  for  his  services  in  the  Santiago 
campaign;  on  April  13,  1899,  was  honor- 
ably discharged  under  this  commission, 
and  on  the  same  day  was  recommissioned 
a  Brigadier-General  of  Volunteers.  In 
February,  1899,  he  was  appointed  Mili- 
tary Governor  of  the  province  of  Santa 
Clara,  Cuba,  and  in  April  following  was 
ordered  to  duty  in  the  Philippines,  where 
he  several  times  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  latter  part  of  that  year 


BATES 


444 


BATHSHEBA. 


and  the  early  part  of  1900.  In  March, 
1900,  he  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  department  of  southern  Luzon; 
promoted  Major-General  (1902).  In  1906 
became  chief  of  staff  U.  S.  A.  and  re- 
tired same  year  with  the  rank  of  Lieut- 
enant-General. 

BATES,  KATHARINE  LEE,  an 
American  story  writer,  poet,  and  edu- 
cator, born  in  Falmouth,  Mass.,  Aug.  12, 
1859;  was  called  to  the  chair  of  English 
Literature  in  Wellesley  College  in  1891; 
edited  collections  of  ballads,  etc.;  and 
wrote  juvenile  stories,  including  "Rose 
and  Thorn"  (1889)  ;  "The  English  Re- 
ligious Drama"  (1893) ;  "The  College 
Beautiful  and  Other  Poems"  (188T) ; 
"History  of  American  Literature" 
(1898)  ;  "Spanish  Highways  and  By- 
ways" (1900) ;  "Gretna  Green  to  Land's 
End"  (1907) ;  "America  the  Beautiful" 
(1911) ;  etc. 

BATES,     LINDON     "WALLACE,     an 

American  civil  engineer,  born  in  Marsh- 
field,  Vt.,  in  1858.     He  was  educated  at 
Yale    University    and    became    assistant 
engineer    of    the    Northern    Pacific    and 
Oregon  Pacific  railways.     This  was  fol- 
lowed by  service  as  director  of  engineer- 
ing   and    manager    of    various    railway, 
dock  and  terminal  contracts  in  Oregon, 
Washington,  Montana,  and  other  States. 
He  was  retained  from  1896  to  1902  by 
the  Belgian   Government  to  prepare  re- 
ports and  projects  for  the  improvement 
of  the   port  of  Antwerp.     He  was  also 
consulting  engineer  on  the  enlargement 
of  the    Suez    Canal    and   on    rivers   and 
harbors   in   Russia.     He   designed   eight 
harbors  for  the  Government  of  Queens- 
land, Australia,  and  did  important  engi- 
neering   work    for    the    Government    of 
South  Australia.    He  built  several  large 
hydraulic  dredges  for  the  Russian,  Aus- 
tralian   and    Indian    Governments,    and 
collaborated  with  other  engineers  in  im- 
proving the  port  of  Shanghai.     He  was 
contracting  engineer  on  important  work 
in    Galveston,    Tex.,    and    designed    the 
"Three    Lake"    Panama    Canal.    During 
the  World  War  he  served  as  vice-chair- 
man   of   the    Commission   for    Relief   in 
Belgium  and  was  chairman  also  of  the 
engineering     commission     of     the     Sub- 
marine Defense  Association.     He  was  a 
member  of  several  engineering  societies 
and  received  many  medals  for  his  serv- 
ices in  engineering. 

BATES  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
institution  in  Lewiston,  Me. ;  organized 
in  1864,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Free 
Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  end  of 
1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  40; 
student^,  494;  volumes  of  library,  47,000; 
endowment,  over  $1,000,000;   number  of 


graduates,  2,285;  president,  Rev,  Clifton 
D.  Gray, 

BATH,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  county- 
seat  of  Sagadahoc  co.,  Me.,  on  the  Ken- 
nebec river,  and  the  Maine  Central  rail- 
road; 12  miles  from  the  ocean  and  35 
miles  S.  of  Augusta.  It  is  admirably  sit- 
uated as  a  commercial  port;  has  regular 
steamboat  connections  with  Boston  and 
Augusta;  is  principally  engaged  in 
shipbuilding,  both  wood  and  iron;  and 
has  manufactories  of  brass  and  iron 
goods,  oil  cloth,  shoes,  and  lumber,  Bath 
has  a  large  coastwise  and  foreign  trade 
in  ice,  coal,  lumber,  hay,  iron,  and  steel; 
and  contains  several  National  banks, 
public  library,  etc.  Pop.  (1910)  9,396; 
(1920)    14,731. 

BATH,  a  city  of  England,  in  Somer- 
setshire, on  the  Avon,  which  is  navigable 
for  barges  from  Bristol;  is  beautifully 
placed  among  the  hills,  and  the  houses 
are  built  of  freestone,  obtained  from  the 
neighborhood.  The  Abbey  Church  ranks 
as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  perpen- 
dicular Gothic  architecture.  Bath  is  re- 
markable for  its  medicinal  waters,  the 
four  principal  springs  yielding  no  less 
than  184,000  gallons  of  water  a  day. 
Bath  was  founded  by  the  Romans,  and 
called  by  them  Aquss  Solis  (waters  of  the 
sun).  Among  the  Roman  remains  dis- 
covered here  have  been  some  fine  baths. 
The  height  of  its  prosperity  was  reached, 
however,  in  the  18th  century,  when  Beau 
Nash  was  leader  of  the  fashion  and 
master  of  its  ceremonies.  Jointly  with 
Wells  it  is  the  head  of  a  diocese,  and  re- 
turns two  members  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Pop.  of  municipal  borough  (1917) 
58,799. 

BATH  HOUSES,  MUNICIPAL.  Batlis 
for  use  of  the  public,  under  city  control, 

BATHOMETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  depth  of  sea  beneath  a 
vessel  without  casting  a  line.  It  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  attraction  exerted 
upon  any  given  mass  of  matter  on  the 
ship  is  less  when  she  is  afloat  than 
ashore,  because  of  the  less  density  of 
sea  water  as  compared  with  that  of  earth 
or  rock. 

BATHSHEBA.  the  wife  of  Uriah. 
David  first  committed  adultery  with  her, 
then  caused  her  husband  to  be  slain,  and 
afterward  took  her  to  wife.  These  sins 
displeased  Jehovah,  who  sent  the  prophet 
Nathan  to  David,  with  the  parable  of 
the  ewe  lamb.  David  bitterly  repented, 
but  yet  was  punished.  Bathsheba  was 
the  mother  of  Solomon,  whose  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  she  took  pains  to 
secure.  She  is  afterward  mentioned  m 
the  history  of  Adonijah,  in  the  title  of 


BATHS  OF  AGRIPPA 


445 


BATTENBERa 


Psalm  li,  and  among  tJie  ancestors  of 
Christ  (Matt,  i:  6). 

BATHS  OF  AGBIPPA,  the  earliest  of 
the  Roman  thermae;  erected  by  Marcus 
Agrippa  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  It 
stood  in  the  Campus  Martius,  about  20 
feet  behind  the  Pantheon. 

BATHS  OF  CARACALLA,  one  of  the 

most  magnificent  of  the  Roman  thermae 
in  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  city;  2,300  men 
could  bathe  in  it  at  the  same  time.  It 
was  begun  in  206  A.  D.  by  Caracalla,  and 
completed  by  Severus.  The  ruins  which 
still  remain  are  among  the  most  re- 
markable in  Rome. 

BATHS  OF  DIOCLETIAN,  the  most 
extensive  of  the  Roman  thermae;  in  the 
N.  E.  part  of  the  city,  and  covering  most 
of  the  ground  between  the  Porto  CoUina 
and  the  Porta  Viminalis.  Over  3,000  per- 
sons could  bathe  in  it  at  the  same  time. 
It  contained  a  library,  picture  gallery, 
odeum,  etc.  Michael  Angelo  transformed 
the  great  hall  of  the  Tepidarium  into  a 
nave  for  the  Church  of  S.  Marie  degli 
Angeli.  One  of  the  laconica  (hot  rooms) 
forms  the  vestibule  of  the  church. 

BATHS  OF  TITUS,  a  structure  on  the 
Esquiline  hill  in  Rome;  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Titus.  Considerable  ruins  are 
found  N.  E.  of  the  Coliseum. 

BATHURST  ISLAND,  on  the  north 
Australian  coast,  belonging  to  South 
Australia,  separated  from  Melville  Island 
by  a  narrow  strait;  triangular  in  shape, 
with  a  wooded  area  of  about  1,000 
square  miles.  Also  an  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  discovered  by  Parry,  W. 
of  Cornwallis  and  E.  of  Melville  Island, 
76°  N.,  100°  W. 

BATON  ROUGE  (-rozh),  city,  capital 
of  the  State  of  Louisiana  and  of  East 
Baton  Rouge  parish;  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  several  railroads;  89  miles  N. 
W.  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  built  on  a 
bluff  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  river,  and 
commands  a  fine  view  of  the  surrounding 
territory.  Architecturally,  it  possesses 
much  interest,  because  of  the  mixture  of 
French  and  Spanish  styles.  The  Capitol 
is  a  structure  in  the  Elizabethan  style, 
showing  also  Gothic  windows  and  battle- 
mented  towers.  Baton  Rouge  contains 
the  State  University,  occupying  the  old 
United  States  Arsenal,  the  State  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College,  the 
State  Asylum  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb  and 
Blind,  the  State  Penitentiary,  an  insane 
asylum,  two  orphans'  homes,  a  collegiate 
institute,  and  other  institutions.  The  city 
has  National  and  State  banks;  several 
laily  and  weekly  newspapers;  and  a 
lar^e  trade  with  the  surrounding  cotton 


and  sugar  growing  regions.  It  was  here, 
on  Jan.  26,  1861,  that  the  State  Conven- 
tion adopted  the  ordinance  of  secession; 
on  May  7,  1862,  the  city  was  taken  by 
the  United  States  forces;  on  August  5, 
following,  a  determined  Confederate  at- 
tack was  repulsed;  and  the  city  was  held 
by  the  Union  troops  till  the  close  of  the 
war.  Baton  Rouge  was  the  capital  of 
the  State  from  1847  to  1864,  when  the 
seat  of  government  was  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  but  on  March  1,  1882,  it  was 
again  located  in  this  city,  where  it  has 
since  remained.  Pop.  (1910)  14,897; 
(1920)   21,782. 

BATOUM,  or  BATUM  (ba-tom'),  a 
port  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Black  Sea, 
acquired  by  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  Ber- 
lin, on  condition  that  its  fortifications 
were  dismantled  and  it  was  thrown  open 
as  a  free  port.  It  rapidly  grew  to  be 
the  main  outlet  for  Transcaucasia;  its 
harbor  was  enlarged  for  alleged  commer- 
cial reasons;  an  arsenal  was  built  out- 
side it;  it  was  connected  by  a  military 
road  with  Kars;  and,  finally,  in  July, 
1886,  the  Russian  government  declared 
it  to  be  a  free  port  no  longer.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  World  War  Batoum  became 
part  of  the  Republic  of  Georgia  {q.  v.). 
It  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  (area,  6,129  square  versts; 
pop.,  about  123,000).  The  Allied  Su- 
preme Council,  in  April,  1920,  interna- 
tionalized it  and  made  it  the  common 
outlet  for  Armenia,  Azerbaijan,  and 
Georgia.  The  city  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Transcaucasian  railway  and  of  the 
petroleum  pipe  line  from  Baku  and  the 
principal  center  of  export  for  petroleum 
from  the  Baku  fields.    Pop.  about  25,000. 

BATTALION,  an  assemblage  of  com- 
panies; the  tactical  and  administrative 
unit  of  infantry — that  is,  the  first  body 
that  is,  as  a  rule,  used  independently, 
and  commanded  by  a  field  officer  (major 
or  lieutenant-colonel). 

BATTENBERG,  name  of  a  family 
conspicuous  in  British  and  Bulgarian 
history.  The  title  Countess  of  Batten- 
berg  was  conferred  in  1851  on  Prince 
Alexander  of  Hesse's  morganatic  spouse, 
the  Countess  Hauke  (1825-1895).  Fruits 
of  that  union  were  Prince  Louis  Alex- 
ander (born  at  Gratz,  May  24,  1854;  ad- 
miral British  royal  navy),  who  in  1884 
married  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Prin- 
cess Alice;  and  in  1917  was  created  by 
royal  decree  Marquis  of  Milford  Haven, 
dropped  his  former  title  of  Prince  of 
Battenberg,  and,  together  with  the  other 
members  of  the  British  branch  of  the 
House  of  Battenberg,  assumed  the  family 
name  of  Mountbatten;  Prince  Alexander  ' 
(1867-1893)     see    below;     and     Prince 


BATTERING  RAM 


446 


BATTLE 


Henry  Maurice  (born  at  Milan,  Oct.  5, 
1858;  died  at  sea  of  fever  caught  in  the 
Ashanti  war,  Jan.  20,  1896),  who  in 
1885  married  the  Princess  Beatrice 
(born  April  14,  1857),  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Queen  Victoria.  Their  eldest 
daughter,  Princess  Victoria  Ena,  in 
1906,  married  Alfonso  XIII.,  King  of 
Spain. 

The  above  Prince  Alexander,  chosen 
Prince  of  Bulgaria  in  1879,  proclaimed 
the  union  of  Eastern  Rumelia  with  Bul- 
garia (1885)  without  consulting  Russia 
and  thereby  also  provoked  the  jealousy 
of  the  Serbians,  whom  he  defeated  in  a 
fortnight's  campaign.  But  in  August, 
1886,  partisans  of  Russia  overpowered 
him  in  his  palace  at  Sofia,  forced  him 
to  abdicate,  and  carried  him  off  to  Reni, 
in  Russian  territory.  Set  free  in  a  few 
days,  he  returned;  but  after  a  futile  at- 
tempt to  conciliate  the  Czar,  he  abdicated 
finally  next  month,  and,  assuming  the 
title  of  Count  Hartenau,  retired  to  Darm- 
stadt.   He  died  Feb.  17,  1893. 

BATTERING  RAM,  an  ancient  mili- 
tary contrivance  used  for  battering  down 
walls.  It  existed  among  the  Assyrians. 
In    its    most    perfect    form    among    the 


BATTERING  RAM 

Romans  it  consisted  of  a  pole  or  beam 
of  wood,  sometimes  as  much  as  80,  100, 
or  even  120  feet  in  length.  It  was  sus- 
pended by  its  extremities  from  a  single 
point,  or  from  two  points  in  another 
beam  above,  which  lay  horizontally  across 
two  posts.  When  at  rest  it  was  level, 
like  the  beam  above  it.  When  put  in 
action  against  a  wall,  it  was  swung  hori- 
zontally by  men  who  succeeded  each  other 


in  constant  relays,  the  blow  which  it  gave 
to  the  masonry  at  each  vibration  being 
rendered  all  the  more  effective  that  one 
end  of  it  was  armed  with  iron.  This, 
being  generally  formed  like  a  ram's 
head,  originated  the  name  aries  (ram), 
by  which  it  was  known  among  the  Ro- 
mans, and  battering-ram,  by  which  it 
was  afterward  known.  A  roof  or  shed 
covered  it  to  protect  the  soldiers  who 
worked  it,  from  hostile  missiles,  and  to 
facilitate  locomotion  it  was  often  placed 
on  wheels. 

BATTERSEA,  a  metropolitan  borough 
of  Greater  London,  in  Surrey,  in  a  low 
situation  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Thames, 
nearly  opposite  Chelsea,  with  a  fine  pub- 
lic park  extending  over  185  acres.  The 
district  is  associated  with  the  names  of 
Pope  and  Bolingbroke,  and  with  the  Wel- 
lington-Winchelsea  duel.  Pop.  (1918) 
149,951. 

BATTERY,  in  law,  the  unlawful  beat- 
ing of  another,  or  even  the  touching  him 
with  hostile  intent.  It  is  legitimate  for 
a  parent  or  a  master  to  give  moderate 
correction  to  his  child,  his  scholar,  or  his 
apprentice. 

In  military  usage,  a  certain  number  of 
artillerymen  united  under  the  command 
of  a  field  officer,  and  the  lowest  tactical 
unit  in  the  artillery.  In  a  battery  there 
are  gunners  who  work  the  guns,  and 
drivers  who  drive  the  horses  by  which 
these  guns  are  transported  from  place 
to  place. 

BATTERY,  in  physics.  See  ELEC- 
TRICITY. 

BATTIK,  an  ornamental  production 
of  the  natives  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
who  decorate  their  clothing  with  it;  also 
made  in  The  Hague  for  local  use  and 
export.  A  piece  of  linen  is  taken  and  all 
kinds  of  designs  are  outlined  upon  it  with 
a  pencil.  When  the  design  is  completed, 
the  ornamented  parts  of  the  fabric  are 
covered  with  a  liquid  which  possesses  the 
quality  of  stiffening  after  being  applied. 
'The  parts  not  ornamented  are  dyed  the 
color  desii'ed.  After  the  entire  fabric 
has  been  ornamented  in  this  manner,  it 
is  boiled  in  hot  water  so  as  to  take  the 
hard  stuff  out  of  the  battik.  The  dyed 
parts  will  then  hold  the  dye  and  the  bat- 
tik is  ready.  The  Hague  people  were  the 
first  to  introduce  battik  into  Europe.  It 
is  made  on  linen,  silk,  velvet,  and  leather, 
and  is  exported  to  all  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe.  In  recent  years  the  produc- 
tion of  battik  has  been  taken  up  in  the 
United  States  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  ever. 

BATTLE,  a  combat  between  two 
armies.    In  ancient  times  and  the  Middle 


BATTLE 


447 


BAUDELAIRE 


Ages,  the  battle  ground  was  often  chosen 
by  agreement,  and  the  battle  was  a  mere 
trial  of  strength,  a  duel  en  gros;  and, 
as  the  armies  of  the  ancients  were  im- 
perfectly organized,  and  the  combatants 
fought  very  little  at  a  distance,  after  the 
battle  had  begun  maneuvers  were  much 
more  difficult,  and  troops  almost  entirely 
beyond  the  control  of  the  general.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  battle  depended 
almost  wholly  upon  the  previous  ar- 
rangements and  the  valor  of  the  troops. 
In  modern  times,  however,  the  finest 
combinations,  the  most  ingenious  maneu- 
vers, are  rendered  possible  by  the  bet- 
ter organization  of  the  armies,  and  it  is 
the  skill  of  the  general  rather  than  the 
courage  of  the  soldier  that  now  deter- 
mines the  event  of  a  battle.  Battles  are 
distinguished  as  offensive  or  defensive 
on  either  side,  but  there  is  a  natural  and 
ready  transition  from  one  method  to  the 
other.  As  a  rule,  the  purely  defensive 
attitude  is  condemned  by  tacticians,  ex- 
cept in  cases  where  the  only  object  de- 
sirable is  to  maintain  a  position  of  vital 
consequence,  the  weight  of  precedent  be- 
ing in  favor  of  the  dash  and  momentum 
of  an  attacking  force,  even  where  op- 
posed to  superior  forces.  Where  the 
greatest  generals  have  acted  upon  the 
defensive,  it  has  almost  always  been 
with  the  desire  to  develop  an  opportunity 
to  pass  the  offensive.  Tacticians  have 
divided  a  battle  into  three  periods:  those 
of  disposition,  combat,  and  the  decisive 
moment. 

BATTLE,  a  town  in  Sussex,  England, 
6  miles  N.  W.  of  Hastings.  Encircled 
on  three  sides  by  wooded  hills,  it  con- 
sists of  one  street,  extending  along  a 
valley  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E.  An  unin- 
habited heathland  then,  Senlac  by  name, 
it  received  its  present  name  from  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  fought  here  on  Oct. 
14,  1066,  when  the  Normans,  led  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  overthrew  the  old 
English  monarchy  under  King  Harold. 
William,  to  commemorate  his  victory, 
founded  in  1067,  on  the  spot  where 
Harold  fell,  a  splendid  Benedictine 
Abbey,  which  was  endowed  with  all  the 
land  within  a  league  of  it,  and  had  the 
privileges  of  a  sanctuary.  Battle  Abbey 
now  consists  of  decorated  and  perpen- 
dicular buildings  occupying  three  sides 
of  a  quadrangle — two  sides  in  ruins,  the 
third  converted  into  a  private  dwelling- 
house. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  a  city  in  Calhoun 
CO.,  Mich.;  at  the  junction  of  Kalamazoo 
river  and  Battle  creek,  and  on  several 
railroads.  It  is  an  agricultural,  fruit 
growing  and  sandstone  quarrying  re- 
gion.    It  contains  a  college,  the  head- 


quarters, and  the  publishing  house  of  the 
Seventh-Day  Adventists;  Battle  Creek 
Medical  College;  division  offices  of  thp 
Grand  Trunk  railway;  and  one  of  th^ 
largest  sanitariums  in  the  world.  The 
city  is  an  attractive  summer  resort,  with 
niore  than  75  lakes  in  its  immediate  vi- 
cinity.  In  recent  years  it  has  become  im- 
portant as  a  manufacturing  city.  Its 
cereal  foods  have  now  an  international 
reputation.  Pop.  (1910)  25,267;  (1920) 
36,164. 

BATTLEDORE  AND  SHUTTLE- 
COCK.   See  Badminton. 

BATTLEMENT.  (1)  A  wall  or  ram- 
part built  around  the  top  of  a  fortified 
building,  with  interstices  or  embrasures 
to  discharge  arrows  or  darts,  or  f^re  guns 
through.  (2)  A  similar  erection  around 
the  roofs  of  churches  and  other  Gothic 
buildings,  where  the  object  was  princi- 
pally ornamental.  They  are  found  not 
only  upon  parapets,  but  as  ornaments  on 
the  transoms  of  windows,  etc.  (3)  A 
wall  built  around  a  flat-roofed  house,  in 
the  East  and  elsewhere,  to  prevent  any 
one  from  falling  into  the  street,  area  or 
garden. 

BATTLESHIP,  a  warship  of  the 
heaviest  class,  designed  for  fighting  in 
line  of  battle.  The  modern  battleship  is 
the  great  fighting  unit  in  a  fleet  engage- 
ment, designed  to  stand  to  her  work  and 
take  the  hardest  of  blows  and  to  over- 
come any  ship  that  may  oppose  her. 
Her  armor  is  the  least  vulnerable,  her 
guns  are  the  heaviest,  and  the  qualities 
of  the  cruiser  and  armored  cruiser  are 
subordinated  to  secure  this  preponder- 
ance of  protection  and  armament.  See 
Navy;   Navy,   United   States. 

BAUDELAIRE,  CHARLES  (bod- 
lar'),  a  French  poet,  born  in  Paris,  April 
21,  1821.  In  his  youth  he  traveled  to 
India,  and  is  said  to  have  likewise  visited 
the  Mauritius  and  Madagascar.  On  his 
return  to  Paris  he  became  a  notable  fig- 
ure in  the  second  group  of  romantic  poets 
who  carried  on  the  movement  becrun  bv 
the  Romanticists  of  1830.  His  "Flowers 
of  Evil,"  a  volume  of  poems  issued  in 
1857,  was  the  subject  of  a  prosecution  on 
the  score  of  immorality.  He  afterward 
published  "Artificial  Paradises,"  con- 
taining selections  from  Poe  and  De 
Quincey,  besides  original  material.  His 
occasional  essays,  collected  in  a  volume 
entitled  "Romanesque  Art,"  are  remark- 
able for  the  finish  of  the  style  anr^  the 
su^^tlety  of  the  criticism.  Apart  from 
his  verse,  however,  Baudelaire's  finest 
work  is  contained  in  his  50  "Little 
Poems  in  Prose."  He  died  in  Paris 
Aug.  31,  1867. 


BATTER 


448 


BAVARIA 


BAUER,  HAROLD,  an  English  pian- 
ist, born  in  London  in  1873.  He  learned 
to  play  the  violin  from  his  father  and 
afterward  studied  under  several  German 
masters.  His  first  successful  tour  was 
made  in  1883  when  he  was  ten  years  of 
age.  His  success  continued  thereafter. 
He  studied  under  Paderewski  for  one 
year,  and  in  1893  made  a  tour  through 
Russia  and  other  European  countries. 
In  1900  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  was  received  with  success  sim- 
ilar to  that  which  had  greeted  him  in 
Europe.  He  continued  to  make  annual 
tours  in  the  United  States. 

BATJHINIA  (named  by  Blumier  after 
John  and  Caspar  Bauhin,  the  plants 
which  have  two-lobed  leaves  being 
deemed  suitable  for  rendering  honor  to 
two  brothers,  instead  of  to  one  person 
simply),  mountain  ebony,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  order  fabacege,  or 
leguminosse,  and  the  sub-order  csssal- 
piniese.  The  species,  which  are  mostly 
climbers,  belonging  to  the  East  or  West 
Indies,  have  beautiful  flowers. 

BAITM,  (LYMAN)  FRANK,  an 
American  author,  born  in  1856  in  Chit- 
tenango,  N.  Y.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  entered  the  newspaper  field, 
and  for  several  years  edited  papers  in 
Chicago  and  elsewhere.  He  was  best 
known  as  a  writer  for  children.  "The 
Wizard  of  Oz,"  a  musical  comedy  made 
from  one  of  his  books,  had  a  run  of  sev- 
eral years  in  New  York  and  Chicago, 
Other  works  include  "Mother  Goose  in 
Prose"  (1897)  ;  "Baum's  Fairy  Tales" 
(1908);  "Patchwork  Girl  of  Oz"  (1913). 
He  died  in  1920. 

BAUMBACH,  RUDOLF  (boum'bach), 
a  German  poet,  born  at  Kranichfeld, 
Saxe-Meiningen,  Sept.  28,  1840.  After 
studying  natural  science  in  Wvirzburg, 
Leipsic,  Freiburg,  and  Heidelberg,  he 
lived  as  a  tutor  in  Austria,  last  at 
Trieste,  where  he  devoted  himself  after- 
ward exclusively  to  writing.  In  1885  he 
returned  to  Meiningen.  He  has  most  suc- 
cessfully cultivated  the  poetical  tale, 
based  upon  ancient  popular  legends. 
Epics:  "Zlatorog,"  a  Slovenic  Alpine 
legend  (1875);  "Horand  and  Hilda" 
(1879);  Lyrics:  "Songs  of  a  Travel- 
ing Journeyman"  (1878);  "Minstrel's 
Songs"  (1882)  ;  "Traveling  Sonc:s  from 
the  Alps"  (1883);  "Jug  and  Ink- 
stand" (1887)  ;  "Thuringian  Songs" 
(1891).  He  is  also  author  of  "False 
Gold"  (1878),  a  historical  romance; 
"Summer  Legends"  (1881)  ;  "Once  Upon 
a  Time"   (1889)  ;  etc.     He  died  in  1905. 

BAUTZE"^  (Wendish  Budissin) ,  an 
important  manufacturing  town  in  Sax- 
ony, situated  on  a  rising  ground   over- 


looking the  river  Spree,  35  miles  W.  of 
Gorlitz  by  rail.  It  is  the  chief  town  of 
an  administrative  district  of  the  same 
name.  Pop.  about  50,000.  The  chief 
buildings  are  a  former  cathedral  (1497), 
and  the  Castle  of  Ortenburg,  dating 
from  958,  and  a  frequent  residence  of 
the  Kings  of  Bohemia.  The  leading 
industries  are  manufactures  of  woolens, 
fustian,  linen,  hosiery,  leather,  and  gun- 
powder. Bautzen  was  first  made  a  town 
under  Otho  I.  It  suffered  greatly  in  the 
war  with  Hussites,  and  still  more  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Here  Napoleon 
won  a  barren  victory  over  Russians  and 
Prussians,  May  20-21,  1813. 

BAUXITE,  a  mineral  which  occurs 
in  round,  concretionary  disseminated 
grains;  is  found  extensively  in  France 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and,  in  the 
United  States,  principally  in  Alabama 
and  Georgia.  The  purest  bauxite  is 
called  aluminum  ore,  because  commercial 
aluminum  is  made  from  it.  Beds  of  this 
mineral  have  been  discovered  in  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  and  Georgia,  and  now 
that  aluminum  has  been  introduced  rap- 
idly into  many  of  the  economic  arts,  the 
mining  of  bauxite  bids  fair  to  become 
the  basis  for  important  industries  in  the 
Southern  States.  In  Alabama  the  de- 
posits known  as  the  Cherokee  and  Cal- 
houn, are  gear  Jacksonville,  and  are  hard 
on  the  outcrops,  but  after  being  cut  into 
become  soft  and  crumbly.  White,  gray, 
and  red  are  tTie  principal  colors.  In  Ar- 
kansas the  ore  is  Tound  iu  Saline  and 
Pulaski  counties,  a.id  in  the  Little  Rock 
region  some  veins  are  estimated  to  be  20 
feet  thick.  The  deposits  are  red,  black, 
and  cream  colored,  the  first  two  predom- 
inating. In  Georgia,  the  counties  of 
Floyd,  Polk,  and  Bartow,  which  are  ad- 
jacent to  the  Alabama  deposits,  have 
been  shown  by  government  surveys  to  be 
rich  in  the  ore,  and  experts  agree  that 
these  counties  and  Cherokee,  Calhoun, 
and  Cleburne  counties  in  Alabama,  are 
almost  wholly  underlaid  with  beds,  prac- 
tically inexhaustible. 

BAVARIA,  a  state  in  southern 
Germany  and  the  second  largest  state  of 
Germany,  composed  of  two  isolated  por- 
tions, the  larger  having  Czecho- Slovakia 
on  the  E.,  the  Republic  of  Austria  on 
the  E.  and  S.,  and  Wiirttemberg,  Baden, 
etc.,  on  the  W.,  while  the  smaller  por- 
tion, the  Pfalz  or  Palatinate,  is  sep- 
arated from  the  other  by  Wiirttemberg 
and  Baden,  and  lies  W.  of  the  Rhine; 
total  area,  30,562  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  7,000,000.  After  Munich,  the  cap- 
ital, the  chief  towns  are  Niirnberg,  Augs- 
burg, Wiirzburg,  Ludwigshafen,  and  Rat- 
isbon   (Regensburg). 


BAVARIA 


449 


BAVARIA 


Topography. — The  main  portion  of  the 
kingdom  is  in  most  parts  hilly;  in  the 
S.,  where  it  belongs  to  the  Alps,  moun- 
tainous; but  N.  of  the  Alps  and  S.  of  the 
Danube,  which  flows  E.,  through  the 
country  from  Ulm  to  Passau,  there  is  a 
considerable  plateau,  averaging  about 
1,600  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  S. 
frontier  is  formed  by  a  branch  of  the 
Noric  Alps,  offsets  from  which  project 
far  into  the  plateau;  principal  peaks: 
the  Zugspitze,  10,394  feet,  and  the  Watz- 
mann,  9,470  feet.  The  highest  summits 
on  the  Bohemian  (Austrian)  frontier,  be- 
longing to  the  Bohmerwald  Mountains, 
are  the  Rachel,  5,102  feet,  and  the  Arber, 
5,185  feet.  Ranges  of  less  elevation  bor- 
dering on  or  belonging  to  the  country  are 
the  Fichtelgebirge  in  the  N.  E.,  the 
Frankenwald,  Rhongebirge,  and  Spes- 
sart  in  the  N.,  and  the  Steigerwald  and 
Franconian  Jura  in  the  middle.  The 
Palatinate  is  traversed  by  the  N.  extrem- 
ity of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  the  highest 
peak  being  the  Konigstuhl,  2,162  feet. 
The  greater  part  of  the  country  belongs 
to  the  basin  of  the  Danube,  which  is  nav- 
igable, its  tributaries  on  the  S.  being  the 
Iller,  Lech,  Isar,  and  Inn;  on  the  N.,  the 
Wornitz,  Altmiihl,  Nab,  and  Regen.  The 
N.  portion  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Main,  which  receives  the  Regnitz  and 
Saale,  and  is  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine. 
The  Palatinate  has  only  small  streams 
that  flow  into  its  boundary  river,  the 
Rhine.  The  chief  lakes  of  Bavaria  are 
all  on  the  higher  part  of  the  S.  plateau; 
the  smaller  within  the  range  of  the  Alps. 
The  Ammer-See  is  about  10  miles  long 
by  214;  broad,  1,736  feet  above  the  sea; 
the  Wiirm-See  or  Starnberger-See,  about 
12  miles  long  by  3  broad,  1,899  feet;  and 
Chiem-See,  9  miles  long  by  9  to  4  broad, 
1,651  feet.  The  climate  in  general  is 
temperate  and  healthful,  though  some- 
what colder  than  the  other  south  Ger- 
man states;  the  yearly  average  tempera- 
ture is  about  47°. 

Soil  and  Productions. — As  regards  soil 
Bavaria  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  coun- 
tries in  Germany,  producing  the  vari- 
ous cereals  in  abundance,  the  best  hops 
in  Germany,  fruit,  wine,  tobacco,  etc., 
and  having  extensive  forests.  Lower 
Franconia  (the  Main  valley)  and  the 
Palatinate  are  the  great  vine  growing 
districts.  The  celebrated  Steinwein  and 
Leistenwein  are  the  produce  of  the  slopes 
of  the  Steinberg  and  Marienberg  at 
Wiirzburg  (on  the  Main).  The  forests 
of  Bavaria,  chiefly  fir  and  pine,  yield  a 
large  revenue;  much  timber  being  annu- 
ally exported,  together  with  potash,  tar, 
turpentine,  etc.  The  principal  mineral 
products  are  salt,  coal,  and  iron,  some  of 
the  mining  works  belonging  to  the  state. 


The  minerals  worked  include  copper, 
quicksilver,  manganese,  cobalt,  porcelain 
clay,  alabaster,  graphite.  Large  num- 
bers of  horses  and  cattle  are  reared,  as 
also  sheep  and  swine. 

Manufactures. — The  principal  articles 
manufactured  are  linens,  woolens,  cot- 
tons, leather,  paper,  glass,  earthen  and 
iron  ware,  jewelry,  etc.  The  optical  and 
mathematical  instruments  made  are  ex- 
cellent. A  most  important  branch  of  in- 
dustry is  the  brewing  of  beer,  for  which 
there  are  upward  of  7,000  establishments 
producing  over  260,000,000  of  gallons  a 
year.  Principal  exports:  corn,  timber, 
wine,  cattle,  glass,  hops,  fruit,  beer, 
wooden  wares,  etc.  From  its  position 
Bavaria  has  a  considerable  transit  trade. 
The  Konig  Ludwig  canal  connects  the 
Main  at  Bamberg  with  the  Altmiihl  a 
short  distance  above  its  embouchure  in 
the  Danube,  thus  establishing  water  com- 
munication between  the  German  Ocean 
and  the  Black  Sea. 

Education. — Before  the  European  War 
there  were  over  7,500  elementary  schools, 
on  which  attendance  is  compulsory  up  to 
14  years  of  age.  There  are  three  uni- 
versities, two  of  which  (Munich  and 
Wiirzburg)  are  Roman  Catholic,  and  one 
(Erlangen)  Protestant.  In  art  Bavaria 
is  best  known  as  the  home  of  the  Niirn- 
berg  school,  founded  about  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  by  Albert  Diirer.  Hans 
Holbein  is  also  claimed  as  a  Bavarian; 
and  to  these  have  to  be  added  the  emi- 
nent sculptors,  Kraft  and  Vischer,  both 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. The  restoration  of  the  reputation 
of  Bavaria  in  art  was  chiefly  the  work 
of  Ludwig  I.,  under  whom  the  capital 
became  one  of  the  most  prominent  seats 
of  the  fine  arts  in  Europe.  The  religion 
of  the  state  was  Roman  Catholicism.  All 
citizens,  whatever  their  creed,  possess 
the  same  civil  and  political  rights.  The 
dioceses  of  Bavaria  comprise  two  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishoprics,  Munich  and 
Bamberg;  and  six  bishoprics,  Augsburg, 
Ratisbon,  Eichstadt,  Passau,  Wiirzburg, 
and  Spires. 

Government. — Under  the  monarchial 
form  of  government  the  Bavarian  crown 
was  hereditary  in  the  male  line.  The 
executive  was  in  the  hands  of  the  King. 
The  Legislature  consisted  of  two  cham- 
bers, one  of  Senators:  royal  princes, 
high  state  officers,  clergy,  etc. ;  the  other 
of  150  deputies  nominated  by  electors. 
Bavaria  sent  six  members  to  the  German 
Federal  Council  (Bundesrath),  and  48  to 
the  Reichstag.  In  times  of  peace  the 
King  of  Bavaria  commanded  the  army, 
but  in  war  the  German  Emperor  com- 
manded.   As  a  result  of  the  new  consti- 


BAVABIA 


450 


BAXTER 


tution,  adopted  on  Aug.  14,  1919,  Ba- 
varia became  a  free  state,  with  universal, 
equal,  direct,  secret  and  proportional 
suffrage.  There  is  one  Chamber,  elected 
for  4  years,  one  member  for  every  40,000 
inhabitants.  The  supreme  power  lies 
with  the  people  and  is  exercised  by  the 
Cabinet  as  a  whole.  The  church  is  sep- 
arated from  the  state. 

Hlstoi-y. — The  Bavarians  take  their 
name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  tribe  whose 
territory  was  occupied  by  a  confedera- 
tion of  Germanic  tribes,  called  after  their 
predecessors,  Boiarii.  These  were  made 
tributary  first  to  the  Ostrogoths,  and 
then  to  the  Franks;  and  on  the  death 
of  Charlemagne  his  successors  governed 
the  country  by  lieutenants,  with  the  title 
of  Margrave,  afterward  converted  (in 
921)  into  that  of  Duke.  In  1070  Bavaria 
passed  to  the  family  of  the  Guelphs,  and 
in  1180  by  imperial  grant  to  Otho,  Count 
of  Wittelsbach,  founder  of  the  dynasty 
that  reigned  until  1918.  In  1623  the 
Duke  was  made  one  of  the  Electors  of  the 
Empire.  Elector  Maximilian  II.  joined 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  on 
the  side  of  France,  and  this  led,  after  the 
battle  of  Blenheim,  1704,  to  the  loss  of 
his  dominions  for  the  next  10  years.  His 
son,  Charles  Albert,  likewise  lost  his 
dominions  for  a  time  to  Austria,  but 
they  were  all  recovered  again  by  Charles' 
son,  Maximilian  III.  (1745).  In  the 
wars  following  the  French  Revolution, 
Bavaria  was  in  a  difficult  position  be- 
tween France  and  Austria,  but  latterly 
joined  Napoleon,  from  whom  its  Elector, 
Maximilian  IV.,  received  the  title  of  King 
(1805),  a  title  afterward  confirmed  by 
the  treaties  of  1814  and  1815.  King 
Maximilian  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ludwig  (or  Louis)  I.,  under  whom  vari- 
ous circumstances  helped  to  quicken  a  de- 
sire for  political  change.  Reform  being 
refused,  tumults  arose  in  1848,  and  Lud- 
wig resigned  in  favor  of  his  son,  Max- 
imilian II.,  under  whom  certain  modifica- 
tions of  the  constitution  were  carried  out. 
At  his  death  in  1864,  he  was  succeeded 
by  Ludwig  II.  In  the  war  of  1866,  Bavaria 
sided  with  Austria,  and  was  compelled 
to  cede  a  small  portion  of  its  territory 
to  Prussia,  and  to  pay  a  war  indemnity 
of  $12,500,000.  Soon  after,  Bavaria  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  Prussia,  and 
in  1867  joined  the  Zollverein.  In  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-1871,  the 
Bavarians  took  a  prominent  part,  and  it 
was  at  the  request  of  the  King  of  Ba- 
varia, on  behalf  of  all  the  other  princes 
and  the  Senates  of  the  free  cities  of 
Germany,  that  the  King  of  Prussia 
agreed  to  accept  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  Germany.  Since  January,  1871,  Ba- 
varia has  been  a  part  of  the  German 


Empire.  The  eccentricity  early  dis- 
played  by  Ludwig  II.  developed  to  such 
an  extent  that  in  June,  1886,  he  was 
placed  under  control,  and  a  regency  es- 
tablished under  Prince  Luitpold.  The 
change  was  almost  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  the  suicide  of  the  King,  and 
as  Prince  Otto,  the  brother  and  heir  of 
the  late  King,  was  insane,  his  uncle 
Luitpold  became  regent.  His  son  Louis 
succeeded  him  December,  1912,  and  was 
proclaimed  King  as  Ludwig  III,  in  1913. 
In  November,  1918,  a  revolutionary  up- 
rising forced  Ludvdg  to  abdicate  and 
Bavaria  became  a  republic. 

BAX,  ERNEST  BELFORT,  an  Eng- 
lish socialist,  born  in  Leamington,  July 
23,  1854;  was  educated  in  London  and 
Germany;  followed  journalism  in  Ger- 
many as  foreign  correspondent  in  1880- 
1881;  and  returning  to  England,  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  English  so- 
cialist movement.  In  1885  he  aided  in 
starting  the  Socialist  League.  Subse- 
quently, he  resigned  from  the  league  and 
joined  the  Social  Democratic  Federation, 
and  for  a  time  also  edited  its  organ, 
"Justice."  His  publications  include 
"Jean-Paul  Marat"  (1878);  "Kant's 
Prolegomena,  etc."  (1882) ;  "Religion 
of  Socialism"  (1886) ;  "Ethics  of  Social- 
ism"     (1889) ;      "French      Revolution" 

(1890);  "Outlooks  from  the  New  Stand- 
point" (1891);  "The  Problem  of  Real- 
ity" (1893) ;  "German  Society  at  the 
Close  of  the  Middle  Ages"  (1894); 
"Outspoken  Essays  on   Social  Subjects" 

(1897) ;  "The  Peasants'  War  in  Ger- 
many" (1899) ;  "Impressions  and  Reflec- 
tions"  (1918);  etc. 

BAXTER,  RICHARD,  an  English 
Nonconformist  preacher  and  theological 
writer,  born  in  Shropshire  in  1615.  He 
early  entered  the  Church,  and,  taking 
sides  with  the  Parliamentary  party,  be- 
came chaplain  to  one  of  the  regiments 
of  the  Commonwealth,  accompanyin.^  the 
troops  in  every  conflict  in  the  Civil  War. 
It  was  while  so  employed  that  he  wrote 
his  first  book,  the  "Saint's  Rest."  The 
Restoration  and  the  Act  of  conformity 
drove  Baxter  into  retirement,  and  shut 
him  out  of  the  pulpit,  during  which  time 
he  wrote  his  second  book,  **The  Call." 
After  much  persecution,  he.  then  70 
years  old,  was  brought  before  Judge 
Jeffreys,  who  fined  him  £500,  with  im- 
prisonment till  paid.  His  most  popular 
books  are  the  "Saint's  Everlasting  Rest," 
"Dying  Thoughts,"  and  "Call  to  the 
Unconverted."  His  theological  views  are 
set  forth  in  the  "Methodus  Theologise," 
and  "Catholic  Theology";  and  he  has  left 
an  account  of  his  life  in  the  "Reliquiae 
Baxterianffi."     He  died  Dec.  8,  1691. 


BAY 


451 


BAYARD 


BAY,  an  arm  or  inlet  of  the  sea  ex- 
tending into  the  land,  with  a  wider 
mouth  proportionally  than  a  gulf.  Com- 
pare in  this  respect  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
with  the  Gulf  of  Venice. 

In  hydraulics:  a  pond-head  raised  to 
keep  a  store  of  water  for  driving  a  mill. 

In  architecture:  a  term  used  to  sig- 
nify the  magnitude  of  a  building.  Thus, 
if  a  barn  consists  of  a  floor  and  two 
heads,  where  they  lay  corn,  they  call  it  a 
barn  of  two  bays.  These  bays  are  from 
14  to  20  feet  long,  and  floors  from  10  to 
12  broad,  and  usually  20  feet  long,  which 
is  the  breadth  of  the  barn. 

BAYwAJDERE,  a  name  originally  given 
by  the  Portuguese  to  the  singing  and 
dancing  girls  of  Hindustan.  They  are  of 
two  kinds — those  who  are  employed  as 
priestesses  in  the  temples,  and  those  who 
go  about  the  country  as  itinerants.  The 
former  class  celebrate  with  song  and 
dance  the  festivals  of  the  gods ;  the  latter 
are  employed  by  the  grandees  of  India 
to  amuse  them. 

BAYAMO.orSAN  SALVADOR,  a  town 
in  the  interior  of  the  E.  part  of  the 
island  of  Cuba,  situated  in  a  fertile  and 
healthy  district  on  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Maestra.  It  is  connected  by  a 
railway  with  Manzanilla.  Pop.  about 
5,000. 

BAYARD,  PIERRE  DU  TERRAIL, 
SEIGNEUR  DE  (bi-yar'),  the  Bon 
Chevalier  sans  Peur  et  sans  Reproche 
(good  knight  without  fear  and  without 
reproach),  and  from  whom  is  derived 
the  proverbial  saying,  "Brave  as  Bay- 
ard," was  born  in  1476,  of  an  ancient 
and  noble  French  family  of  Dauphine. 
He  early  displayed  the  indomitable  reso- 
lution, courage,  military  skill,  and  honor 
which  made  him  the  model  of  knight- 
hood, and  caused  his  sovereign,  Francis 
I.,  to  covet  as  an  honor  the  ceremony  of 
being  dubbed  a  knight  by  his  hands. 
Bayard,  at  13  years  old,  was  placed  as 
a  page  in  the  house  of  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  where  he  remained  for  five  years. 
On  the  completion  of  his  18th  year  he 
became  a  soldier.  The  first  battle  at 
which  he  fought  was  that  of  Fornovo,  in 
1494,  under  the  banner  of  Charles  VIII., 
when  he  distinguished  himself.  He  fought 
in  the  Italian  wars  of  Louis  XIT.  and 
once  held  a  bridge  single-handed  enabling 
the  French  to  retreat.  In  1513  he  fought 
at  the  famous  battle  of  the  Spurs,  in 
Picardy,  where  his  valor  saved  the  dis- 
grace of  the  whole  French  army.  On 
this  occasion  Bayard  surrendered  to  an 
English  knight,  but  was  soon  exchanged. 
In  the  battle  of  Marignano,  fought  Sept. 
13,  1515,  Bayard  displayed  his  usual 
prowess;   and  in  1521  he  defended  Me- 

ao — Vol.  I — Cyc 


zieres,  a  frontier  town  of  France,  against 
the  Count  of  Nassau,  with  a  force  of 
35,000  men.  Bayard  was  as  conspicuous 
for  military  skill  as  for  bravery;  but 
lacking  the  arts  of  the  courtier,  he  was 
never  appointed  to  the  command  of 
armies.  Nevertheless,  in  moments  of 
danger  and  difficulty,  he  was  always 
looked  up  to  for  advice.  In  1524,  he 
served  under  Admiral  Bonnivet  in  Italy 
against  the  Imperialists  under  the  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon,  and  at  the  passage 
of  the  Sesia  received  his  mortal  wound. 
He  refused  to  be  carried  off  the  field, 
saying  he  would  not  then,  for  the  first 
time,  turn  his  back  on  the  enemy.  Re- 
clining at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  he  still  urged 
on  his  comrades.  The  Constable  coming 
up  was  affected  at  the  sight,  and  the 
noble  Bayard,  with  almost  his  last 
breath,  is  said  to  have  uttered  the  re- 
buke, "It  is  not  me  you  should  mourn 
for,  but  yourself  fighting  against  your 
King  and  your  country,"  after  which  he 
died.  His  life  was  written  by  his  loyal 
serviteur,  or  secretary,  and  has  passed 
through  many  editions. 

BAYARD,  THOMAS  FRANCIS,  an 
American  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  Oct.  29,  1828. 
He  came  of  a  family  which  for  four  suc- 
cessive generations  represented  the  State 
of  Delaware  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
The  first  of  his  ancestors  to  settle  in  that 
State  was  Peter,  a  son  of  Petrus  Bayard, 
probably  a  collateral  descendant  of  the 
celebrated  Chevalier  Bayard  and  Anne 
C.  Stuyvesant,  the  latter  a  sister  of  Peter 
Stuyvesant,  the  last  of  the  Dutch  Gover- 
nors of  New  Netherlands.  Mr.  Bayard's 
great-grandfather,  Richard  Bassett,  was 
a  member  of  the  convention  that  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
Mr.  Bayard  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1851  and  practiced  law  until  1868,  when 
he  succeeded  his  father,  James  A.  Bay- 
ard, in  the  United  States  Senate.  In 
the  Democratic  National  Convention  of 
1872  he  received  15  votes  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination,  and  in  the  conven- 
tion of  1876,  31  votes,  which  he  turned 
over  to  Samuel  J.  Tilden.  In  1880  and 
again  in  1884  his  name  was  voted  on  in 
the  National  convention  of  his  party. 
In  1885  he  was  chosen  by  President 
Cleveland  as  Secretary  of  State,  and  on 
Cleveland's  second  election,  in  1892,  he 
was  appointed  United  States  Ambassador 
to  the  Court  of  St.  James,  being  the 
first  to  bear  that  title.  While  holding 
this  high  office  he  won  many  friends 
by  his  personal  charm  of  manner,  and 
his  public  utterances  promoted  good 
feeling  in  both  social  and  government 
circles.  He  died  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
Sept.  28,  1898. 


BAYAZID 


452 


BAYLOR  UNIVEBSITY 


BAYAZID.     See  Bajazet. 

BAY  CITY,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Bay  CO.,  Mich.;  on  the  Saginaw  river 
and  several  railroads;  13  miles  N.  of 
Saginaw.  It  is  noted  for  its  large  ship- 
building plants  and  its  extensive  trade  in 
lumber,  coal,  and  manufactured  products. 
The  city  is  the  farming,  lumbering,  and 
mining  trade  and  wholesale  center  for 
northern  Michigan;  has  National  banks, 
a  number  of  imposing  public  buildings, 
including  the  United  States  Government 
Building,  City  Hall,  Masonic  Temple, 
and  the  First  Presbyterian  Church.  Bay 
City  and  West  Bay  City,  which  have 
many  trade,  manufacturing,  and  finan- 
cial interests  in  common,  were  consoli- 
dated in  1905.  Pop.  (1910)  45,166; 
(1920)     47,554. 

BAYERN.  See  BAVARIA. 

BAYEUX  (bi-e'),  an  ancient  city  of 
Normandy,  in  the  French  department  of 
Calvados,  on  the  Aure,  15  miles  N.  W. 
of  Caen.  Many  of  the  houses  are  built  of 
wood,  and  the  streets  have  a  forlorn  and 
decayed  appearance.  The  Gothic  cathe- 
dral— the  oldest,  it  is  said,  in  Normandy 
— was  rebuilt  after  a  fire  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  in  1077;  but  the  present  edi- 
fice dates  mainly  from  1106  to  the  13th 
century.  The  W.  front,  with  its  two  12th 
century  steeples,  and  the  three  sculp- 
tured porches,  are  notable  features. 
Porcelain  and  lace  are  manufactured. 

BAY  ISLANDS,  a  small  group  in  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  150  miles  S.  E.  of 
Balize.  The  cluster  was  proclaimed  a 
British  colony  in  1852,  but  in  1859  they 
were  ceded  to  the  Republic  of  Honduras. 
The  chief  of  the  six  islands  are  Roatan 
(30  by  9  miles;  900  feet  high),  and 
Guanaja,  whence,  in  1502,  Columbus  first 
sighted  the  mainland  of  America. 

BAY  LAKE,  a  body  of  water  in  the 
northern  part  of  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands.  This  lake  is  connected  with 
Manila  Bay  by  the  Pasig  river,  and  from 
its  center  rises  a  high  volcanic  island. 
Bay  Lake  is  about  20  miles  in  extent 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  about  47  miles  from 
E.  to  W. 

BAYLE  (bal),  PIERRE,  a  French 
critic  and  writer,  the  son  of  a  Calvinist 
preacher,  born  at  Carlat  (Languedoc)  in 
1647;  studied  at  Toulouse.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1674,  and  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  at  Sedan.  Six  years 
after  he  removed  to  Rotterdam,  where 
he  filled  a  similar  chair.  The  appearance 
of  a  comet,  in  1680,  induced  him  to  pub- 
lish, in  1682,  his  "Pensees  Diverses  sur 
la  Comete,"  a  work  full  of  learning.  It 
was  followed  by  his  "Critique  Generale 


de  I'Histoire  du  Calvinisme  de  Maim- 
bourg."  In  1684  he  undertook  a  periodi- 
cal work,  "Nouvelles  de  la  _  Republique 
des  Lettres,"  containing  notices  of  new 
books  in  theology,  philosophy,  history, 
and  general  literature.  In  1693  Jurieu, 
a  jealous  theologian,  succeeded  in  induc- 
ing the  magistrates  of  Rotterdan  to 
remove  Bayle  from  his  office.  He  now 
devoted  all  his  attention  to  the  compo- 
sition of  his  "Dictionnaire  Historique  et 
Critique,"  which  he  first  published  in 
1696.  It  is  a  vast  storehouse  ot  facts, 
discussions  and  opinions,  and  though  it 
was  publicly  censured  by  the  Rotterdam 
consistory  for  its  frequent  impurities, 
its  pervading  scepticism,  and  tacit 
atheism,  it  long  remained  a  favorite 
book  both  with  literary  men  and  with 
men  of  the  world.  The  best  editions  are 
that  of  1740,  in  four  volumes  folio 
(Amsterdam  and  Ley  den),  and  that  in 
16  volumes,  published  in  1820-1824,  at 
Paris.     He  died  in  Rotterdam,  in  1706. 

BAYLEN,  or  BAILEN,  a  town  of 
Spain,  province  of  Jaen,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra  Morena,  22  miles  N.  of  Jaen. 
It  commands  the  road  leading  from  Cas- 
tile into  Andalusia,  and  derives  its  ce- 
lebrity from  the  events  which  took  place 
in  its  vicinity  leading  to  the  "Capitula- 
tion of  Baylen,"  signed  July  20,  1808, 
when  General  Dupont,  and  about  20,000 
French  troops  under  his  command,  sur- 
rendered to  the  Spaniards  on  condition 
of  their  being  conveyed  to  France  by  the 
Spanish  Government;  but  the  latter 
stipulation  was  not  carried  into  effect. 

BAYLEY,   JAMES   ROOSEVELT,    an 

American  theologian,  born  in  New  York 
City,  Aug.  23,  1814;  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  and  became  minister 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ;  but, 
in  1842,  was  converted  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith;  and,  after  studying  at 
Paris  and  Rome,  became  a  priest  in  1844. 
He  accepted  the  Chair  of  Belles-Lettres 
at  St.  John's  College,  Fordham,  and  was 
its  acting  president  in  1846.  After  serv- 
ing as  secretary  to  Archbishop  Hughes, 
he  was  consecrated  the  first  Bishop  of 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1853.  In  1872  he  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  Md.  He 
was  the  founder  of  Seton  Hall  College 
and  several  other  institutions.  His 
"Pastorals  for  the  People,"  and  "History 
of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  Island  of 
New  York,"  are  his  chief  writings.  He 
died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3,  1877. 

BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY,  a  coedu- 
cational institution  in  Waco,  Tex., 
founded  in  1845,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baptist  Church;  reported  at  the  end 
of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors,  56; 
students,  1,124;  volumes  in  the  library* 


BAY  OF  ISLANDS 


453 


BEACH 


37,900;  income,  $293,571;  number  of 
graduates,  1,945;  president,  Samuel 
Palmer  Brooks,  LL.  D. 

BAY  OF  ISLANDS,  a  large,  deep  and 
safe  harbor  on  the  N.  E.  coast  of  the 
North  Island  of  New  Zealand.  On  it  is 
Kororarika,  the  first  European  settle- 
ment in  New  Zealand.  Also  a  large  bay 
formed  by  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Newfoundland. 

BAYONET,  a  miltary  weapon  for- 
merly called  a  dagger,  made  to  be  fitted 
to  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  or  rifle,  to  convert 
the  latter  into  a  kind  of  pike.  At  first  it 
was  so  fixed  that  it  required  to  be  taken 
off  before  the  gun  was  fired;  but  since 
the  battle  of  Killiecrankie  showed  the 
danger  of  such  an  arrangement,  it  has 
been  fastened  on  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  firing  of  the  weapon. 
See  Infantry. 

BAYONNE,  a  city  in  Hudson  co., 
N.  J.,  on  New  York  harbor,  the  Kill  von 
Kull,  and  Newark  Bay,  and  the  Central 
of  New  Jersey  and  the  Lehigh  Valley 
railroads;  7  miles  S.  W.  of  New  York 
City.  The  city  is  also  on  the  Hudson 
County  Boulevard  and  the  Morris  canal. 
It  contains  a  number  of  former  villages; 
and  is  principally  engaged  in  coal  ship- 
ping and  petroleum  refining,  the  works 
for  the  latter  being  connected  by  pipe 
lines  with  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Pittsburgh,  and  other  cities. 
Other  noteworthy  industries  are  the 
manufactures  of  chemicals,  ammonia  and 
colors.  The  residential  part  of  the  city 
is  very  attractive,  containing  fine  homes 
of  New  York  business  men,  and  having 
trolley  connection  with  Jersey  City, 
Newark,  and  the  Oranges.  Pop.  (1910) 
55,545;   (1920)  76,754. 

BAYONNE,  a  strongly  fortified  sea- 
port of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Basses-Pyrenees,  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissevient ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nive 
with  the  Adour,  and  58  miles  W.  N.  W. 
of  Pau.  It  is  a  first-class  fortress,  the 
citadel,  one  of  the  finest  works  of 
Vauban,  commands  the  town  and  harbor. 
A  mint  is  established  here.  Chocolate, 
liqueurs,  glass,  sugar,  etc.,  are  manu- 
factured. There  are  also  extensive  yards 
for  the  building  of  ships  of  war  and 
merchant  vessels.  The  hams  of  Bayonne 
have  long  enjoyed  a  high  celebrity.  The 
military  weapon  called  the  bayonet 
takes  its  name  from  this  city,  where  it 
is  said  to  have  been  first  invented  and 
brought  into  use  during  the  siege  of 
1523.  Though  often  besieged,  Bayonne 
has  never  been  taken;  and  hence  its 
motto,  "Nnnquam  Polluta."  It  was 
invested  by  the  British,  Feb.  24,  1814. 
Pop.  about  27,500. 


BAYREXJTH,  or  BAIREUTH,  a  city 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  Bavaria,  on 
the  Red  Main,  40  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Nu- 
remberg (Lat.  Ba-ruthum),  celebrated  for 
its  associations  with  the  unhappy  Wilhel- 
mina,  Margravine  of  Bayreuth  and  sister 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  with  Jean  Paul 
Frederick  Richter,  and  \vith  Richard 
Wagner,  who  at  length  found  here  the 
opportunity  to  bring  out  his  operas. 
Wagner  festivals  are  annual  features 
and  are  held  in  the  world-famous  Wagner 
theater.  It  contains  many  fine  structures, 
and  some  elegant  residences  near  by. 
Villa  Wahnfried,  the  former  home  of 
Wagner,  has  spacious  grounds,  which 
contain  the  composer's  mausoleum.  It 
has  a  good  and  varied  manufacturing 
business.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  in 
1553  by  Reuss  and  suffered  greatly  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Pop.  about 
35,000. 

BAY  RUM,  an  aromatic,  spirituous 
liquid,  used  by  hair  dressers  and  per- 
fumers, prepared  in  the  West  Jndies 
by  distilling  rum  in  which  baj  leaves 
have  been  steeped.  Genuine  bay  rum  is 
difficult  to  obtain  except  through  im- 
porters. 

BAZA  (ba'tha),  an  old  town  of  Spain, 
Andalusia,  province  of  Granada,  formerly 
a  large  and  flourishing  city.  In  1810 
the  French,  under  Marshal  Soult,  here 
defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Generals 
Blake  and  Freire. 

BAZAINE,  FRANCOIS  ACHILLE 
(ba-zan),  a  French  military  officer,  born 
in  Versailles,  Feb.  13,  1811.  He  served 
in  Algeria,  in  Spain  agai  ^st  the  Carlists, 
in  the  Crimean  War,  and  joined  the 
Mexican  expedition  as  general  of  division 
in  1862,  and,  in  1864,  was  made  a  marshal 
of  France.  He  commanded  the  3d  Army 
Corps  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
when  he  capitulated  at  Metz,  after  a 
seven  weeks'  siege,  with  an  army  of 
175,000  men.  For  this  act  he  was  tried 
by  court-martial  in  1871,  found  guilty 
of  treason,  and  condemned  to  death. 
This  sentence  was  commuted  to  20 
years'  seclusion  in  the  Isle  St.  Mar- 
guerite, from  which  he  escaped,  and 
retired  to  Spain.  He  died  in  Madrid, 
Sept.  28,  1888.  His  widow,  who  had 
clung  faithfully  to  him  in  his  adversity 
and  had  plotted  successfully  for  his 
escape,  died  in  Mexico  City,  Jan.  8,  1900. 

BEACH,  ALFRED  ELY,  an  Ameri- 
can publisher  and  inventor,  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1826;  son  of  Moses 
Yale  Beach,  editor  of  the  old  New  York 
"Sun."  In  1846  he  established  the 
"Scientific  American,"  in  connection  with 
Orson   D.  Munn.     For  nearly  50  years 


BEACH 


454 


BEACON 


he  was  editor  of  this  paper  and  director 
of  its  patent  business.  In  1852  he  per- 
fected a  typewriting  machine,  for  which 
the  American  Institute  awarded  him  a 
gold  medal.  Later  he  invented  a  system 
of  underground  pneumatic  tubes,  a  pneu- 
matic elevated  railway,  and  a  hydraulic 
shield,  by  the  use  of  which  a  tunnel 
could  be  excavated  without  interfering 
with  surface  traffic.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  1,  1896. 

BEACH,  HARLAN  PAGE,  an  Ameri- 
can educator  and  missionary,  born  in 
South  Orange,  N.  J.,  in  1854.  He 
graduated  from  Yale  University  in  1878. 
For  several  years  he  taught  at  Phillips 
Andover  Academy  and  then  engaged  in 
work  in  China  as  a  missionary,  serving 
until  1890.  From  1892  to  1895  he  was 
in  charge  of  the  School  for  Christian 
Workers  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  from 
1895  was  educational  secretary  of  the 
Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign 
Missions.  From  1906  he  was  professor 
of  the  theory  and  practice  of  missions  at 
Yale  University.  He  wrote  much  on 
missionary  and  other  subjects.  His 
works  include  "The  Cross  in  the  Land 
of  the  Trident"  (1895);  "India  and 
Christian  Opportunity"  (1904);  "World 
Statistics  of  Christian  Missions"  (1906) ; 
etc.  He  contributed  articles  to  magazines 
on  religious  subjects. 

BEACH,  REX    (ELLINGWOOD),  an 

American  writer,  born  in  Atwood,  Mich., 
in  1877.  He  was  educated  at  Rollins 
College,  Fla.,  and  studied  law  at  the 
Chicago  College  of  Law.  His  first  novel 
was  "Pardners,"  published  in  1905.  This 
was  followed  by  a  succession  of  novels, 
nearly  all  of  which  achieved  great 
popular  success.  They  include  "The 
Spoilers"  (1906);  "The  Silver  Horde" 
(1909) ;  "The  Iron  Trail"  (1913) ;  "Rain- 
bow's End"  (1916).  He  also  wrote,  in 
collaboration  with  others,  several  plays 
and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
magazines.  In  1917  and  1918  he  was 
president  of  the  Authors'  League  of 
America. 

BEACHY  HEAD,  a  promontory  in 
the  S.  of  England,  on  the  S.  coast  of 
Sussex,  rising  575  feet  above  sea-level, 
with  a  revolving  light,  visible  in  clear 
weather  from  a  distance  of  28  miles.  A 
naval  battle  took  place  here,  June  30, 
1690,  in  which  a  French  fleet  under  Tour- 
ville  defeated  an  English  and  Dutch 
combined  fleet  under  Lord  Torrington. 

BEACON,  a  signal  fire;  a  bale  fire;  a 
light  placed  on  an  eminence  to  announce 
the  approach  of  an  enemy,  and  arouse 
up  the  country.    Beacon  fires  are  of  great 


antiquity,  being  referred  to  in  Scripture 
(Jer.  vi:  1),  and  were  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  intelligence 
of  the  capture  of  Troy  is  represented  by 
^schylus  as  having  been  conveyed  to 
the  Peloponnesus  by  signals  of  this  kind. 
In  England,  the  beacons  were  formerly 
piles  of  faggot  wood,  but  afterward  poles 
were   erected,  to  which   iron  pots   were 


lilt,  ■<<</#''»»  ,\ 


ANCIENT   BEACON   SIGNAL  TOWER 

attached,  filled  with  pitch  and  other 
combustibles.  Intelligence  was  quickly 
conveyed   in  this  manner. 

A  beacon  is  also  an  erection  placed  at 
the  entrance  of  a  bar,  river,  or  harbor,  to 
indicate  dangerous  navigation,  as  sunken 
rocks,  sand  banks,  etc.  Vessels  anchored 
in  certain  places,  exhibiting  lights  at 
night,  are  called  floating  beacons,  floating 
lights,  or  lightships. 

BEACON,  a  city  of  New  York, 
created  in  1913  by  the  consolidation  of 
Fishkill  Landing  and  Matteawan,  in 
Dutchess  CO.  There  is  a  hospital,  a  public 
library,  and  several  academies.  The 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
hats,  tools,  machinery,  etc.  Beacon  was 
the  first  city  in  the  State  to  adopt  the 
commission  form  of  government.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,629;  (1920)  10,996. 


BEAC0N3FIELD 


455 


BEAU 


BEACONSFIELD,  BENJAMIN  DIS- 
RAELI, EABL  OF,  an  English  states- 
man and  novelist,  of  Jewish  extraction; 
eldest  son  of  Isaac  D'Israeli,  author  of 
the  "Curiosities  of  Literature";  born  in 
London,  Dec.  21,  1804.  He  attended  for  a 
time  a  private  school,  and  was  first 
destined  for  the  law,  but  turned  to 
literature.  In  1826  he  published  "Vivian 
Grey,"  his  first  novel;  and  subsequently 
traveled  for  some  time,  visiting  Italy 
Greece,  Turkey,  and  Syria,  and  gaining 
experiences    which   were    afterward    re- 


LORD   BEACONSFIELD 

produced  in  his  books.  In  1831  "The 
Young  Duke"  appeared,  followed  by 
"Contarini  Fleming,"  "Alroy,"  "Hen- 
rietta Temple,"  "Venetia,"  "The  Revo- 
lutionary Epic"  (a  poem),  etc.  In  1832, 
and  on  two  subsequent  occasions,  he 
appeared  as  candidate  for  the  repre- 
sentation of  High  Wycombe,  but  was 
unsuccessful.  In  1835  he  unsuccessfully 
contested  Taunton  as  a  Tory.  In  1837 
he  gained  an  entrance  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  being  elected  for  Maidstone. 
His  first  speech  in  the  House  was 
treated  with  ridicule;  but  he  finished 
with  the  prophetic  declaration  that  the 
time  would  come  when  they  would  hear 
him.  During  his  first  years  in  Parlia- 
ment, he  was  a  supporter  of  Peel;  but 
when  Peel  pledged  himself  to  abolish 
the  corn  laws,  Disraeli  became  the  leader 
of  the  Protectionists.  About  this  time 
he  became  a  leader  of  what  was  known 
as  the  Young  England  party,  the  most 
prominent  characteristic  of  which  was 
a  sort  of  sentimental  advocacy  of  feu- 


dalism.   This  spirit  showed  itself  in  his 
two  novels  of  "Coningsby"  and  "Sybil," 
published  respectively  in  1844  and  1845. 
Having  acquired  the  manor  of  Hughen- 
den,  in  Buckinghamshire,  he  was  in  1847 
elected  for  this  county,  and  he  retained 
his  seat  till  raised  to  the  peerage,  nearly 
30   years   later.      His   first   appointment 
to  office  was   in   1852,  when   he  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under  Lord 
Derby.    The  following  year,  however,  the 
ministry    was    defeated.      He    remained 
out   of   office   till    1858,   when   he   again 
became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and 
brought  in  a  reform  bill  which  wrecked 
the  government.     During  the  time  the 
Palmerston    government    was    in    office, 
Mr.    Disraeli   led   the   opposition   in   the 
lower     House.       In     1866    the    Liberals 
resigned,  and  Derby  and  Disraeli  came 
into  power,  the  latter  being  again  Chan- 
cellor  of   the    Exchequer.      They   imme- 
diately   brought   in,    and    carried,    after 
a  violent  struggle,  a  reform  bill,  on  the 
basis  of  household  suffrage.    In  1868,  he 
became    Premier   on    the    resignation   of 
Lord  Derby,  but  his  tenure  of  office  was 
short.     In  1874  he  again  became  Prime 
Minister    with    a    strong    Conservative 
majority,  and  he  remained  in  power  for 
six  years.     This  period  was  marked  by 
his  elevation  to  the  peerage,  in  1876,,  as 
Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  and  by  the  promi- 
nent   part    he    took    in    regard    to    the 
Eastern  Question  and  the  conclusion  of 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878.     In  1880, 
Parliament    was    rather    suddenly    dis- 
solved, and  the  new  Parliament  showing 
an  overwhelming  Liberal  majority,  he  re- 
signed  at  once.     Within   a  few  months 
of  his  death,  in  London,  April  19,  1891, 
the  publication  of  a  novel   "Endymion" 
showed  that  his  intellect  was   still  vig- 
orous.     He   also   wrote   "A   Vindication 
of    the    English    Constitution"     (1834) ; 
"Alarcos,  a  Tragedy"  (1839)  ;  "Lothair" 
(1881)  ;   and   "Lord   George  Bentinck,  a 
Political  Biography"    (1852). 

BEAGLE  ISLAND,  an  island  dis- 
covered by  Admiral  Fitzroy,  during  a 
voyage  in  the  "Beagle,"  to  survey  Pata- 
gonia, in  1828-1834.  The  channel  of  the 
same  name  is  on  the  S.  side  of  the  island 
of  Tierra  del   Fuego. 

BEAN,  a  well  known  cultivated  plant, 
vicia  faha,  of  Linnaeus,  now  called  faha 
vulgaris.  It  belongs  to  the  order  legu- 
minosas.  The  flowers,  which  are  fragrant, 
are  papilionaceous,  white,  with  violet 
colored  veins  and  blotches,  looking  almost 
black.  The  seeds  are  partly  kidney- 
shaped.  The  native  country  of  faba 
vnlgai-is  is  believed  to  be  the  regions 
near  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Levant,  and 
Egypt.    Faha  vulgaiHs  may  be  primarily 


BEAR 


456 


BEABD 


divided  into  the  garden  bean  and  the 
field  bean.  Of  the  former,  there  are 
numerous  sub-varieties.  The  earliest  is 
the  mazagan,,  which  is  small  seeded; 
while  the  largest  is  the  Windsor.  The 
field  bean  runs  into  two  leading  sub- 
varieties,  a  larger  and  a  smaller  one ;  the 
latter  is  called  ticks.  The  horse  bean 
is  the  variety  equina. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  any 
leguminous  plant  resembling  a  bean, 
though  not  of  the  genuine  genus  faba. 
Such,  for  example,  as  the  Florida  bean, 
which  is  the  seed,  not  the  fruit,  of  a 
West  Indian  plant.  These  seeds  are 
washed  up  on  the  Florida  shore,  and 
are  sometimes  used  as  food;,  and  some- 
times they  are  polished  and  used  as  orna- 
ments. The  navy  bean  is  the  common 
white  bean,  used  largely  as  an  article  of 
diet  by  sailors.  The  pea  bean  is  a  small 
white  bean  used  commonly  as  food.  The 
tonquin  bean  is  the  fragrant  seed  of  a 
leguminous  tree. 

In  commerce,  the  word  is  applied  to 
the  seeds  of  certain  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  leguminosx.  Tne  com- 
mon field  bean  is  the  seed  of  the  faha 
vulgaris,  the  broad,  or  Windsor  bean, 
being  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  same 
plant.  The  French,  or  haricot  bean,  is 
the  seed  of  phaseolus  multiflorus,  and 
the  scarlet  runner  (which  is  closely 
akin  to  the  former), is  pJmseohis  vulgaHs. 

Scarlet  runners  and  French  beans  are 
used  in  the  pod,  in  the  green  state,  and 
eaten  as  a  vegetable.  Bean  meal,  which 
is  more  easily  digested  than  whole  beans, 
contains  twice  as  much  nitrogenous 
matter  as  wheat  flour,  and  is  more 
nutritious. 

BEAR,  the  English  name  of  the 
various  species  of  plantigrade  mammals 
belonging  to  the  ursus  and  some  neighbor- 
ing genera.  The  term  plantigrade,  ap- 
plied to  the  bears;  intimates  that  they 
walk  on  the  soles  of  their  feet;  not, 
like  the  digitigrade  animals,  on  their 
toes.  Though  having  six  incisor  teeth 
in  each  jaw,  like  the  rest  of  the  carni- 
vora,  yet  the  tubercular  crowns  of  the 
molar  teeth  show  that  their  food  is 
partly  vegetable.  They  grub  up  roots, 
and,  when  they  can  obtain  it,  greedily 
devour  honey.  They  hibernate  in  winter. 
The  best  known  species  is  ursus  arctoa, 
the  brown  bear.  They  are  wild  in  this 
country,  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  in  Asia.  Other  species  are  the 
Syrian  bear  (ursus  syriacus,  which  is 
the  bear  of  Scripture)  ;  the  American 
black  bear  (ursus  americanus)  ;  the 
grizzly  bear  of  the  same  continent 
(ursus  ferox)  ;  and  the  Polar  bear 
(ursus  or  thalassarctos  Tnaritimus) ,  and 
others. 


The  earliest  representative  of  the 
ursidse,  or  bear  family,  known  at  pres- 
ent, does  not  belong  to  the  typical 
genus  ursus.  It  is  called  amphicyon, 
and  is  of  Miocene  age. 

Of  Post-pliocene  bears,  one,  iirsus  pris- 
ons, seems  the  same  as  ursus  ferox  (the 
grizzly  bear) .  Several  bears,  ursus 
spelseus,  arctos,  and  others,  have  been 
found  in  caves,  in  England  and  elsewhere. 
Of  these,  ursus  spelseus,  from  the  Greek 
spelaios=:a  grotto,  cave,  cavern,  or  pit, 
is  the  one  called  especially  the  cave 
bear.  It  is  a  giant  species,  occurring 
in  the  later  rather  than  the  earlier  Post- 
pliocene  beds. 

In  Stock  Exchange  parlance,  a  bear 
is  one  who  contracts  to  sell  on  a  specified 
day  certain  stock  not  belonging  to  him, 
at  the  market  price  then  prevailing,  on 
receiving  imaginary  payment  for  them 
at  the  rate  which  obtains  when  the 
promise  was  made.  It  now  becomes  his 
interest  that  the  stock  on  which  he  has 
speculated  should  fall  in  price.  The 
purchaser,  called  a  "bull,"  sees  it  to  his 
advantage  to  make  the  stock  rise.  The 
origin  of  the  term  is  uncertain. 

In  astronomy,  the  word  is  applied  to 
one  or  other  of  two  constellations,  Ursa 
Major  and  Ursa  Minor,  called  respec- 
tively the  Great  Bear  and  the  Little 
Bear.  When  the  word  Bear  stands  alone, 
it  signifies  Ursa  Major. 

BEARD,  CHARLES  AUSTIN,  an 
American  educator  and  historian,  born 
at  Knightstown,  Ind.,  in  1874.  He 
graduated  from  DePauw  University  in 
1898  and  took  post-graduate  studies  at 
Oxford,  Cornell,  and  Columbia  universi- 
ties, becoming  adjunct  professor  of  pol- 
itics of  Columbia  University  in  1907.  He 
became  successively  assistant  professor 
and  professor  in  that  subject.  He  re- 
signed in  1916  and  became  director  of 
the  Training  School  for  Public  Sei'vice 
in  New  York  City.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  historical  and  economic  socie- 
ties. His  published  writings  include  "In- 
troduction to  the  English  Historians" 
(1906) ;  "Development  of  Modem  Eu- 
rope" (1907)  ;  "American  Government 
and  Politics"  (1910) ;  "American  City 
Government"  (1912);  "Economic  Ori- 
gins of  Jeffersonian  Democracy"   (1915). 

BEARD,      DANIEL      CARTER,      an 

American  artist  and  writer,  born  in 
Cincinnati  in  1850.  He  received  an 
academic  education  and  studied  art  in 
New  York  City  from  1880  to  1884.  He 
became  well  known  as  an  illustrator  of 
magazines  and  books.  From  1893  to  1900 
he  was  teacher  of  animal  drawing  at  the 
Woman's  School  of  Applied  Design.    He 


BEABDSLEY 


457 


BEATTIE 


was  editor  of  "Recreation"  from  1905  to 
1906.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of 
the  Boy  Scouts  movement  of  the  United 
States  and  was  national  scout  commis- 
sioner and  honorary  vice-president  of  the 
Boy  Scouts  of  America.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  books  for  boys,  includ- 
ing "American  Boys'  Handy  Book" 
(1882);  "Dan  Beard's  Animal  Book" 
(1907) ;  "The  Buckskin  Book  and  Buck- 
skin Calendar"  (1911) ;  "Shelters,  Shacks 
and  Shanties"  (1914).  He  was  chief  of 
the  school  of  woodcraft  known  as  the 
Dan  Beard  Out-Door  School. 

BEARDSLEY,  AUBREY,  an  English 
author  and  illustrator,  born  in  Brighton, 
in  1874;  received  a  grammar  school  edu- 
cation; began  working  for  London  peri- 
odicals and  publishers  in  1892;  and  soon 
became  widely  known  by  his  striking 
designs  for  posters  and  book  covers.  In 
1894  he  became  art  editor  of  "The  Yellow 
Book,"  and  while  supplying  it  with  il- 
lustrations, contributed  drawings  also 
to  the  "Savoy"  and  "Le  Courrier  Fran- 
gaise."  He  illustrated  "Bons  Mots" 
(1892)  ;  Malory's  "La  Morte  d'Arthur" 
(1893) ;  Oscar  Wilde's  "Salome"  (1894)  ; 
"The  Rape  of  the  Lock"  and  "An  Album 
of  Fifty  Drawings"  (1896)  ;  and  wrote 
and  illustrated  "The  Story  of  Venus  and 
Tannhauser"  (1895)  ;  and  a  novel,  "Un- 
der the  Hill"  (1896).  He  died  in  Men- 
tone,  France,  March  16,  1898. 

BEARDSTOWN,  a  city  of  Illinois,  in 
Cass  CO.  It  is  on  the  Illinois  river,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy, 
and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern 
railroads.  It  has  railroad  repair  shops, 
manufactures  of  flour,  cement  posts,  etc. 
It  has  also  a  considerable  fishing  in- 
dustry. There  is  a  park;,  a  Carnegie 
library,  and  a  city  hall.  Pop.  (1910) 
Q,107;    (1920)    7,111. 

BEAR  LAKE,  GREAT,  an  extensive 
sheet  of  fresh  water  in  the  Mackenzie 
district  of  Canada,  between  about  65° 
and  67°  32'  N.  lat.;  and  under  the  120th 
degree  of  W.  long.;  of  irregular  shape; 
ai-ea  about  14,000  square  miles.  The 
water  is  very  clear,  and  the  lake  abounds 
in  fish.  Bear  Lake  river,  the  outlet  at 
the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Great  Bear  Lake, 
runs  S.  W.  for  70  miles  and  joins  the 
Mackenzie  river. 

BEARN  (byarn),  formerly  one  of  the 
32  provinces  into  which  France  was  di- 
vided, and  now  forming  the  greatest 
portion  of  the  department  of  Basses- 
Pyrenees.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Gascons,  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
Basque  blood,  and  they  speak  the  purest 
Gascon  dialect.     Beam  was  a  portion  of 


Aquitania  under  the  Romans,,  and,  after 
the  downfall  of  that  Empire,  under  its 
ruling  dukes,  it  was  a  country  of  con- 
siderable importance.  From  the  inter- 
marriage of  the  ruling  family,  the 
counts  of  Foix,  with  that  of  Navarre, 
sprang  the  French  monarch,  Henry  IV., 
who,  because  he  was  born  and  brought 
up  in  B6am,  was  derisively  called  Le 
Bearnois. 

BEAR  RIVER,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  400  miles  long;  rises  in  the  N. 
of  Utah,  and  flows  N.  into  Idaho;  turns 
abruptly  S.,  re-enters  Utah,  and  empties 
into  Great  Salt  Lake. 

BEATON,  DAVID,  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrew's,  Scotland,  bom 
in  1494.  He  became  Abbot  of  Arbroath 
in  1525,  Lord  Privy  Seal  three  years 
later,  was  sent  on  several  missions  to 
France,  received  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1538, 
and  in  the  fallowing  year  became 
Primate.  On  the  death  of  James  V., 
he,  by  craft  and  determination,  secured 
to  himself  the  chief  power  in  Church 
and  State,  being  named  Lord  High  Chan- 
cellor of  Scotland,,  and  Papal  Legate. 
He  opposed  an  alliance  with  England, 
and  especially  distinguished  himself  as 
a  persecutor  of  the  Reformers.  The  trial 
and  burning  of  George  Wishart  for  heresy 
took  place  under  his  direction,  and  a 
short  time  afterward  Beaton  was  as- 
sassinated at  St.  Andrew's  in  May,  1546. 
With  his  death,  church  tyranny  came  to 
an  end  in  Scotland. 

BEATRICE,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Gage  CO.,  Neb.;  on  the  Big  Blue  river, 
and  several  railroads;  40  miles  S.  of 
Lincoln,  the  State  capital.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Institution  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Youth;  and  has  an  attractive 
court  house.  United  States  Government 
Building,  water  works,  electric  light  and 
street  railway  plants,  public  library, 
National  banks,  excellent  water  power, 
flour  and  planing  mills,  tile  and  barbed 
wire  works,  creamery,  iron  foundry,  and 
manufactories  of  gasolene  engines,  wind 
mills,  and  farming  implements.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  rich  agricultural  country. 
Pop.  (1910)   9,356;   (1920)   9,664. 

BEATTIE,  JAMES,  a  Scottish  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Laurencekii-k,  Kincardineshire,  Oct.  25, 
1735;  studied  at  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, for  four  years,  and  received  the 
M.  A.  degree.  In  1753  he  was  appointed 
schoolmaster  at  Fordoun,  afterward 
master  of  the  Grammar  School  of  Aber- 
deen, and  ultimately  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy  and  Logic  in  Marischal 
College.    In  1760  he  published  a  volume 


BEATTT 


458 


BEAUHABNAIS 


of  poems.  In  1765  he  published  a  poem, 
the  "Judgment  of  Paris,"  and  in  1770 
his  celebrated  "Essay  on  Truths"  for 
which  the  University  of  Oxford  con- 
ferred on  him  the  degree  of  LL.  D.;  and 
Greorge  III.  honored  him,  when  on  a  visit 
to  London,  with  a  private  conference 
and  a  pension.  He  next  published  in 
1771  the  first  book  of  his  poem,  the 
"Minstrel,"  and  in  1774  the  second;  this 
is  the  only  work  by  which  he  is  now  re- 
membered. In  1776  he  published  dis- 
sertations on  "Poetry  and  Music," 
"Laughter  and  Ludicrous  Composition"; 
in  1783  and  in  1790-1793  "Elements  of 
Moral  Science."  He  died  in  Aberdeen, 
Aug.  18,  1803. 

BEAITY,  DAVID,  EABL,  a  British 
admiral,  born  in  1871.  He  chose  a  naval 
career,  and  from  the  start  manifested 
those  qualities  of  judgment  and  intrepid- 
ity that  signalized  his  work  in  all  stages 
of  the  service.  In  1898,  serving  in  the 
Kitchener  expedition  on  the  Nile,  he  won 
the  D.  S.  0.  He  was  in  the  Boxer  Re- 
bellion and  gave  distinguished  service  at 
Tien-Tsin,  where  he  was  twice  wounded. 
In  1900  he  was  made  captain,  and  in 
1910  became  rear  admiral.  For  two 
years  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  he  was  naval  secretary  to  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  In  1913  he  be- 
came commander  of  the  First  Battle 
Cruiser  Squadron.  The  first  action  of 
importance  in  which  he  participated  was 
the  fight  in  the  Bight  of  Helgoland, 
which  resulted  in  a  British  victory.  His 
casualties  were  slight,  while  the  Germans 
lost  five  ships,  700  of  their  men  being 
drowned  or  otherwise  killed,  while  300 
were  captured.  In  the  Dogger  Bank  ac- 
tion of  Jan.  24,  1915,  his  squadron  scored 
another  triumph,  only  two  of  his  ships 
being  hit,  while  the  German  armored 
cruiser  "Bliicher,"  after  having  been  put 
out  of  action,  turned  turtle  and  sank 
with  heavy  loss  of  life.  The  battle  of 
Jutland,  the  greatest  naval  action  of  the 
war,  was  fought  May  31,  1916.  Both 
sides  suffered  severely  and  conflicting 
claims  were  made  as  to  the  side  with 
which  victory  rested.  In  this  action, 
Beatty  for  a  while  was  engaged  with 
much  inferior  forces  against  practically 
the  whole  of  the  German  High  Seas 
Fleet.  His  cruiser  squadron  fought 
brilliantly  in  the  effort  to  hold  the  Ger- 
mans until  the  Grand  Fleet  under  Jel- 
licoe  could  arrive  and  get  into  action. 
The  Germans  drew  off  and  retreated 
under  cover  of  the  night,  leaving  the 
British  still  holding  the  seas,  as  they  had 
done  up  to  that  time.  When  Jellicoe 
was  made  First  Sea  Lord  on  Nov.  29, 
1917,  Beatty  was  made  commander  of  the 
grand  fleet,  which  office  he  held  until  the 


close  of  the  conflict.  In  that  capacity 
it  fell  to  him  to  receive  the  surrender  of 
the  German  fleet  off  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
Nov.  21,  1918.  He  received  many  deco- 
rations and  was  made  an  earl  in  1919. 

BEAUFORT,  HENRY,  CARDINAL, 
natural  son  of  John  of  Gaunt  and  half 
brother  of  Henry  IV.,  King  of  England, 
born  1377;  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
whence  he  was  translated  to  Winchester. 
He  repeatedly  filled  the  ofiice  of  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  took  part  in  all  the  most 
important  political  movements  of  his 
times.    He  died  April  11,  1447. 

BEAUHARNAIS  (bo-har-na'),  the 
name  of  a  noble  French  family,  of  which 
the  following  are  historical  personages: 

Beauharnais,  Alexandre,  Vicomte 
DE,  born  at  Martinique,  1760.  He  served 
under  Rochambeau  in  the  War  of  Ameri- 
can Independence.  On  his  afterward  tak- 
ing up  his  residence  in  France,  he  was 
elected  a  Deputy  to  the  States-General, 
where  he  espoused  the  Democratic  or  Lib- 
eral party,  became  President  of  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  and  played  a  conspicu- 
ous part  in  the  Revolution.  Beauharnais 
served  with  distinction  in  the  French 
army,  but  became  ultimately  a  victim  to 
the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  just  previous 
to  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  in  1794.  His 
widow,  Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie, 
became  the  first  wife  of  Napoleon  I. 
in    1796. 

Beauharnais,  Francois,  Marquis  de, 
elder  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
1756.  He  was  a  Major-General  in  the 
French  army,  protested  against  revolu- 
tionary excesses  in  a  letter  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  National  Assembly,  and,  on 
Bonaparte  becoming  First  Consul,  recom- 
mended him  to  restore  the  scepter  to  the 
House  of  Bourbon.  He  was  afterward 
Ambassador  to  Spain,  but  fell  into  dis- 
grace with  Napoleon,  and  was  banished. 
He  returned  to  Paris  after  the  Restora- 
tion, and  died  March  4,  1846. 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de.  Viceroy  of 
Italy,  and  a  Prince  of  the  French  Em- 
pire, son  of  Alexandre  de  Beauharnais 
and  Josephine,  born  in  Paris  in  1781. 
After  his  mother's  marriage  to  Napoleon, 
he,  in  1796,  became  aide-de-camp  to  the 
latter,  and  served  with  distinction  in  the 
campaigns  of  Italy  and  Egypt.  Beauhar- 
nais was  wounded  at  Acre,  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Marengo,  was  created 
Prince  of  the  Empire  in  1805,  and  Vice- 
roy of  Italy.  In  1806,  he  married  the 
Princess  Amelia  Augusta,  of  Bavaria, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  adopted  by 
the  Emperor  as  his  son,  and  appointed 
governor  of  Lombardy  and  Venice.  He 
served  in  the  campaign  of  1809,  defeated 
the  Austrians  at  Raab,  and  distinguished 


BEAUMAHCHAIS 


469 


BEAUMONT 


himself  at  Wagram.  His  military  talents 
were  particularly  evinced  in  the  retreat 
from  Moscow  and  in  the  following  cam- 
paigns of  1813-1814.  To  Beauharnais 
may  be  mainly  ascribed  the  victory  of 
Liitzen.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he 
retired  to  Munich,  was  allowed,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  and  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  to  retain  his  extensive 
possessions  in  Italy,  and  took  his  place 
as  Duke  of  Leuchtenberg  among  the 
Bavarian  nobles.  His  children  subse- 
quently ranked  as  members  of  the  im- 
perial family  of  Russia.  He  died  Feb. 
21,  1824. 

BE  AUMARCHAIS  (bo-mar-sha' ) , 
PIERRE  AXJGUSTIN,  BARON  DE, 
bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  24, 1732.  He  was  a  man 
of  singular  versatility  of  talent,  being  by 
turns  politician,  aitist,  dramatist,  and 
merchant.  His  father  was  a  watchmaker 
and  brought  up  his  son  to  the  same  pro- 
fession. His  fame  rests  on  his  plays,  and 
chiefly  on  the  two,  "Le  Barbier  de  Se- 
ville" (1775),  and  "Le  Marriage  de  Fi- 
garo" (1784).  The  character  of  Figaro 
■was  a  happy  invention,  and  the  other 
principal  characters,  in  both  plays,  are 
drawn  with  great  skill.  He  wrote  a  third 
play,  "La  Mere  Coupable,"  which  may  be 
considered  as  a  sequel  to  the  other  two, 
but  is  inferior  to  them  in  many  respects. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  American  War 
of  Independence  (1777),  Beaumarchais 
entered  into  a  speculation  for  supplying 
the  colonies  with  arms,  ammunition,  etc. ; 
he  lost  several  vessels,  three  of  which 
were  taken  in  one  day  by  the  English 
cruisers  in  coming  out  of  the  river  at 
Bordeaux,  but  the  greater  number  ar- 
rived in  America,  and  inspired  the  col- 
onists with  renewed  hope.  When  the 
French  Revolution  broke  out,  Beaumar- 
chais showed  himself  favorable  to  the 
popular  cause,  and  entered  into  specula- 
tions to  supply  corn,  muskets,  etc.  But 
his  activity  in  that  critical  period  ex- 
posed him  to  suspicion  and  he  fled  to 
England  and  then  to  Germany.  He  re- 
turned to  France  after  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre, and  then  entered  into  a  new 
speculation  in  salt,  by  which  he  lost  a 
large  sum.  He  died  in  Paris,  May  18, 
1799. 

BEAUMONT,  FRANCIS,  and  FLET- 
CHER, JOHN,  two  eminent  English 
dramatic  writers,  contemporaries  of 
Shakespeare,  and  the  most  famous  of 
literary  partners,  so  closely  associated 
that  their  names  are  rarely  heard  sep- 
arately. The  former,  son  of  a  Common 
Pleas  judge,  was  born  at  Grace-Dieu,  in 
Leicestershire,  in  1584.  At  the  age  of 
16  he  published  a  translation,  in  verse, 
of  Ovid's  fable   of  "Ralmacis   and   Her- 


maphroditus,"  and  later  he  became  the 
friend  of  Ben  Jonson.  With  Fletcher 
also  he  was  early  on  terms  of  friendship. 
He  married  Ursula,  daughter  of  Henry 
Isley,  of  Sundridge,  in  Kent,  by  whom  he 
left  two  daughters.  He  died  March  6, 
1616,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  John  Fletcher  was  born  at 
Rye,  Sussex,  in  December,  1579.  His 
father  was -successively  Dean  of  Peter- 
borough, Bishop  of  Bristol,  Worcester, 
and  London.  The  "Woman  Hater,"  pro- 
duced in  1606-1607,  is  the  earliest  work 
known  to  exist  in  which  he  had  a  hand. 
It  does  not  appear  that  he  was  ever  mar- 
ried. He  died  in  London  in  August, 
1625,  and  was  buried  at  St.  Saviour's, 
Southwark.  The  friendship  of  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  like  their  literary  partner- 
ship, was  singularly  close;  they  lived  in 
the  same  house,  and  are  said  to  have 
even  had  their  clothes  in  common.  The 
works  that  pass  under  their  names  con- 
sist of  over  50  plays,  a  masque,  and 
some  minor  poems.  It  is  believed  that 
all  the  minor  poems  except  one  were 
written  by  Beaumont.  After  the  death 
of  Beaumont,  Fletcher  continued  to  write 
plays  alone  or  with  other  dramatists.  It 
is  now  difficult,  if  not  indeed  impossible, 
to  determine  with  certainty  the  respec- 
tive shares  of  the  two  poets  in  the  plays 
passing  under  their  names.  "Four  Plays 
in  One,"  "Wit  at  Several  Weapons," 
"Thierry  and  Theodoret,"  "Maid's  Trag- 
edy," "Philaster,"  "King  and  No  King," 
"Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle,"  Cupid's 
Revenge,"  "Little  French  Lawyer," 
"Scornful  Lady,"  "Coxcomb,"  and  "Laws 
of  Candy"  have  been  assigned  to  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  conjointly.  To  Beau- 
mont alone  "Th  ?  Masque  of  the  Inner 
Temple  and  Gray's  Inn."  To  Fletcher 
alone  "The  Faithful  Shepherdess," 
"Woman  Hater,"  "Loyal  Subject,"  "Mad 
Lover,"  "Valentinian,"  "Double  Mar- 
riage," "Humorous  Lieutenant,"  "Island 
Princess."  "Pilgrims,"  "Wild  Goose 
Chase,"  "Spanish  Curate,"  "Beggar's 
Bush,"  "Rule  a  Wife  and  Have  a  Wife," 
"Fair  Maid  of  the  Inn."  To  Fletcher  and 
Rowlev  "Queen  of  Corinth,"  "Maid  of 
the  Mill,"  and  "Bloody  Brother."  To 
Fletcher  and  Massinger  "False  One."  and 
"Very  Woman."  To  Fletcher  and  Shirley 
"Noble  Gentleman,"  "Night  Walker,"  and 
"Love's  Pilgrimage."  'To  Fletcher  and 
Shakespeare  "Two  Noble  Kinsmen." 


BEAUMONT,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Jefferson  co.,  Tex.;  on  the  Neches  river 
andl  several  railroads;  80  miles  N.  E.  of 
Houston.  It  is  an  important  shipping 
point;  is  at  the  head  of  tidewater  navi- 
gation ;  and  has  a  variety  of  important 
manufactures.  It  has  become  the  center 
of  the  large  petroleum  fields  of  Texas, 


BEAUREGABD 


460 


BEAVER 


the  Beaumont  oil  field  being  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Pop.  (1910) 
20,640;   (1920)  40,422. 

BEAUREGARD,  PIERRE  GUSTAVE 
TOUTANT  (bo-re-gar'),  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  St.  Martin's 
parish.  La.,  May  28,  1818;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
and  appointed  a  brevet  Second  Lieuten- 
ant of  Artillery  in  1838;  was  promoted 
First  Lieutenant  and  transferred  to  the 
Corps  of  Engineers  in  1839;  distin- 
jTuished  himself  in  the  Mexican  War, 
where  he  won  the  brevet  of  Captain  for 
gallantry  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco, 
and  of  Major  for  Chapultepec,  where  he 
was  twice  wounded.  He  resigned  his 
commission  after  the  secession  of  Louis- 
iana in  February,  1861,  and  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  Confederate 
forces  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  there 
opened  the  hostilities  of  the  Civil  War 
by  bombarding  Fort  Sumter,  on  April  11. 
After  the  evacuation  of  the  Fort  by 
Major  Anderson,  General  Beauregard 
was  transferred  to  Virginia  where  he 
commanded  the  Confederate  forces  in  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  on  July  21.  In  March, 
1862,  he  was  ordered  to  the  Army  of  the 
Mississippi,  under  Gen.  Albert  S.  John- 
ston, and  in  April  following  fought  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  gaining  a  victory  over 
the  National  forces  the  first  day,  but 
being  defeated  by  General  Grant  on  the 
second  day.  Failing  health  kept  him 
from  active  duty  till  June,  1863,  when  he 
took  charge  of  the  defense  of  Charleston 
against  the  combined  land  and  naval 
forces.  He  remained  in  command  there 
till  April,  1864,  when  he  was  ordered  to 
Richmond  to  strengthen  its  defenses.  On 
May  16,  he  attacked  General  Butler  in 
front  of  Drury's  Bluff,  and  forced  him 
back  to  his  intrenchments  between  the 
James  and  the  Appomattox  rivers.  In 
anticipation  of  General  Sherman's  suc- 
cessful march  through  the  Carolinas,  he 
ordered  General  Hardee  to  evacuate 
Charleston,  which  was  done,  Feb.  17, 
1865.  He  attempted  to  aid  General  Jo- 
seph E.  Johnston  in  opposing  General 
Sherman,  but  in  April  surrendered  with 
the  former  to  the  latter.  After  the  war 
he  became  president  of  the  New  Orleans, 
Jackson  and  Mississippi  Railroad  Com- 
pany, Adjutant-General  of  the  State,  and 
a  manager  of  the  Louisiana  State  Lot- 
tery. In  1866  the  chief  command  of  the 
Rumanian  army  was  tendered  to  him, 
p.nd  in  1869  that  of  the  army  of  the 
Khedive  of  Egypt,  both  of  which  he  de- 
clined. He  published  "The  Principles 
and  Maxims  of  the  Art  of  War" 
(Charleston,  1863),  and  "Report  of  the 
Defense  of  Charleston"  (Richmond, 
1864),  and  was  the  last  survivor  of  the 


full   generals   of  the   Confederacy.     He 
died  in  New  Orleans,  Feb.  20,  1893. 

BEAUVAIS  (bo-va),  (ancient  Bello- 
vacum) ,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Oise,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Avelon  with  the  Therain,  43  miles 
N.  of  Paris.  It  has  some  fine  edifices, 
the  choir  of  the  uncompleted  cathedral 
being  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  France.  In  1472 
Beauvais  resisted  an  army  of  80,000 
Burgundians  under  Charles  the  Bold. 
There  are  numerous  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, notably  woolens  and  tapes- 
tries.   Pop.  about  20,000. 

BEAUX,  CECILIA,  an  American 
artist,  born  in  Philadelphia.  She  studied 
art  in  Philadelphia  and  in  Paris.  She 
was  four  times  awarded  the  Mary  Smith 
Prize  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  received  also  the  Dodge  prize 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  and 
many  other  medals  from  foreign  and 
American  art  societies.  She  was  a  fre- 
quent exhibitor  at  important  exhibitions 
in  the  United  States  and  abroad.  She 
was  a  member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Design.  She  was  especially  notable 
for  her  painting  of  portraits. 

BEAUX-ARTS,  ECOLE  DES,  a  na- 
tional school  of  fine  arts  in  France, 
founded  in  1648.  It  received  its  final 
title  in  1893.  Affiliated  with  it  are  a 
number  of  ateliers, which  are  practically 
workshops.  The  Ecole  includes  schools 
of  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture. 
Courses  in  drawing,  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture  and  other  branches  of 
art  are  free.  The  Prix  de  Rome  is 
awarded  each  year.  Many  American 
artists  have  been  trained  at  the  Ecole. 
Its  home  is  the  Palais  des  Beaux-Arts, 
where  it  maintains  a  noted  collection  of 
copies  of  famous  paintings  made  by  the 
winners  of  the  Prix  de  Rome. 

BEAUX-ARTS  INSTITUTE  OF  DE- 
SIGN, a  society  incorporated  in  1916  to 
carry  on  the  work  previously  conducted 
by  the  Society  of  Beaux-Arts  Architects. 
There  are  departments  of  architecture, 
sculpture,  mural  painting,  and  interior 
decoration.  The  Paris  Prize  is  offered 
annually,  and  by  its  terms  the  winner 
receives  $1,200  yearly  for  two  and  a  half 
years  to  study  architecture  in  Paris  at 
the  ficole  des  Beaux-Arts. 

BEAVER,  the  English  name  of  the 
well  known  rodent  mammal  castor  fiber, 
or,  more  loosely,  of  any  species  belonging 
to  the  genus  castor.  The  animal  so 
designated  has  in  each  jaw  two  powerful 
incisor  teeth,  coated  with  hard  enamel, 
by  means  of  which  it  is  enabled  to  cut 


I 


BEAVER  DAM 


461 


BECHUANALAND 


across  the  trunks  of  the  trees  which  it 
requires  for  its  engineering  schemes.  The 
hind  feet  are  webbed,  and  one  of  the 
five  toes  has  a  double  nail.  The  tail  is 
flattened  horizontally,  and  covered  with 
scales.  Large  glandular  pouches  secrete 
an  odoriferous  substance  called  casto- 
reum.  The  castor  fiber  exists  through 
the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  this 
country. 


practicing  the  turner's  trade,  he  acquired 
a  practical  knowledge  of  the  difficulties 
and  disabilities  of  the  workingmen.  He 
settled  in  Leipsic  in  1860,  joined  vari- 
ous labor  organizations,  and  became 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  "Volks- 
staat"  and  of  the  "Vorwarts."  Membei-- 
ship  in  the  North  German  Reichstag  was 
followed  by  his  election  to  the  German 
Reichstag,  of  which   he  was  a  member 


BEAVER 


BEAVER  DAM,  a  city  in  Wisconsin, 
in  Dodge  co.  It  is  on  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  and  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  railroads.  It  is  the 
center  of  an  extensive  agricultural  re- 
gion and  has  excellent  water  power.  Its 
industries  include  fk>ur  and  woolen  mills, 
the  manufacture  of  machinery,  stoves, 
etc.  There  are  parks,  a  library,  a  hos- 
pital, an  opera  house,  and  Wayland 
Academy.  Pop.  (1910)  6,758;  (1920) 
7,992. 

BEAVER  DAM,  a  dam  built  by  a 
beaver  across  a  stream  likely  to  run  off 
in  summer.  It  is  generally  formed  of 
drift  wood,  green  willows,  birch,  poplars, 
and  similar  materials. 

BEAVER  FALLS,  a  borough  in  Beaver 
CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Beaver  river,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Ohio,  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York  Central  rail- 
roads, 7  miles  N.  of  Beaver,  the  county- 
seat.  It  has  natural  gas;  good  water 
power  for  manufacturing;  produces 
steel,  iron,  wire,  glass  ware,  pottery, 
shovels,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  Geneva 
College  (Reformed  Presbyterian).  Pop. 
(1910)  12,191;   (1920)  12,802. 

BEBEL,  FERDINAND  AUGUST 
(ba'bel),  a  German  Socialist,  born  in 
Cologne  in  1840.  In  his  youth  he  was 
an  apprentice,  and,  while  learning  and 


from  1871  to  1881,  and  which  he  entered 
again  in  1883.  He  was  the  leader  of  his 
party  in  the  Reichstag,  even  though,  rep- 
resenting as  he  did  the  Marxian  princi- 
ples, he  was  bitterly  opposed  by  certain 
factions.  He  wrote  "Our  Aims"  (1874) ; 
"The  German  Peasant  War"  (1876) ; 
"The  Life  and  Theories  of  Charles  Four- 
ier" (1888)  ;  "Women  in  Socialism,  the 
Christian  Point  of  View  in  the  Woman 
Question"  (1893);  "My  Life"  (1910- 
1912).     He  died  August  14,  1913. 

BECHUANALAND,  an  extensive  tract 
in  South  Africa,  inhabited  by  the  Bech- 
uanas,  extending  from  28°  S.  lat.  to  the 
Zambezi,  and  from  20°  E.  long,  to  the 
Transvaal  border.  Until  1895  Bechuana- 
land  included  the  Crown  Colony  of  Brit- 
ish Bechuanaland  and  the  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate.  In  that  year  the  Crown 
Colony  was  annexed  to  Cape  Colony,  and 
the  Protectorate  placed  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  High  Commissioner.  The 
Protectorate  has  an  area  of  about  275,000 
square  miles;  and  extends  from  the 
Molopo  river  in  the  S.  to  the  Zambezi  in 
the  N.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the 
Transvaal  province  and  Matabeleland, 
and  on  the  W.  by  Southwest  Africa.  Pop. 
about  125,000. 

Bechuanaland  is  a  portion  of  an  ele- 
vated plateau  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and,  though  so  near 
the   tropics,   is   suitable   for  the   British 


BECE 


462 


BECKET 


race.  In  winter  there  are  sharp  frosts, 
and  snow  falls  in  some  years.  The  rains 
fall  in  summer,  and  then  only  the  rivers 
are  full.  It  is  an  excellent  country  for 
cattle;  sheep  thrive  in  some  parts,  and 
there  are  extensive  tracts  available  for 
corn  lands;  but  it  is  not  a  wheat  country 
on  account  of  the  summer  rains.  It  can 
be  reached  from  Cape  Tovra,  Port  Eliza- 
beth, Durban,  Delagoa  Bay,  and  the  Zam- 
bezi, the  railroad  from  the  former  being 
extended  from  Kimberley,  Vryburg, 
Mafeking,  Falachwe,  Tati,  and  Bula- 
wayo.  There  are  extensive  forests  to 
the  N.  E.,  and  to  the  W.  the  Kalahari 
Desert. 

Gold  has  been  found  near  Sitlagoli, 
and  there  are  indications  of  gold-bearing 
quartz  reefs  in  many  directions.  Dia- 
mondiferous  soil  is  also  said  to  exist  in 
several  localities;  indeed,  diamonds  were 
discovered  at  Vryburg  in  the  autumn  of 
1887. 

The  province  of  Stellaland  is  princi- 
pally inhabited  by  Boers,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  country  by  Bechuanas. 
The  Bechuanas  are  a  black  race,  possess- 
ing a  language  in  common  with  the 
Bantu  races  of  South  Africa,  extending 
as  far  N.  as  the  equator.  The  Bechuanas 
have  divided  up  within  the  last  150 
years,  and  comprise  the  Bahurutse,  Ba- 
mangwato,  Bakwena,  Bangwaketse,  Baro- 
longs,  Batlapins,  and  Batlaros.  Each 
tribe  has  an  animal  as  an  emblem,  or 
heraldic  sign,  which  it  is  said  they  hold 
in  esteem.  They  have  since  1832  been  at 
enmity  with  the  Matabele.  During  the 
native  risings  in  1878,  the  Bechuanas 
invaded  Griqualand  West,  and  were  in 
turn  subdued  by  British  volunteers  as 
far  as  the  Molopo.  When  the  British 
Government  withdrew  from  Bechuana- 
land  in  1880,  the  natives,  being  helpless, 
were  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Boers  of 
the  Transvaal,  whose  harsh  treatment  in 
1882  and  1883  led  to  the  Bechuanaland 
expedition  in  1884.  The  system  of  gov- 
ernment among  the  Bechuanas  would  be 
termed  in  Europe  local  government.  All 
important  matters  are  decided  in  the 
public  assembly  of  the  freemen  of  the 
town,  but  matters  are  previously  ar- 
ranged between  the  chiefs  and  headmen. 
During  the  British-Boer  War  of  1899- 
1900,  Mafeking  was  the  scene  of  one  of 
the  most  determined  and  successful  de- 
fenses in  history. 

BECK,    JAMES    MONTGOMERY,    an 

American  lawyer  and  publicist,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1861.  He  graduated 
from  Moravian  College  in  1880.  In  1884 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  From  1896 
to  1900  he  was  United  States  attorney 
for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  from  1900  to  1903  was  assistant  at- 


torney-general of  the  United  States.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  he  took 
a  strong  stand  against  Germany  and 
wrote  much  and  delivered  many  ad- 
dresses to  show  Germany's  responsibil- 
ity. He  delivered  many  orations  on 
notable  occasions  on  various  subjects. 
He  wrote  "The  Evidence  in  the  Case" 
(1914);  "War  and  Humanity"  (1916). 

BECKER,  GEORGE  FERDINAND, 

an  American  geologist,  born  in  New  York, 
Jan.  5,  1847;  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1868;  was  Instructor  of  Min- 
ing and  Metallurgy  in  the  University 
of  California  in  1875-1879;  attached  to 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
since  1879„  and  Special  Agent  of  the 
10th  Census,  1879-1883.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  special  agent  to  examine  into 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  in  1898  and  was  later  placed 
in  charge  of  the  chemical  and  physical 
research  division.  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey.  He  was  also  geophysicist  of 
the  Carnegie  Institution  and  a  member 
of  several  scientific  associations.  His 
publications  include  "Geology  of  the  Corn- 
stock  Lode,"  "Geology  of  the  Quicksilver 
Deposits  of  the  Pacific  Slope,"  "Age  of 
Earth,"  etc. 

BECKET,  THOMAS  A,  an  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  son  of  a 
London  merchant,  born  in  1118;  studied 


THOMAS   A  BECKET 

at  Oxford  and  Bologna.  Henry  II.,,  in 
1158,  made  Becket  his  chancellor,  and 
in  1162  he  was  appointed  to  the  primacy. 
He  then  laid  aside  all  pomp  and  luxury, 
and  led  a  life  of  monastic  austerity.  In 
the  controversy  which  immediately  arose, 
respecting  the  limits  of  civil  and  eccle- 


BECKWITH 


463 


BEDDOES 


siastical  authority,  Becket  asserted 
against  the  King  the  independence  of 
the  Church,  and  refused  to  sign  the  "Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon."  By  a  Council, 
or  Parliament,  held  at  Northampton,  in 
1164,  Becket  was  condemned  and  sus- 
pended from  his  office.  He  escaped,  in 
disguise,  to  France,  where  he  obtained 
the  protection  of  its  King.  In  response 
to  his  excommunication  of  the  clergy 
who  signed  the  "Constitutions,"  and  some 
of  the  King's  officers,  the  King,  in  1166, 
banished  all  the  relations  of  Becket  and 
forbade  all  communication  with  him.  War 
with  France  followed.  Peace  was  made 
in  1169,  between  Henry  and  Louis.  In 
1170,  a  meeting  took  place  between  the 
King  and  the  Archbishop  at  Fretteville, 
where  they  were  professedly  reconciled, 
and  Becket  returned  to  Canterbury.  He 
at  once  published  the  Pope's  sentence  of 
suspension  against  the  Archbishop  of 
York,  and  other  prelates,,  who  had 
crowned  Prince  Henry.  The  King's 
angry  expressions,  on  learning  this,  in- 
duced four  of  his  barons  (Richard  Brito, 
Reginald  Fitzurse,  Hugh  de  Morville, 
and  William  Tracy)  to  go  immediately 
to  Canterbury;  and  after  unsuccessfully 
remonstrating  with  Becket,  they  followed 
him  into  the  Cathedral^  and  murdered 
him  on  the  steps  of  the  altar,  Dec.  31, 
1170.  The  King  denied  all  share  in  this 
deed,  and  was  absolved;  but  in  1174  he 
did  penance  at  the  murdered  prelate's 
tomb.  Becket  was  canonized  by  Alex- 
ander III.,  in  1172.  His  remains  were, 
in  1220,  transferred  to  a  splendid  shrine, 
which  attracted  crowds  of  pilgrims,  and 
was  loaded  with  rich  offerings.  This 
immense  treasure  was  seized  by  Henry 
VIII.,  and  the  shrine  destroyed  in  1538. 

BECKWITH,  SIR  GEOBGE,  an  Eng- 
lish military  officer,  born  in  1753.  His 
scene  of  action  was  largely  in  America — 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  West 
Indies.  He  fought  with  the  English  in 
the  American  Revolution  in  1776-1782, 
and  was  intrusted  with  important  diplo- 
matic commissions  in  1782-1791,  as  there 
was  then  no  British  Minister  to  the 
United  States.  In  1804,  he  was  made 
governor  of  St.  Vincent,  and  four  years 
later  governor  of  Barbadoes.  As  Eng- 
land was  then  at  war  with  France,  he 
organized  an  expedition  and  conquered 
Martinique,  for  which  he  obtained  the 
thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Later 
(1810)  he  conquered  Guadeloupe,  the 
last  possession  of  the  French  in  that  part 
of  the  world.  He  died  in  London,  March 
20,  1823. 

BECKWITH,  JAMES  CARROLL,  an 
Amei'ican  genre  painter,  born  in  Hanni- 
bal, Mo.,  Sept.  23,  1852;  was  a  pupil  of 


Carolus  Duran,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  in  1894.  He  taught 
for  many  years  at  the  art  Students' 
League,  New  York.  Among  his  paint- 
ings are  "Under  the  Lilacs";  "The  Fal- 
coner"; etc.  His  best  works  were  his 
portraits  of  Mark  Twain,  General  Scho- 
field  and  others,  at  Yale,  Johns  Hopkins, 
Union  League,  etc.  He  died  in  October 
1917. 

BED,  in  ordinary  language,  an  article 
of  domestic  furniture  to  sleep  upon. 
Originally,  a  bed  was  the  skin  of  a  beast 
stretched  upon  the  floor;  then  rushes, 
heath,  and  after  a  time  straw  were  sub- 
stituted. A  modern  bed  consists  of  a 
large  mattress  stuffed  with  feathers, 
hair,  or  other  materials,,  with  bolster, 
pillow,  sheets,  blankets,  etc.,  the  whole 
raised  from  the  ground  on  a  bedstead. 
The  term  bed  sometimes  excludes  and 
sometimes  includes  the  bedstead.  In 
India,  and  other  Eastern  countries,  the 
bed  of  a  native,  at  least  on  his  travels, 
is  simply  a  mat,  a  rug,  or  a  bit  of  old 
carpet;  his  bed  clothes  are  his  scarf  or 
plaid. 

In  mechanics,  a  bed  is  the  foundation 
piece  or  portion  of  anything  on  which 
the  body  of  it  rests,  as  the  bed  piece  of 
a  steam  engine;  the  lower  stone  of  a 
grinding  mill;  or  the  box,  body,  or  re- 
ceptacle of  a  vehicle. 

BEDDOES,  THOMAS,  an  English  phy- 
sician and  author,  born  in  Sheffield^  April 
13,  1760;  educated  at  Oxford,  London, 
and  Edinburgh.  After  taking  his 
doctor's  degree  and  visiting  Paris,  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  Oxford.  There  he  published  some  ex- 
cellent chemical  treatises,  and  "Obser- 
vations" on  the  calculus,  sea  scurvy,  con- 
sumption, catarrh,  and  fever.  His  ex- 
pressed sympathy  with  the  French  rev- 
olutionists led  to  his  retirement  from  his 
professorship  in  1792,  soon  after  which 
he  published  his  "Observations  on  the 
Nature  of  Demonstrative  Evidence,"  and 
the  exceedingly  popular  "History  of 
Isaac  Jenkins."  In  1794  he  married  a 
sister  of  Maria  Edgeworth;  and  in  1798, 
with  the  pecuniary  aid  of  Wedgwood, 
opened  a  "pneumatic"  institution  for  cur- 
ing phthisical  and  other  diseases  by  in- 
halation of  gases.  It  speedily  became  an 
ordinary  hospital,  but  was  noteworthy 
as  connected  with  the  discovery  of  the 
properties  of  nitrous  oxide,  and  as  hav- 
ing been  superintended  by  the  young 
Humphry  Davy.  Beddoes'  essays  on 
"Consumption"  (1779),  and  on  "Fever" 
(1807),  and  his  "Hygeia"  (3  vols.,  1807), 
had  a  high  contemporary  repute.  He 
died  Dec.  24,  1808. 


BEDE 


464 


BEDOUINS 


BEDE  or  B^DA,  the  greatest  figure 
in  ancient  English  literature,  was  born 
near  Monkwearmouth,  Durham,  about 
673.  Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  six, 
he  was  educated  in  the  Benedictine 
Abbey  at  Monkwearmouth,,  and  entered 
the  monastery  of  Jarrow,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  in  his  30th  year.  His 
industry  was  enormous.  Bede  wrote 
homilies,  lives  of  saints,  hymns,  epi- 
grams, works  on  grammar  and  chron- 
ologjs  and  the  great  "Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  England,"  in  five  books,  gleaned 
from  native  chronicles  and  oral  tradition. 
This  was  translated  from  Latin  into 
Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred.  The  first 
editions  were  issued  from  Strassburg  in 
the  15th  century.  He  died  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Jarrow,  May  26,  735. 

BEDFOB,D,  a  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough  of  England,  the  county 
town  of  Bedfordshire,  on  the  Ouse.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  law  courts,  a 
range  of  public  schools,  a  large  infir- 
mary, County  Jail,  etc.,  and  the  churches. 
The  town  is  rich  in  charities  and 
educational  institutions,  the  most  prom- 
inent being  the  Bedford  Charity, 
embracing  grammar  and  other  schools, 
and  richly  endowed.  There  is  an  ex- 
tensive manufactory  of  agricultural 
implements;  lace  is  also  made,  and  there 
is  a  good  trad^.  John  Bunyan  was 
born  at  Elstow,  a  village  near  the  town, 
and  it  was  at  Bedford  that  he  lived, 
preached,,  and  was  imprisoned.  Pop. 
(1917)    37,663. 

BEDFORD,  a  city  of  Indiana,  the 
county-seat  of  Lawrence  co.  It  is  on 
the  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  and  Louis- 
ville, the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  South- 
western, and  the  Terre  Haute  and  South- 
eastern railroads.  The  chief  industry 
is  the  quarrying  of  stone.  There 
are  also  railroad  shops,  roundhouses, 
cement  works,  etc.  The  public  buildings 
are  especially  notable,  being  constructed 
chiefly  of  stone.  Pop.  (1910)  8,716; 
(1920)   9,076. 

BEDFORD,  JOHN  PLANTAGENET, 
DUKE  OF,  Regent  of  France,  third  son 
of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  was  born 
June  20,  1389.  He  was  created  Con- 
stable of  England  in  1403;  and  sent  to 
succor  Harfleur  in  1416.  In  1422, 
Charles  VI.  of  France  died,  and  long 
years  of  war  followed  between  the  rival 
claimants  for  tiie  crown,  Charles  VII. 
and  Henry  VI.  Bedford  secured  the 
alliance  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  and 
Brittany,  and  obtained  a  long  series  of 
military  successes.  The  tide  turned  at 
the  siege  of  Orleans,  which  was  raised 
by  Joan  of  Arc.    The  Duke  of  Brittany 


had  previously  abandoned  the  English 
cause;  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  did  the 
same  in  1435;  and  Bedford  died  at 
Rouen,   Sept.   19,   1435. 

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  an  eastern  dis- 
trict of  England,  comprising  about 
450,000  acres  of  what  is  called  the 
"Fen"  country,  in  the  counties  of  Cam- 
bridge (including  the  whole  of  the  Isle 
of  Ely),  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Huntingdon, 
Northampton,  and  Lincoln.  It  was  a  mere 
waste  of  fen  and  marsh,  until  the  time 
of  Charles  I.,  when,  in  1634,  a  charter 
was  granted  to  Francis,,  Earl  of  Bed- 
ford, who  undertook  to  drain  the  level, 
on  condition  of  being  allowed  95,000 
acres  of  the  reclaimed  land.  It  now 
forms  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  grain- 
productive  districts   in  the  kingdom. 

BEDFORDSHIRE,  a  county  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  midland  group.  It  has  an 
area  of  466  square  miles,  the  greater  part 
of  which  is  meadow  and  pasture  land. 
The  chief  industries  are  stock  raising, 
dairying,  and  agricultural  pursuits.  The 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  lace,  and  straw 
goods.  The  chief  towns  are  Bedford, 
the  capital,  Dunstable,  and  Luton.  Pop. 
about  200,000. 

BEDLAM,  a  contraction  from  Beth- 
lehem, and  the  name  of  an  English  hos- 
pital for  lunatics.  The  Hospital  of  St. 
Mary  Bethlehem  was  first  a  priory, 
founded  in  1247,  by  an  ex-sheriff,  Simon 
Fitz  Mary.  Its  original  site  was  in  Bish- 
opsgate.  The  Priory  of  St.  Mary  Beth- 
lehem, like  the  other  English  monastic 
establishments,  was  dissolved  at  the 
Reformation,  Henry  VIII.,  in  1547, 
granting  its  revenues  to  the  mayor,  the 
commonalty  and  the  citizens  of  London. 
They  made  it  a  hospital  for  lunatics.  In 
1676  the  original  buildings  were  super- 
seded by  those  of  the  New  Hospital  of 
Bethlehem,  erected  near  London  Wall. 
Finally,  in  1815,  the  hospital  was  trans- 
ferred to  Lambeth. 

BEDLOE'S  ISLAND,  an  island  in  New 
York  harbor;  ceded  to  the  United  States 
Government  in  1800;  the  site  of  Fort 
Wood,  erected  in  1841  and  mounted  with 
77  guns;  now  the  location  of  Bartholdi's 
colossal  statue  of  "Liberty  Enlightening 
the  World." 

BEDOUINS'  (bed-o-enz'),  Mohamme- 
dan people  of  Arab  race,  inhabiting 
chiefly  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  North  Africa.  They  lead  a 
nomadic  existence  in  tents,  huts,  caverns 
and  ruins,  associating  in  families  under 
sheiks  or  in  tribes  under  emirs.  In  respect 
of  occupation  they  are  only  shepherds, 


BEE 


466 


SEECxxEjb 


herdsmen,  and  horse  breeders,  varying 
the  monotony  of  pastoral  life  by  raiding 
on  each  other  and  plundering  unpro- 
tected travelers  whom  they  consider  tres- 
passers. The  ordinary  dress  of  the  men 
is  a  long  shirt  girt  at  the  loins,  a  black 
or  red  and  yellow  handkerchief  for  the 
head,  and  sandals;  of  the  women,  loose 
drawers,  a  long  shirt,  and  a  large  dark- 
blue  shawl  covering  the  head  and  figure. 
The  lance  is  the  favorite  weapon. 

BEE,  the  common  name  given  to  a 
large  family  of  hymenopterous  or  mem- 
branous-winged insects,  of  which  the 
most  important  is  the  common  hive  or 
honey  bee  {apis  mellifica) .  It  belongs  to 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, but  is  now  naturalized  in  the 
Western.  A  hive  commonly  consists  of 
one  mother  or  queen,  from  600  to  800 
males  or  drones,  and  from  15,000  to  20,- 
000  working  bees,  formerly  termed 
neuters,  but  now  known  to  be  imperfectly 
developed  females.  The  last  mentioned, 
the  smallest,  have  twelve  joints  to  their 
antennae,  and  six  abdominal  rings,  and 
are  provided  with  a  sting;  there  is,  on 
the  outside  of  the  hind  legs,  a  smooth 
hollow,  edged  with  hairs,  called  the  bas- 
ket, in  which  the  kneaded  pollen  or  bee 
bread,  the  food  of  the  larvae,  is  stored 
for  transit.  The  queen  has  the  same 
characteristics,  but  is  of  larger  size,  es- 
pecially in  the  abdomen;  she  has  also  a 
sting.  The  males,  or  drones,  differ  from 
both  the  preceding  by  having  13  joints 
to  the  antennae;  a  rounded  head  with 
larger  eyes,  elongated  and  united  at  the 
summit;  and  no  stings.  Bees  undergo 
perfect  metamorphosis,  the  young  ap- 
pearing first  as  larvae,  then  changing  to 
pupae,  from  which  the  images  or  perfect 
insects  spring.  The  season  of  fecundation 
occurs  about  the  beginning  of  summer, 
and  the  laying  begins  immediately  after- 
ward, and  continues  until  autumn;  in  the 
spring  as  many  as  12,000  eggs  may  be 
laid  in  24  days.  Those  laid  at  the  com- 
mencement of  fine  weather  all  belong  to 
the  working  sort,  and  hatch  at  the  end 
of  four  days.  The  larvae  acquire  their 
perfect  state  in  about  12  days,  and  the 
cells  are  then  immediately  fitted  up  for 
the  reception  of  new  eggs.  The  eggs  for 
producing  males  are  laid  two  months 
later,  and  those  for  the  females  im- 
mediately afterward.  This  succession  of 
generations  forms  so  many  distinct  com- 
munities, which  when  increased  beyond 
a  certain  degree  leave  the  parent  hive 
to  found  a  new  colony  elsewhere.  Thus 
three  or  four  swarms  sometimes  leave 
a  hive  in  a  season.  A  good  swarm  is  said 
to  weigh  at  least  six  or  eight  pounds. 
Besides  the  common  bee  (A.  mellifica) 
there  are  the  A.  fasciata,  domesticated 


in  Egypt,  the  A.  ligustica,  or  Ligurian 
bee  of  Italy  and  Greece,  introduced  into 
England,  etc. 

The  humble-bees,  or  bumble-bees,  of 
which  about  40  species  are  found  in 
Great  Britain  and  over  60  in  North 
America,  belong  to  the  genus  bombus, 
which  is  almost  world-wide  in  its  distri- 
bution. Some  bees,  from  their  manner 
of  nesting,  are  known  as  "mason  bees," 
"carpenter  bees,"  and  "upholsterer  bees." 
Some  of  these  bees  (genus  osmia)  cement 
particles  of  sand  or  gravel  together  with 
a  viscid  substance  in  forming  their  nests ; 
others  make  burrows  in  wood.  The  leaf- 
cutter  or  upholsterer  bee  (genus  mega- 
chile)  lines  its  burrow  with  bits  of  leaf 
cut  out  in  regular  shapes. 

The  finest  honey  for  export  is  gathered 
from  hives  where  white  clover  and  bass 
wood  are  accessible,  although  golden  rod 
and  buckwheat  blossoms  afford  an  ex- 
cellent yield.  The  States  producing  the 
largest  amount  of  honey  are,  in  the 
order  named,  California,  Texas,  Mich- 
igan, Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  The  total 
production  exceeds  60,000,000  pounds 
annually. 

BEEBE,  (CHARLES)   WILLIAM,  an 

American  ornithologist  and  writer,  born 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1877.  He  grad- 
uated from  Columbia  University  in  1898 
and  in  the  following  year  took  post-grad- 
uate courses  in  that  institution.  In  1902 
he  was  appointed  curator  of  ornithology 
at  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  and 
was  director  also  of  the  British  Guiana 
Zoological  Station.  He  carried  on  many 
researches  in  British  Guiana  and  contrib- 
uted many  articles  to  scientific  and  popu- 
lar magazines.  Among  his  published 
writings  are  "Two  Bird  Lovers  in  Mex- 
ico" (1905);  "Our  Search  for  a  Wilder- 
ness"    (1910)  ;     "Tropical     Wild     Life" 

(1917)  ;    "Monograph   of   the   Peasants" 

(1918)  ;  etc.  He  was  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor to  magazines. 

BEECH,  a  tree,  the  fagus  sylvatica, 
or  the  genus  fagus  to  wliich  it  belongs. 
It  is  ranked  under  the  order  corylaceie 
(mast-worts).  The  nuts  are  triquetrous, 
and  are  placed  in  pairs  within  the  en- 
larged prickly  involucre.  They  are 
called  mast,  and  are  devoured  in  autumn 
by  swine  and  deer.  The  wood  is  brittle 
and  is  used  by  turners,  joiners,  and  mill- 
wrights. The  fine  thin  bark  is  employed 
for  making  ba.skets  and  band-boxes. 

BEECHER,  EDWARD,  an  American 
clergyman  and  author,  brother  of  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  born  in  Easthampton, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  27,  1803.  He  graduated  at 
Yale,  studied  theology  at  Andover,  and 
New  Haven ;  was  pastor  of  various  Con- 
gregational churches,  especially  the  Park 


S£xiCxx£iXv 


466 


BEEBSHEBA 


Street,  Boston  (1826-1830),  and  Salem 
Street,  Boston  (1844-1855).  He  was 
President  of  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville 
(1830-1844),  and  for  some  years  Profes- 
sor of  Exegesis  in  the  Chicago  Theolog- 
ical Seminary.  He  wrote  many  religious 
books,  including  "The  Conflict  of  Ages" 
(1853),  and  "The  Concord  of  Age" 
(1860).  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
July  28,  1895. 

BEECHER,  HENRY  WARD,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  June  24,  1813.  He  was  the  son 
of  Lyman  Beecher;  graduated  from  Am- 
herst in  1834;  studied  in  Lane  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  near  Cincinnati,  0.;  and 
began  clerical  duty  as  pastor  of  a  church 
in  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  removing  to  In- 
dianapolis in  1839.  From  1847  until  his 
death  he  was  Pastor  of  Plymouth  Con- 
gregational Church  in  Brooklyn.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Inde- 
pendent" and  of  the  "Christian  Union" 
(now  the  "Outlook") .  He  was  also  a 
prominent  anti-slavery  orator,  as  well  as 
a  famous  lecturer.  Among  his  nume- 
rous publications  are  "Star  Papers;  or 
Experiences  of  Art  and  Nature"  (1855) ; 
"Freedom  and  War"  (1863)  ;  "Eyes  and 
Ears"  (1864) ;  and  a  novel,  "Norwood, 
or  Village  Life  in  New  England"  (1867). 
His  "Sermons"  were  edited  by  Dr.  Ly- 
man Abbott  (2  vols.,  1868).  He  died  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March  8,  1887. 

BEECHER,  LYMAN,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Oct.  2,  1775.  His  ancestors  vere  Puri- 
tans. He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1796, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Easthampton,  L.  I.;  then  of  a 
Congregational  church  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  in  1810;  and  then  of  the  Hanover 
Street  Congregational  Church  in  Boston, 
Mass.  In  1832  he  became  President  of 
Lane  Theological  Seminary,  near  Cincin- 
nati, O.  His  influence  throughout  the 
country  was  very  great,  especially  on 
the  questions  of  temperance  and  of  slav- 
ery. His  sermon  on  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Hamilton,  in  1804,  with  his  "Rem- 
edy for  Dueling"  ^809).  'I'd  much  to- 
ward breaking  up  the  practice  of  dueling 
in  the  United  States.  His  collected  "Ser- 
mons and  Addresses"  were  published  in 
1852.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June 
10,  1863. 

BEEF,  the  flesh  of  the  ox  or  the  cow, 
used  either  fresh  or  salted.  It  is  the 
most  nutritious  of  all  kinds  of  meat,  and 
is  well  adapted  to  the  most  delicate  con- 
stitutions. It  should  be  well  cooked,  as 
it  has  been  proved  that  underdone  beef 
frequently  produces  tapeworm.  Good 
beef  is  known  by  its  having  a  clear,  uni- 
form fat,  a  firm  texture,  a  fine  open 
grain,  and  a  rich  reddish  color.     Meat 


which  feels  damp  and  clammy  should  be 
avoided,  as  it  is  generally  unwholesome. 
Fresh  beef  loses  in  boiling  30  per  cent. 
of  its  weight;  in  roasting  it  loses  about 
20  per  cent.  The  amount  of  nitroge- 
nous matter  found  to  be  present  in  one 
pound  of  good  beef  is  about  four  ounces. 
In  the  raw  state  it  contains  50  per  cent, 
of  water. 

BEER,  the  fermented  infusion  of  some 
cereal,  variously  flavored,  usually  the  in- 
fusion of  barley  flavored  with  the  bitter 
of  hops.  The  varieties  in  trade  are  very 
numerous,  as  lager  and  Bavarian,  white 
and  brown,  sweet  and  bitter,  many  beers 
of  local  names,  some  celebrated,  as  Mil- 
waukee, St,  Louis,  Munich,  Pilsen,  and  so 
on.  Lager  beer  was  formerly  a  winter 
beer  as  distinguished  from  summer  beer. 
There  is  also  a  March  beer,  a  bock  beer, 
and  very  many  other  varieties.  The  root 
beers  are  non-alcoholic  drinks  flavored 
with  sassafras  or  some  other  similar  sub- 
stance.   See  Brewing. 

BEERBOHM,  MAX,  an  English  au- 
thor and  artist,  born  in  1872.  He  was 
educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  His 
literary  career  began  with  contributions 
to  "The  Yellow  Book."  He  attracted  the 
attention  of  Lord  Northcliffe  and  began 
writing  for  the  latter's  papers.  Soon 
he  contributed  to  most  of  the  important 
English  periodicals.  He  had  remarkable 
talent  as  a  caricaturist  and  he  employed 
his  pencil  with  great  success  in  depicting 
the  leading  figures  of  English  social  and 
political  life.  His  writings  display  great 
wit  and  powers  of  satire.  They  include 
"The  Happy  Hypocrite";  "The  Poet's 
Corner";  "The  Second  Childhood  of  John 
Bull";  "Zuleika  Dobson,"  a  novel. 

BEERS,  HENRY  AUGUSTIN,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Buffalo  in 
1847.  He  graduated  from  Yale  Univer- 
sity in  1869,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York. 
He  joined  the  faculty  of  Yale  University 
as  tutor  in  1871  and  became  assistant 
professor  in  1864  and  professor  of  Eng- 
lish literature  in  1880.  He  wrote  "A  Cen- 
tury of  American  Literature"  (1878)  ; 
"From  Chaucer  to  Tennyson"  (1890) ; 
"The  Ways  of  Yale"  (1895) ;  "Points  at 
Issue"  (1904)  ;  etc.  He  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  leading  magazines  and 
wrote,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
above,  several  volumes  of  verse. 

BEERSHEBA  (now  Bir-es-Seba,  "the 
well  of  the  oath"),  the  place  where  Abra- 
ham made  a  covenant  with  Abimelech, 
and  in  common  speech,  representative  of 
the  southernmost  limit  of  Palestine,  near 
which  it  is  situated.  It  is  now  a  mere 
heap  of  ruins. 


BEES'  WAX                          467  BEGAS 

BEES'  WAX,  the  wax  of  bees,  used  by  BEET   ROOT,    the   root    of   the    beet 

them  for  constructing  their  cells.     It  is  (beta  vulgaris)  ;  a  valuable  food    owine 

a   secretion  elaborated  within   the  body  to  a  large  amount  of  sugar  it  contains 

of  the  animal  from  the  saccharine  mat-  Nearly  all  the  sugar  used  in  France  is 

ter  of  honey,  and  extruded  in  plates  from  made  from  the  beet,  and  in  this  country 

beneath  the  rings  of  the  abdomen.  many  of  the  sugar  refiners  use  it  in  their 

-DT7-Pm    4.1,     17.     1-  u                .e  .L,-     7.  X  sugar  factories.     In  Germany,  a  coarse 

BEET,  the  English  name  of  the  beta,  spirit   is    manufactured    from    the   beet, 

a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  a  large  proportion  of  which  is  imported 

chenopodmcess    (chenopous).     Beta    vul-  into     other     countries     and     made     into 

garis,  or  common  beet,  is  cultivated  to  methylated  spirit.     Beetroot  contains  10 

be    used   in   the   manufacture   of   sugar,  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  about  2  per  cent, 

the    green    topped    variety    being    pre-  of  nitrogenous  matters.    It  was  formerly 

ferred  for  the  purpose.     The  small  red,  uced  to  adulterate  coffee, 
the   Castelnaudary,   and  other  varieties, 

are  used,  either  raw  or  boiled,  as  salad.  BEET    SUGAR,    the    sugar    obtained 

Much  of  the  beet  root  sugar  is  made,  not  froni  the    beet;    similar  to  cane   sugar; 

from  the  beta  vulgaris,  but  from  the  B.  but  inferior  in  sweetening  power.     Beet 

cickt,    the    white    beet,    called    also    the  root  contains  an  average  of  about  10  per 

chard,  or   Sicilian  beet.      (Cicla,  in  the  cent,  of  saccharine  matter;   sugar  cane, 

specific  name,  means  Sicilian.)  18  per  cent.     Of  the  varieties,  the  white 

Slevig  beet  is  the  richest. 

BEETHOVEN,  LUDWIG  VAN  (ba-  The  beet  sugar  industry  was  started 
to'ven,  or  ba'to-ven),  one  of  the  greatest  by  Marggraf,  in  Germany,  in  1747,  who 
musical  composers  of  modern  times,  was  was  the  first  to  discover  that  sugar 
born  in  Bonn,  in  1770.  His  genius  was  could  be  extracted  from  the  common 
very  early  displayed,  and  his  musical  beet.  The  first  factory  for  its  manufac- 
education  was  begun  by  his  father,  and  ture  was  erected  by  Achard,  at  Kunern, 
continued  by  the  court  organist,  who  in  Silesia,  in  1802.  Napoleon  issued  an 
introduced  him  to  the  works  of  Sebas-  imperial  decree  in  the  early  part  of  his 
tian  Bach  and  Handel.  About  1790,  he  reign  establishing  this  industry  m 
settled  in  Vienna,  where  Mozart  quickly  France.  In  1830,  attempts  were  made  in 
recognized  his  marvelous  powers.  When  the  United  States  to  introduce  the  cul- 
about  40  years  of  age,  he  was  attacked  tivation  of  the  sugar  beet.  It  was  not, 
with  deafness,  which  lasted  through  life,  however,  till  1876  that  the  first  success- 
He  became,  gradually,  the  victim  of  mor-  f ul  beet  sugar  factory  was  built,  being 
bid  irritability  and  hopeless  melancholy,  erected  in  Alvarado,  Cal.  Others  soon 
ending  in  confirmed  hypochondria,  and,  followed  and  the  business  has  now  be- 
finally,  dropsy  and  delirium.  He  con-  come  an  important  industry, 
tinned  to  compose,  however,  long  after  The  following  shows  the  production  of 
he  had  ceased  to  hear  himself  play.  He  beet  sugar  in  Europe,  as  officially  re- 
died  unmarried,  in  Vienna,  March  26,  ported  for  1919-1920  (in  tons  of  2,240 
1827.     The  works  of  Beethoven  are  very  pounds)  : 

numerous,  and  in  every  variety  of  style     Germany 750.000 

— orchestral,  chamber  music,  pianoforte    Czecho-siovakia i^'4'444 

and  vocal  music.     Among  the  most  cele-  Sfa  and  Poland  .■.■.■.;.■.■;.■.■.■  .:.■.■.■        225:000 

brated   are  the  onera  of  "Fidelio   ;   the    Belgium 144,662 

oratorio  of  the  "Mount  of  Olives" ;  the    Holland 236,277 

cantata    "Adelaide";    "Sinfonia    Eroica"     other  countries 630,666 

("Heroic    Symphony");    "Sinfonia    Pas-  Total  in  Europe 2,676.049 

S^in  ^'K??!  .|SaTa';LkS":  ^T^e  followin,  show,  the  p™ductu,n„f 

and  the  "Sonata  with  Funeral  March "  ^4Sf,";,'';„;?,/^,^rV9"'9l,n   onYofl.OM 

Vast  power,  intense  passion,  and  infinite  nLiauv  i^-i^v^^i-cu    k,      ^       y                     , 

tenderness  are  manifested  in  all  his  com-  pounds;  . 

positions,  which  abound  no  less  in  sweet-     California 131.172 

est  melodies  than  in  grand  and  compli-  i\°l^^_'^°, \\w, ■. ■.'///.'.'/:.'.'. '.'.'. '.'.'.'.'        2"6!i59 

cated  harmonies.    A  statue  of  Beethoven,     Michigan j.3o!.T85 

by  Hahnel,  was  erected  at  Bonn,  in  1845.     Nebraska o?'oZ? 

Ohio rfl,»(>-l 

^    .,  Utah 101,025 

BEETLE,    any   member   of  the   enor-     Wisconsin lo,630 

mously  large  order  of  insects  called  by    other  states ^O-'*^'^ 

naturalists  coleoptera,  meaning  sheathed  rj.^,^,  f„^  United  states 726,451 

wings.     They  have  four  wings,  the  in- 
ferior pair,  which  are  membranous,  be-  BEGAS.      REINHOLD,      a      German 
ing  protected  by  the  superior  pair,  which  sculptor,  born   in   1831.     He   studied   in 
are  horny.  Germany  and  in  Rome.     His  work  cre- 

31 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


lEGGAB 


468 


BEIBA 


ated  immediate  attention  and  was  con- 
sidered to  mark  a  new  era  of  sculpture 
in  Germany.  Among  his  most  impor- 
tant monuments  were  those  to  Frederick 
William  III.  at  Cologne,  the  Schiller 
monument  in  Berlin,  Fountain  of  Nep- 
tune, monument  to  Bismarck,  and  a 
marble  statue  of  Emperor  William  II. 
He  also  made  many  portrait  busts  and 
other  works.    He  died  in  1911. 

BEGGAR,  one  whose  habitual  practice 
is  to  implore  people  for  alms,  whether 
because  he  has  some  physical  or  mental 
defect  which  wholly  or  partially  inca- 
pacitates him  from  working;  or  because 
he  is  too  idle  to  work. 

BEGHARDS,  BEGUARDS,  or  BO- 
GARDS,  various  spellings  of  a  name 
said  by  some  to  be  derived  from  their 
begging  favor  from  God  in  prayer,  and 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  religious  men- 
dicants. Another  opinion  is  that  they 
are  named  after  St.  Begghe,  whom  they 
took  for  their  patroness. 

In  general  Church  history,  "the  ter- 
tiaries"  of  several  monastic  orders,  Do- 
minicans and  Franciscans.  In  a  special 
sense,  the  tertiaries  of  the  Franciscans. 
By  the  third  rule  of  St.  Francis,  those 
might  have  a  certain  loose  connection 
with  this  order,  who,  without  forsaking 
their  worldly  business,  or  forbearing  to 
marry,  yet  dressed  poorly,  were  conti- 
nent, prayerful,  and  grave  in  manners. 
In  France  they  were  called  Beguini,  and 
in  Italy,  Bizochi,  and  Bocasoti.  They 
were  greatly  persecuted  by  successive 
Popes. 

The  name  was  also  applied  to  certain 
religious  people  who  associated  them- 
selves into  a  kind  of  monastic  lodging 
house  under  a  chief,  while  they  were  un- 
married, retiring  when  they  pleased.  As 
they  often  supported  themselves  by 
weaving,  they  were  sometimes  called 
"Brother  Weavers."  They  first  attracted 
notice  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  13th 
century.  They  were  established  at  Ant- 
werp in  1228,  and  adopted  the  third  rule 
of  St.  Francis  in  1290. 

BEGONIA,  a  genus  of  plants,  the 
typical  one  of  the  order  begoniacese  (be- 
goniads) .  Several  species  are  cultivated 
in  greenhouses,  in  flower  pots,  in  houses, 
and  in  similar  situations, 

BEHAR  AND  ORISSA,  a  province  in 
lower  Bengal,  India,  area,  120,000  square 
miles;  constituted  in  1912,  between 
Bengal  and  the  Himalayas.  Pop.  about 
40,000,000.  ^  Capital,  Patna.  The  chief 
crops  are  rice,  sugar-cane,  corn,  and  in- 
digo. 

BEHISTUN,  or  BISUTUN,  a  moun- 
tain near  a  village  of  the  same  name  in 


Persian  Kurdistan,  celebrated  for  the 
sculptures  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  cut 
upon  one  of  its  sides — a  rock  rising  al- 
most perpendicularly  to  the  height  of 
1,700  feet.  These  works,  which  stand 
about  300  feet  from  the  ground,  were 
executed  by  the  orders  of  Darius  I.,  King 
of  Persia,  and  set  forth  his  genealogy 
and  victories.  To  receive  the  inscrip- 
tions, the  rock  was  carefully  polished 
and  coated  with  a  hard,  siliceous  varnish. 
Their  probable  date  is  about  515  B.  c. 
They  were  first  copied  and  deciphered  by 
Rawlinson. 

BEHN  (ban),  APHRA,  or  AFRA,  or 
APHARA,  an  English  author,  born  in 
Wye,  in  1640.  Early  in  life  she  spent 
several  years  in  the  West  Indies,  where 
she  met  the  Indians,  who  became  the 
model  of  her  famous  "Oroonoko."  She 
was  the  first  woman  writer  in  England 
who  earned  a  livelihood  by  her  pen.  Her 
dramatic  works  include  "The  Forced 
Marriage"  (1671)  ;  "The  Amorous 
Prince"  (1671);  "The  Dutch  Lover" 
(1673);  "Abdelazar"  (1677);  "The 
Rover"  (1677)  ;  "The  Debauchee" 
(1677) ;  "The  Town  Fop"  (1677)  ;  "The 
False  Count"  (1682),  She  also  wrote' 
"Poems"  (1684);  etc.  She  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  16,  1689. 

BEHRING,  another  spelling  of  Be- 
ring  (q.  v.). 

BEHRING,  EMIL  ADOLPH  VON,  a 

German  bacteriologist,  born  at  Hansdorf , 
Prussia,  in  1854.  He  studied  medicine 
in  Berlin  and  for  a  time  served  as  army 
surgeon.  In  1890  he  became  assistant  to 
Koch  in  the  Institution  for  Infectious 
Diseases.  He  carried  on  studies  in  dis- 
infectants and  bacterial  toxins.  These 
led  to  the  production  of  diphtheria  anti- 
toxin. In  1894  Behring  became  profes- 
sor of  hygiene  at  the  Halle  University, 
but  in  the  following  year  was  given 
charge  of  the  Institute  for  Hygienic 
Research  at  Marburg  University.  He 
received  the  Nobel  Prize  for  medicine  in 
1901,  In  his  later  years  he  devoted  much 
attention  to  tuberculosis  and  developed 
an  antitoxin  which  rendered  cattle  im- 
mune. Following  this  he  developed  a 
method  of  inoculation  against  diphthe- 
ria. He  wrote  several  volumes  on  med- 
ical subjects.    He  died  in  1917. 

BEIRA  (ba-e-raO,  a  province  of 
Portugal,  between  Spain  and  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  bounded  by  the  Douro  on  the 
N.,  and  by  the  Tagus  and  Estremadura 
on  the  S.  Area,  9,208  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  1,700,000.  Chief  town,  Coimbra 
(pop.  about  20,000).  It  is  mountainous 
and  well  watered,  and  productive  of  wine 
and  olives. 


BEIRUT 


469 


BELFAST  LOUGH 


BEIRUT.  See  Beyrut. 

BEJAPOOR,  or  BIJAPUR,  a  ruined 
city  of  Hindustan,  in  the  Bombay  presi- 
dency, near  the  borders  of  the  Nizam's 
dominions,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Krishna. 
It  was  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  India 
until  its  capture  by  Aurungzebe  in  1686. 
The  ruins,  of  which  some  are  in  the 
richest  style  of  Oriental  art,  are  chiefly 
Mohammedan,  the  principal  being  Ma- 
homet Shah's  tomb,  with  a  dome  visible 
for  14  miles,  and  a  Hindu  temple  in  the 
earliest  Brahminical  style.  Pop.  about 
27,500. 

BELA,  the  name  of  four  Kings  of 
Hungary  belonging  to  the  Arpad  dy- 
nasty. Bela  I.,  son  of  Ladislaf,  competed 
for  the  crown  with  his  brother  Andrew, 
whom  he  defeated,  killed,  and  succeeded 
in  1061.  He  died  in  1063,  after  introduc- 
ing many  reforms.  Bela  II.,  the  Blind, 
mounted  the  throne  in  1131,  and  after 
ruling  under  the  evil  guidance  of  his 
Queen,  Helena,  died  from  the  effects  of 
his  vices  in  1141.  Bela  III.,  crowned 
1174,  corrected  abuses,  repelled  the  Bo- 
hemians, Poles,  Austrians,  and  Venetians 
and  died  in  1196.  Bela  IV.  succeeded  his 
father,  Andrew  II.,  in  1235;  was  shortly 
after  defeated  by  the  Tartars  and  de- 
tained prisoner  for  some  time  in  Aus- 
tria, where  he  had  sought  refuge.  In 
1244  he  regained  his  throne,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  de- 
feated the  Austrians,  but  was  in  turn 
beaten  by  the  Bohemians.  He  died  in 
1270. 

BELASCO,  DAVID,  an  American  dra- 
matic author  and  producer,  born  in  San 
Francisco  in  1859.  He  graduated  from 
Lincoln  College,  California,  in  1875.  His 
stage  career  began  as  manager  of  Bald- 
win's Grand  Opera  House  at  San  Fran- 
cisco. Removing  to  New  York  he  be- 
came stage  manager  of  the  Madison 
Square  Theater  in  1880,  remaining  in 
that  position  until  1887.  He  later  man- 
aged the  Lyceum  Theater,  becoming 
owner  and  manager  of  the  Belasco  The- 
ater. He  wrote  many  plays,  but  is  best 
known  as  a  producer  of  plays  and  a 
trainer  of  players.  Among  the  well- 
known  artists  developed  under  his  man- 
agement are  Mrs.  Leslie  Carter,  Blanche 
Bates,  Henrietta  Crosman,  David  War- 
field,  and  Frances  Starr.  Plays  pro- 
duced under  his  management  are 
"Zaza";  "Madame  Butterfly";  "Du 
Barry";  "The  Darling  of  the  Gods"; 
"The  Music  Master";  "The  Girl  of  the 
Golden  West";  "The  Return  of  Peter 
Grimm";  and  "Tiger  Rose."  He  wrote 
much  on  the  stage  and  related  topics  in 
current  magazines. 


BELFAST,  a  seaport  and  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Ireland 
(in  1888  declared  a  city),  principal  town 
of  Ulster,  and  county  town  of  Antrim, 
built  on  low,  alluvial  land  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Lagan,  at  the  head  of  Bel- 
fast Lough.  Ballymacarret,  in  county 
Down,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Lagan, 
is  a  suburb.  The  chief  Episcopal 
churches  are  St.  Ann's,  Trinity,  and  St. 
George's,  but  the  most  magnificent  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  St.  Peter's.  The  chief 
educational  institutions  are  Queen's  Col- 
lege and  the  theological  colleges  of  the 
Presbyterians  and  Methodists.  Chief 
public  buildings  include  the  town  hall, 
the  county  court  house,  the  Commerical 
Buildings  and  Exchange,  etc.  In  the 
suburbs  are  extensive  public  parks,  and 
a  botanic  garden.  Belfast  Lough  is 
about  12  miles  long,  and  6  miles  broad 
at  the  entrance,  gradually  narrowing  as 
it  approaches  the  town.  The  harbor 
and  dock  accommodation  is  extensive. 
Belfast  is  the  center  of  the  Irish  linen 
trade,  and  has  the  majority  of  spinning 
mills  and  power  loom  factories  in  Ire- 
land. Previous  to  about  1830  the  cot- 
ton manufacture  was  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  Belfast.  The  shipbuilding 
trade  is  also  of  importance,  and  there 
are  breweries,  distilleries,  flour  mills, 
oil  mills,  foundries,  print  works,  tan 
yards,  chemical  works,  rope  works,  etc. 
The  commerce  is  large.  Some  direct 
trade  is  carried  on  with  British  North 
America,  the  Mediterranean,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  the  Baltic,  besides 
the  regular  traffic  with  the  principal 
ports  of  the  British  Islands.  Belfast  is 
comparatively  a  modern  town,  its  pros- 
perity dating  from  the  introduction  of 
the  cotton  trade  in  1777.  It  has  suffered 
severely  at  various  times  from  factional 
fights  betweeen  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants, the  more  serious  having  been  in 
the  years  1864,  1872,  and  1886.  It  re- 
turns four  members  to  Parliament. 
Pop.    (1917)   393,000. 

BELFAST,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Waldo  co.,  Me.;  at  the 
head  of  Penobscot  Bay,  and  on  the 
Maine  Central  railroad;  30  miles  from 
the  ocean,  and  132  miles  N.  E.  of  Port- 
land. It  has  a  fine  harbor,  a  large  do- 
mestic trade,  and  important  manufac- 
tures. The  most  notable  industry  is  ship- 
building, which  was  begun  here  in  1793. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  other  in- 
dustrial establishments.  Belfast  was  set- 
tled in  1770;  was  invested  by  the  British 
in  1815,  and  was  given  a  city  charter  in 
1853.     Pop.   (1910)    4,618;    (1920)    5,083. 

BELFAST  LOUGH,  an  inlet  in  the  N. 
E.   of  Ireland  between  counties  Antrim 


BELFORT 


470 


BELGIUM 


and  Down,  at  the  head  of  which  Belfast 
(q.  V.)  is  situated. 

BELFORT,  a  small  fortified  town  and 
territory  of  France,  in  the  former  de- 
partment of  Haut  Rhin,  on  the  Sav- 
oureuse;  well  built,  with  an  ancient 
castle  and  a  fine  parish  church.  In  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  it  capitulated  to 
the  Germans  only  after  an  investment 
of  more  than  three  months'  duration 
(1870-1871).  It  has  since  been  con- 
verted into  one  of  the  most  formidable 
fortresses.  Belfort,  with  the  district  im- 
mediately surrounding  it,  is  the  only  part 
of  the  department  of  Haut  Rhin  which 
remained  to  France  on  the  cession  of 
Alsace  to  Germany.    Pop.  about  40,000. 

BELFRY,  that  part  of  a  steeple  in 
which  a  bell  is  hung,  the  campanile;  a 
room  in  a  tower,  a  cupola  or  turret  in 
which  a  bell  is,  or  may  be,  hung.  Also, 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  a  tower  erected  by 
besiegers  to  overlook  a  place  besiegfed. 

BELG.ffi,  the  name  given  by  Caesar 
to  the  warlike  tribes  which  in  his  time 
occupied  that  one  of  the  great  divisions 
of  Gallia  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Rhine, 
on  the  W.  by  the  ocean,  on  the  S.  by  the 
Sequana  (Seine)  and  Matrona  (Marne), 
and  on  the  E.  by  the  territory  of  the 
Treviri.  Their  country  was  level,  con- 
taining no  mountains  of  any  height,  ex- 
cept the  Vosges  in  the  S.  The  name 
seems  to  have  originally  designated  sev- 
eral powerful  tribes  inhabiting  the  basin 
of  the  Seine,  and  to  have  been  afterward 
used  by  Caesar  as  a  general  appellation 
for  all  the  peoples  N.  of  that  river. 

BELGIUM,  a  kingdom  of  western 
Europe,  consisting  of  the  former  Spanish 
Netherlands.  It  is  situated  on  the  North 
Sea,  between  France,  Prussia,  and  Hol- 
land. It  has  an  area  of  11,373  square 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  the  following 
provinces:  Antwerp,  Brabant,  East 
Flanders,  West  Flanders,  Luxembourg, 
Liege,  Namur,  Limbourg,  and  Hainaut. 
The  country  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
populated  in  Europe,  having  about  650 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  The 
population  is  made  up  chiefly  of  Flemish 
and  Walloons  (of  French  descent)  ;  the 
two  languages  are  officially  recognized 
now,  but,  although  the  Flemish  language 
prevails  in  half  of  the  provinces,  French 
is  understood  everywhere,  and  prevails 
socially.  As  to  religion,  the  Roman 
Catholics  predominate.  Brussels  is  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom.  The  trade  of 
Belgium  prior  to  the  war  was  prosperous, 
owing  largely  to  its  excellent  harbors  and 
the  natural  productions  of  the  country. 
Coal,  iron,  machinery,  linen  and  woolen 
goods,  glass,  lace,   etc.,  were  the  prin- 


cipal articles  of  export;  grain,  cattle, 
and  raw  material,  of  import.  The  king- 
dom was  a  part  of  the  old  Roman  and 
Frankish  dominions;  and,  since  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  has  been  ruled  successively 
by  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  the  Kings  of 
Spain,  and  the  House  of  Austria.  In 
1794  the  country  was  ceded  by  Austria 
to  France;  but  in  1814  Belgium  was 
united  with  Holland  into  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands.  In  1830,  however,  the 
whole  country  revolted  against  a  union 
with  the  Dutch,  and  the  following  year 
Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  was 
elected  King  of  the  Belgians.  Since  that 
time  Belgium's  history  has  been  quiet 
and  prosperous.  On  April  11,  1900,  King 
Leopold  presented  to  the  Belgian  nation 
the  whole  of  his  vast  tracts  of  real  estate, 
scattered  throughout  the  kingdom,  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  ornamental 
parks  for  the  public.  The  Kongo  Free 
State  is  under  the  personal  sovereignty 
of  the  King  of  the  Belgians.  Leopold 
died  in  1909.  Albert,  second  son  of  his 
brother,  Philippe  Eugene,  Count  of 
Flanders,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  See 
Albert  I.;  World  War. 

Politically,  Belgium  is  a  constitutional, 
representative,  and  hereditary  monarchy. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
King  (acting  through  eight  responsible 
ministers),  the  legislative  power  jointly 
in  King,  Senate,  and  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. The  new  government  that  came  into 
power  in  1919  declared  universal  suf- 
frage at  the  age  of  21  years — one  man, 
one  vote.  Before  the  European  War  the 
priests  had  four  votes,  and  the  landown- 
ers and  nobles  as  many  as  they  had  es- 
tates in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
This  had  enabled  the  Catholic  party  to 
hold  power  forty  years. 

The  country  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions; the  N.  is  chiefly  agricultural,  and 
the  S.  industrial.  Full  religious  liberty 
prevails,  and  grants  are  made  from  the 
National  treasury  to  all  denominations. 

Economic  Conditions. — In  spite  of  the 
losses  and  suffering  during  the  World 
War,  economic  conditions  in  Belgium  at 
its  close  were  more  favorable  than  those 
of  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  Ger- 
man Government,  while  it  was  in  control, 
anticipating  the  annexation  of  Belgium, 
if  the  war  went  in  favor  of  Germany,  was 
careful  to  maintain  the  industrial  plants 
and  railroads  practically  intact.  Only 
such  machinery  was  removed  from  the 
factories  as  would  be  immediately  use- 
ful in  Germany.  By  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Peace,  the  greater  part  of  the 
machinery  taken  away  was  returned  by 
Germany  and  was  installed  as  rapidly  as 
possible  in  Belgian  plants,  which  were 
thus  enabled  to  turn  to  operation.    As  a 


i 


BELGIUM 


471 


BELGIUM 


notable  example  of  the  quick  industrial 
recovery,  it  may  be  noted  that  by  Septem- 
ber, 1919,  the  coal  production  had  reached 
87  per  cent,  of  what  it  had  been  previous 
to  the  war.  The  number  of  miners 
actually  at  work  was  nearly  100,000.  Not 
only  was  there  enough  coal  to  run  the 
railroads,  but  Belgium  apparently  was 
producing  a  larger  proportion  of  the  pre- 
war output  than  any  of  the  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  it  was  able  to  export 
coal  on  account  of  the  comparatively 
small  demand  of  factories,  which  had 
only  been  partially  reopened. 

While  there  were  strikes  and  other 
economic  troubles  in  1919-1920,  these 
were  settled  largely  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  government  through  arbi- 
tration. The  labor  union  leaders  were, 
on  the  whole,  conciliatory,  and  avoided 
strikes  wherever  possible. 

The  pre-war  debt,  which  amounted  to 
about  five  billion  francs,  had  been  in- 
creased in  1919  to  a  total  of  nearly 
twenty  billion  francs.  German  indemni- 
ties were  relied  upon  for  a  liquidation 
of  a  large  part  of  this  war  dfebt.  There 
was  payable  before  May  21,  1921,  2,500,- 
000,000  francs. 

The  government  set  about  effecting  a 
system  of  taxation  in  order  to  restore 
the  equilibrium  of  the  budget.  In  April, 
1919,  a  tax  on  war  profits  was  adopted 
at  rates  varying  from  20  to  80  per  cent. 
The  retirement  of  the  German  marks  and 
the  complete  restoration  of  the  franc  was 
completed  in  1919. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  exports  were 
being  made  on  a  considei'able  scale, 
chiefly  of  coal  and  beet  sugar.  Quantities 
of  glass  were  also  exported,  as  well  as 
matches,  yarns,  and  textiles. 

Railtvays. — The  railroads  of  the  coun- 
try were  rapidly  restored  in  1919.  A  large 
part  of  the  moving  stock  taken  by  Ger- 
many had  been  returned.  By  the  autumn 
of  1919  freight  traffic  was  nearly  normal. 

Army. — At  the  time  of  the  signing  of 
the  armistice,  the  field  army  of  Belgium 
amounted  to  about  204,000  men,  including 
8,400  officers.  It  was  arranged  to  re- 
lieve this  army  from  service  for  the 
month  of  November,  1919.  A  new  law 
was  passed  fixing  the  effective  army  at 
100,000  on  a  peace  footing,  and  320,000 
on  a  war  footing.  In  1919  the  Belgian 
army  consisted  of  365,000  soldiers  and 
14,050  officers. 

Belgium  in  the  War. — By  an  act  bear- 
ing date  19th  April,  1839,  signed  in  Lon- 
don, the  perpetual  neutrality  of  Belgium 
was  guaranteed  by  Austria,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Prussia,  and  Russia.  This 
treaty,  which  was  signed  by  Belgium, 
bound  her  to  preserve  the  like  neutrality 
toward  the  other  signatory  powers,  held 


her  from  entering  upon  a  separate  politi- 
cal relation  with  any  one  of  them,  and 
restricted  her  from  calling  for  aid  ex- 
cept in  the  event  any  one  of  them  broke 
the  compact  and  crossed  her  frontiers. 
Not  for  three-quarters  of  a  century 
was  a  single  step  in  violation  of  this 
treaty  taken,  although  the  war-cloud  had 
been  lowering  over  the  principal  conti- 
nental powers  for  nearly  half  a  century 
before  it  finally  broke  with  such  fury  as 
threatened  to  wipe  out  completely  the 
whole  nation. 

Simultaneously  with  the  declaration  of 
war  on  Russia,  Aug.  1,  1914,  Germany 
crossed  Luxemburg;  a  principality 
whose  own  independence  had  been  guar- 
anteed by  her  in  concert  with  the  other 
powers  by  treaty  of  11th  May,  1867,  and 
ruthlessly  invaded  Belgium  with  the 
main  body  of  its  armed  force.  This  was 
an  initial  step  in  the  march  on  Paris,  to 
which  they  approached  within  twenty- 
two  miles  but  a  few  weeks  later. 

On  Aug,  4  the  King  of  Belgium 
addressed  his  Parliament  in  a  stirring 
speech  exhorting  the  nation  to  stand 
firm.  On  that  date  the  Belgian  army  had 
taken  a  brave  stand  against  an  over- 
whelmingly superior  foe  along  the  river 
Dyle,  and  in  the  immediate  track  of  the 
advance  on  its  principal  cities,  Antwerp 
and  Brussels.  By  the  afternoon  of  that 
day  her  pickets  encountered  the  German 
force  under  Von  Emmich,  and  by  half 
past  eleven  that  night  the  first  cannon- 
ading of  the  greatest  war  in  world  his- 
tory had  begun.  Three  days  later  Liege 
was  captured  by  the  enemy,  after  an 
assault  of  eleven  days,  during  which  she 
withheld  an  overwhelming  force,  and 
at  once  made  the  base  of  supplies  from 
which  the  real  advance  of  the  invasion 
of  Belgium  began.  Fighting  step  by  step 
and  making  a  resistance  at  which  the 
world  wondered  considering  the  superior- 
ity of  the  foe  at  every  possible  point,  the 
Belgian  army  was  forced  back,  and  the 
Germans  entered  the  capital,  Brussels,  on 
Aug.  20,  within  sixteen  days  of  the 
firing  of  the  first  shot.  The  backbone 
of  Belgian  resistance  was  now  broken 
and  the  Germans  spi'ead  out  and  took 
possession  of  almost  the  entire  King- 
dom. The  government  had  meanwhile 
been  removed  to  Antwerp,  from  whence 
it  fled  to  Ostend  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
finally  set  up  a  provisional  entity  at 
Havre,  France.  But  one  great  objective 
remained,  Antwerp,  which  was  captured 
Oct.  9,  1915.  On  Aug.  26  Belgium 
was  formally  placed  under  the  iron  rule 
of  the  conqueror,  with  Field  Marshal 
Baron  Von  der  Goltz  as  military  governor. 
The  King  divided  his  time  between  his 
army  and  visits  to  London  and   Parrs. 


BELGIUM 


472 


BELGIUM 


The  capture  of  Antwerp  was  a  severe 
blow  to  the  heroic  little  Belgian  army, 
and  almost  threatened  its  utter  demorali- 
zation. But  it  gradually  rallied  under 
the  invincible  national  spirit,  and  was 
indeed  increased  and  reorganized  so  as 
to  take  part  in  the  great  battle  of  the 
Yser.  It  thence  remained  an  important 
factor,  in  military  operations,  up  to  the 
end  of  the  war.  Refugees  who  had  gone 
over  to  England,  and  fled  to  France,  now 
returned  to  fight  in  its  ranks. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Von  der  Goltz, 
the  German  governor,  was  the  levying 
of  heavy  contributions  on  the  conquered 
cities.  In  addition  a  program  of  "fright- 
fulness,"  as  the  Germans  themselves 
called  it,  was  inaugurated  both  in  actual 
conflict  and  in  dealing  with  the  people. 
From  October,  1916,  to  the  end  of  Janu- 
ary, 1917, 120,000  Belgians  were  deported 
to  Germany.  Public  protests  and  the  voice 
of  neutrals  lessened  the  outrage  there- 
after in  Belgium,  although  it  continued 
along  the  German  front  in  France. 

The  Rockefeller  Relief  Commission  be- 
gan an  organized  movement  in  February, 
1915,  for  the  agricultural  restoration  of 
the  devastated  country  in  Belgium  and 
northern  France.  It  was  estimated  that 
the  total  loss  in  agricultural  districts  in 
Belgium  alone  was  some  two  hundred  and 
eighty  millions.  A  world-wide  conference 
held  in  London  a  little  later  suggested 
a  plan  for  the  restoration  of  the  country 
after  the  war.  Stimulated  and  perhaps 
shamed  by  such  endeavor,  the  German 
Government  in  Belgium  itself  began  to 
undertake  some  practical  measures  for 
the  relief  of  the  people.  It  promised  also 
safe  conduct  for  American  vessels  laden 
with  supplies.  By  September  the  United 
States  had  contributed  six  million  dollars 
in  money,  clothes,  and  food. 

The  execution  of  Edith  Cavell,  which 
took  place  in  October,  1915,  also  aroused 
international  indignation,  and  must  be 
referred  to  as  one  of  the  outstanding  inci- 
dents of  the  Belgian  campaign.  Miss 
Cavell,  an  English  nurse  in  charge  of  a 
training  school  at  Brussels,  was  accused 
of  assisting  in  the  escape  of  prisoners 
from  the  country.  After  a  brief  confine- 
ment she  was  condemned  to  be  shot  by 
a  squad  of  soldiers.  Only  one  bullet 
struck  and  wounded  her  when  the  Ger- 
man officer  in  charge  of  the  firing-squad 
drew  his  revolver  and  shot  her  dead. 
English  feeling  was  aroused  to  a  tremen- 
dous pitch  and  the  execution  was  one  of 
the  greatest  incitements  to  outside  feel- 
ing against  Germany  of  the  whole  war. 

So  far  as  regards  the  general  admin- 
istration of  the  country  under  German 
rule,  however,  it  must  be  conceded  that 
so  soon  as  it  became  thoroughly  settled 


under  Von  Bissing  more  moderate  meas- 
ures were  adopted,  at  least  tentatively. 
In  March,  1915,  General  Von  Hissing  pro- 
claimed that  he  was  anxious  to  restore 
self-government  to  local  communities 
and  social  welfare  organizations,  and 
that  the  German  Red  Cross  was  to  be 
engaged  in  preventive  work  against 
prostitution,  contagious  diseases,  and 
infant  mortality. 

The  other  chief  feature  of  German  gov- 
ernmental policy  was  an  effort  to  put  the 
whole  situation  upon  at  least  a  self-sup- 
porting basis.  To  this  end  heavy  taxes, 
especially  on  absentee  landowners,  w  re 
promptly  imposed.  Nov.  13,  1915,  proc- 
lamation of  a  monthly  war-tax  of  40,- 
000,000  francs  was  made.  To  restore 
the  industrial  situation  in  the  interests 
of  the  conqueror,  a  penalty  was  imposed 
on  all  Belgians  who  refused  to  return  to 
their  former  trade,  with  severe  punish- 
ment for  any  attempt  to  hinder  them. 
Even  destitution  from  any  refusal  to  la- 
bor was  punished.  Penalties  were  also 
enacted  against  any  attempt  to  boycott 
or  hinder  German  goods  from  sale  in 
Belgium.  Several  decrees  against  the 
unemployed  were  issued  in  the  course 
of  1915,  and  strong  measures  were  used 
by  the  Germans  to  wring  every  ounce  of 
man-power  in  the  country  out  of  it. 

The  Belgian  army  in  1916  was  as- 
signed to  defend  a  part  of  the  western 
frontier.  They  had  flooded  their  posi- 
tion from  the  river  Yser  and  the  Yser 
Canal  so  that  their  chief  contact  with 
the  enemy  was  through  the  artillery.  The 
little  army  had  been  reorganized  and 
equipped  by  its  allies,  who  supplied 
them  with  heavy  guns  for  the  defense, 
and  it  was  fully  bearing  its  part.  M  an- 
while  a  cavalry  arm  was  being  drilled  in 
France  for  later  opportunity.  To  the  in- 
fantry had  been  given  the  charge  of  the 
water-defenses,  the  dykes  forming  the 
first  line. 

The  Belgian  army  bore  its  full  part  in 
the  great  fall  offensive  of  1918  which 
struck  the  decisive  blow  to  Germany.  It 
had  the  satisfaction  of  aggressive  return 
warfare  on  its  home  soil  and  co-operated 
in  the  restoring  of  Bruges,  Zeebrugge, 
and  Ostend  to  the  crown,  and  later  in 
driving  the  enemy  from  Flanders.  By 
the  latter  part  of  October  the  German 
forces  of  occupation  were  in  full  retreat, 
and  King  Albert  made  a  triumphal  entry 
into  Ghent  Nov.  13,  reaching  his  capital 
Nov.  22. 

Under  the  Peace  Treaty  Germany  was 
bound  in  advance  to  conform  to  any 
changes  in  the  original  treaty  of  1839 
which  the  Allies  might  decide  to  make. 
The  borders  of  Belgium  were  to  be  en- 
larged by  recognition  of  her  sovereignty 


BELGIUM 


473 


BELISABIUS 


over  contested  Moresnet,  over  part  of 
Prussian  Moresnet,  and  the  circles  of 
Eupen  and  Malmedy  on  the  Prussian 
frontier.  Germany  was  required  to  give 
a  ten-year  option  for  the  delivery  of  8,- 
600,000  tons  of  coal  annually  to  pay  all 
debts  incurred  by  the  country  to  her 
allies  up  to  Nov.  11,  1918,  and  to  restore 
her  art  treasures.  A  decision  of  the 
Peace  Conference  June  24,  1919,  allotted 
to  Belgium  the  first  payment  from  the 
German  indemnities  amounting  to  $500,- 
000,000.  Her  condition  at  the  signing  of 
the  armistice  was  almost  unspeakable. 
Unquestionably  no  conquered  country  in 
the  whole  history  of  modern  warfare  had 
so  suffered  at  the  hands  of  a  foe.  All 
of  her  important  cities,  with  the  sole  ex- 
ception of  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  had 
been  devastated,  and  the  whole  country, 
despite  German  promises  and  protesta- 
tions, had  been  systematically  harried, 
exploited,  and  ruined.  An  idea  of  the  ex- 
tortions of  the  Germans  may  be  gained 
from  the  fact  that  the  monstrous  initial 
war  tax  of  40,000,000  francs  imposed  on 
the  hopelessly  paralyzed  nation  in  1915 
was  gradually  raised  to  60,000,000  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  increase  it  to 
75,000,000  in  1918.  Special  taxes  of  50,- 
000,000  francs  on  Antwerp,  20,000,000 
on  Liege,  2,000,000  on  Tournai  were  im- 
posed. The  country  was  bled,  starved, 
destroyed,  and  but  for  the  heroic  work  of 
the  American  Relief  Commission  would 
have  become  utterly  disintegrated  by  the 
close  of  the  war. 

For  months  after  the  signing  of  the 
armistice  there  seemed  little  prospect  of 
a  normal  return  to  common  trade  con- 
ditions. Of  her  sea-going  ports  only  one 
— Antwerp — was  not  ruinously  damaged. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  a  few  articles  of 
the  foremost  necessity  began  to  come  in. 
The  losses  to  the  railway  system  alone 
during  the  four  years  of  war  were  $275,- 
000,000.  There  is  little  doubt  in  sum- 
ming up  the  whole  record  that  Ger- 
many regarded  the  stubborn  resistance 
of  the  heroic  little  Belgian  army  at  the 
outset  as  the  reason  for  her  failure  to 
reach  the  French  capital,  and  that  the 
severity  of  her  treatment  of  the  prostrate 
country  was  the  result  of  rage  and  re- 
sentment.   See  World  War. 

Elections  were  held  in  December,  1919. 
As  a  result  the  new  Chamber  was  con- 
stituted as  follows:  Catholic,  77;  So- 
cialists, 67;  Liberals,  33;  Flemish  "Acti- 
vists," 3;  Middle  Class  Representatives, 
2;  Representatives  of  Combatants,  3; 
Nationalist  Party,  1.  The  Socialists 
gained  27  seats,  while  the  Catholics  lost 
24,  and  the  Liberals  lost  12. 

The  Olympic  games  were  held  in  Ant- 
werp in  August,  1920. 


BELGRADE,  a  city  and  capital  of 
Serbia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube 
in  the  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Save  with  that  river,  consists  of  the 
citadel  or  upper  town,  on  a  rock  100  feet 
high;  and  the  lower  town,  which  partly 
surrounds  it.  Of  late  years  buildings 
of  the  European  type  have  multiplied, 
and  the  older  ones  suffered  to  fall  into 
decay.  The  chief  are  the  royal  and  epis- 
copal palaces,  the  government  buildings, 
the  cathedral,  barracks,  bazars,  National 
theater,  and  various  educational  institu- 
tions. Pop.  about  91,000.  It  manufac 
tures  carpets,  silk  stuffs,  hardware,  cut- 
lery, and  saddlery;  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade.  Being  the  key  of  Hungary, 
it  was  long  an  object  of  fierce  contention 
between  the  Austrians  and  the  Turks» 
remaining,  however,  for  the  most  part, 
in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  until  its  evacu- 
ation by  them  in  1867.  As  a  result  of 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  (July,  1878)  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  Serbia.  In  the  World 
War  (1914-1918)  Belgrade  suffered  heav- 
ily from  bombardments  by  the  Austrians 
in  1914-1915-1916.  The  Austrians  cap- 
tured it  twice  and  were  driven  out  by 
Serbian  troops,  but  with  the  help  of  Ger- 
mans and  Bulgars  held  it  from  the  third 
year  of  the  war  to  the  close.  See  Serbia  ; 
World  War. 

BELGRAVIA,  a  fashionable  residence 
district  in  the  S.  part  of  the  W.  end  of 
London,  bordering  on  Hyde  Park  and 
Buckingham  Palace  Gardens.  The  word 
is  derived  from  Belgrave  Square,  in  the 
center  of  that  quarter,  and  has  its  name 
from  one  of  the  titles  of  the  Duke  of 
Westminster,  who  owns  the  whole  dis- 
trict. 

BELIAL,  a  word  which  by  the  trans- 
lators of  the  English  Bible  is  often 
treated  as  a  proper  name,  as  in  the  ex- 
pressions "son  of  Belial,"  "man  of  Be- 
lial." In  the  Old  Testament,  however,  it 
ought  not  to  be  taken  as  a  proper  name, 
but  it  should  be  translated  wickedness 
or  worthlessness.  To  the  later  Jews 
Belial  seems  to  have  become  what  Pluto 
was  to  the  Greeks. 

BELISARIUS,  the  great  general  of 
the  Roman  Emperor  Justinian,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Illyria.  He  commanded  an  expe- 
dition against  the  King  of  Persia  about 
530;  suppressed  an  insurrection  at  Con- 
stantinople; conquered  Gelimer,  King  of 
the  Vandals,  and  put  an  end  to  their  do- 
minion in  Africa;  was  recalled  and  hon- 
ored with  a  triumph.  In  535,  Belisarius 
was  sent  to  Italy  to  carry  on  a  war  with 
the  Goths,  and  took  Rome  in  537.  Beli- 
sarius recovered  Rome  from  Totilus  in 
547,  and  was  recalled  the  next  year.  He 
was  afterward  sent  against  the   Huns. 


BELIZE 


474 


BELL 


He  was  charged,  in  563,  with  conspiracy 
against  Justinian,  but  was  acquitted.  He 
died  in  565. 

BELIZE,   or  BRITISH   HONDURAS', 

a  British  colony,  washed  on  the  E.  by 
the  Bay  of  Honduras,  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  elsewhere  surrounded  by  Guate- 
mala and  Mexico.  It  forms  the  S.  E. 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and 
measiiring  180  by  60  miles,  has  an  area 
of  8,592  square  miles.  The  river  Belize 
traverses  the  middle  of  the  country,  and 
the  Rio  Hondo  and  the  Sarstoon  form 
respectively  its  N.  W.  and  its  S.  boun- 
dary. The  Cockscomb  Mountains  (4,000 
feet)  are  the  highest  eminences,  the  land 
all  along  the  coast  being  low  and 
swampy.  The  country  has  a  general 
tropical  fertility;  its  chief  exports  are 
mahogany  and  logwood,  besides  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  sarsaparilla,  bananas, 
plantains,  and  india  rubber.  The  early 
settlers  were  buccaneers,  then  logwood 
cutters,  who  were  frequently  attacked  by 
the  Spaniards,  but  since  1798,  when  they 
repulsed  a  fleet  and  a  land  force,  their 
occupation  has  been  formally  acquiesced 
in.  Since  1862  Belize  has  ranked  as  a 
British  colony,  with  a  lieutenant-gover- 
nor, whose  rank  was  raised,  in  1884,  to 
that  of  governor.  Pop.  about  42,000. 
Belize,  the  capital,  is  a  depot  for  British 
goods  for  Central  America.  Pop.  about 
11,000. 

BELKNAP,  GEORGE  EUGENE,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Newport, 
N.  H.,  Jan.  22,  1832;  was  appointed  mid- 
shipman in  the  navy  in  1852;  became 
Lieutenant-Commander  in  1862;  Com- 
mander in  1866;  Captain  in  1872;  Com- 
modore in  1885,  and  Rear-Admiral  in 
1889;  and  was  retired  in  1894.  He  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  the  Barrier  Forts 
on  the  Canton  river,  China,  in  1856;  and 
in  the  Civil  War  was  present  at  the 
bombardment  of  the  forts  and  batteries 
in  Charleston  harbor,  and  in  both  of  the 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  In  1873,  while 
engaged  in  deep  sea  sounding  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  he  made  discoveries 
concerning  the  topography  of  the  bed  of 
the  ocean  that  found  high  favor  among 
scientists.  He  was  appointed  Superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Naval  Ob- 
servatory in  1885,  and,  among  other 
works,  published  "Deep  Sea  Soundings." 
He  died  April  7,  1903. 

BELL,  a  hollow,  sounding  instrument 
of  metal.  The  metal  from  which  bells 
are  usually  made  (by  founding)  is  an 
alloy,  called  bell-metal,  commonly  com- 
posed of  80  parts  of  copper  and  20  of  tin. 
The  proportion  of  tin  varies,  however, 
from  one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  weight 
of  the  copper,  according  to  the  sound  re- 


quired, the  size  of  the  bell,  and  the  im- 
pulse to  be  given.  The  depth  of  the  tone 
of  a  bell  increases  in  proportion  to  its 
size.  A  bell  is  divided  into  the  body  or 
barrel,  the  ear  or  cannon,  and  the  clap- 
per or  tongue.  The  lip  or  sound  bow  is 
that  part  where  the  bell  is  struck  by  the 
clapper. 

Bells  were  used  very  early  in  the  form 
of  cymbals  and  hand  bells  in  religious 
services.  They  were  used  in  the  early 
monasteries  to  announce  the  hours  of 
prayer.  Generally  they  were  made  of 
tubes,  struck  with  a  hammer.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into 
Christian  churches  about  400  A.  D.,  by 
Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola  in  Campania 
(whence  campana  and  nola  as  old  names 
of  bells) ;  although  their  adoption  on  a 
wide  scale  does  not  become  apparent 
until  after  the  year  550,  when  they  were 
introduced  into  France.  The  oldest  of 
those  existing  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, such  as  the  "bell  of  St.  Patrick's 
well"  and  St.  Ninian's  bell,  are  quad- 
rangular and  made  of  thin  iron  plates 
hammered  and  riveted  together. 

TTntil  the  13th  century  they  were  of 
comparatively  small  size,  but  after  the 
casting  of  the  Jacqueline  of  Paris  {6V2 
tons)  in  1400,  their  weight  rapidly  in- 
creased. Among  the  more  famous  bells 
are  the  bell  of  Cologne,  11  tons,  1448;  of 
Danzig,  6  tons,  1453;  of  Halberstadt, 
71/2,  1457;  of  Rouen,  16,  1501;  of  Bres- 
lau,  11,  1507;  of  Lucerne,  IVz,  1636;  of 
Oxford,  71/2,  1680;  of  Paris,  12  4/5, 
1680;  of  Bruges,  10^:^,  1680;  of  Vienna. 
17%,  1711;  of  Moscow  (the  monarch  of 
all  bells),  193,  1736;  three  other  bells  at 
Moscow,  ranging  from  16  to  31  tons, 
and  a  fourth  of  80  tons,  cast  in  1819; 
the  bell  at  Lincoln  (Great  Tom),  bVz, 
1834;  of  York  Minster  (Great  Peter), 
10%,  1845;  of  Montreal,  13  Ya,  1847;  of 
Westminster  (Big  Ben),  151/2,  1856;  (St. 
Stephen),  131/2,  1858;  the  great  bell  of 
St.  Paul's,  171/2,  1882.  Others  are  the 
bells  of  Ghent  (5),  Gorlitz  (10%),  St. 
Peter's,  Rome  (8),  Antwerp  (7^),  01- 
miitz  (18),  Brussels  (7),  Novgorod  (31), 
Pekin  (531/2).    See  Bell,  Liberty. 

Bells,  as  the  term  is  used  on  shipboard, 
are  the  strokes  of  the  ship's  bell  that 
proclaim  the  hours.  Eight  bells,  the 
highest  number,  are  rung  at  noon  and 
every  fourth  hour  afterward,  i.  e.,  at  4, 
8,  12  o'clock,  and  so  on.  The  interme- 
diary periods  are  indicated  thus:  12:30, 
1  bell;  1  o'clock,  2  bells;  1:30,  3  bells, 
etc.,  until  the  eight  bells  announce  4 
o'clock,  when  the  series  recommences 
4:30,  1  bell;  5  o'clock,  2  bells,  etc.  The 
even  numbers  of  strikes  thus  always  an- 
nounce hours,  the  odd  numbers  half 
hours. 


BELL 


476 


BELL,  LIBERTY 


BELL,  ALEXANDEB  GRAHAM,  in- 
ventor of  the  telephone,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  March  3,  1847.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Edinburgh  and  in  Germany,  and 
settled  in  Canada  in  1870.     In  1872  he 


ALEXANDER   GRAHAM    BELL 

went  to  the  United  States  and  introduced 
for  the  education  of  deaf  mutes  the  sys- 
tem of  visible  speech  contrived  by  his 
father.  He  became  Professor  of  Vocal 
Physiology  in  Boston  University,  and  at 
the  Philadelphia  Exhibition,  in  1876,  ex- 
hibited his  telephone,  designed  and  partly 
constructed  some  years  before.  He  was 
also  the  inventor  of  the  photophone  in 
1880,  of  the  graphophone  in  1887,  and  of 
kindred  instruments.  He  made  many  im- 
provements to  tetrahedral  kites  and  in 
aerial  locomotion  for  the  Aerial  Experi- 
ment Association  (1903-1908).  Gold  and 
silver  medals  and  degrees  from  the  lead- 
ing scientific  associations  and  universities 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States  have 
been  awarded  to  him.  In  1887  he  founded 
and  endowed  the  Volta  Bureau  for  Re- 
lief of  the  Deaf,  in  1900  the  American 
Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of 
Speech  to  the  Deaf.  Regent  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution  since  1898.  In  1904 
he  brought  to  the  U.  S.  the  remains  of 
James  Smithson  from  Genoa,  Italy. 

BELL,  JAMES  FRANKLIN,  an  Amer- 
ican soldier,  born  in  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  in 
1856.  He  graduated  from  West  Point 
in  1878  and  for  several  years  served  in 
the  West  with  the  7th  Cavalry.  He 
fought  in  the  Spanish-American  War 
and  in  the  Philippines,  and  in  1889  was 
awarded    the    Congressional    Medal    of 


Honor.  From  1906  to  1910  he  was  Chief 
of  Staff  of  the  United  States  Army,  and 
from  1911  to  1914  he  was  commander  of 
the  Philippine  Division.  He  commanded 
the  2d  Division  of  the  United  States 
Army  in  Texas  from  1914  to  1915  and 
from  the  latter  year  until  1917  was  com- 
mander of  the  Western  Department.  He 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  77th 
Division  in  the  National  Army  in  1917, 
and  for  a  time  commanded  this  division 
in  France.    He  died  in  1919. 

BELL,  JOHN,  an  American  states- 
man, born  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb. 
18,  1797;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1816;  member  of  Congress  from  1827 
to  1841;  Speaker  in  1834,  and  Secretary 
of  War  in  1841.  During  this  period  he 
changed  from  an  ardent  free  trader  to  a 
protectionist  and  supporter  of  the  Whigs, 
and  favored  the  reception  of  petitions  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District 
of  Columbia;  afterward  (1858)  he  vig- 
orously opposed  the  admission  of  Kansas 
as  a  slave  State.  He  sat  in  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1847  to  1859,  and, 
in  1860,  was  nominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  the  "Constitutional  Union" 
party,  but  received  only  39  electoral 
votes,  cast  by  the  States  of  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  Virginia.  He  died  at 
Cumberland  Ironwoi-ks,  Sept.  10,  1869. 

BELL,  LIBERTY,  a  famous  bell  which 
was  rung  when  the  Continental  Congress 


THE  LIBERTY  BELL,   INDEPENDENCE   HALL, 
PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 

declared  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  in  1776.  The  order  for  founding 
it  was  given  in  1751.  The  State  House 
of  Pennsylvania,  in   Philadelphia,  work 


BELLADONNA 


476 


BELLES  -LETTRES 


on  which  h^d  been  suspended  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  was  then  approaching  com- 
pletion. The  lower  floors  were  already- 
occupied  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  the 
Chamber,  while  in  the  other  assembled 
the  Freemen  of  the  Province  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, then  consisting  of  one  body.  A 
committee  was  appointed  by  the  Free- 
men, with  Peter  Norris  as  chairman,  and 
empowered  to  have  a  new  bell  cast  for 
the  building.  The  commission  for  the 
bell  was,  in  the  same  year,  awarded  to 
Robert  Charles,  of  London,  the  specifica- 
tion being  that  the  bell  should  weigh 
2,000  pounds  and  cost  £100  sterling. 
It  was  to  be  made  by  the  best  workmen, 
to  be  examined  carefully  before  being 
shipped,  and  to  contain,  in  well  shaped 
letters  around  it,  the  inscription:  "By 
order  of  the  Province  of  Pennsylvnia,  for 
the  State  House  in  the  City  of  Philadel- 
phia, 1752."  An  order  was  given  to 
place  underneath  this  the  prophetic 
words  from  Leviticus  xxv:  10:  "Proclaim 
liberty  throughout  the  land  and  to  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof."  The  reason  for 
the  selection  of  this  text  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  much  conjecture,  but  the  true 
reason  is  apparent  when  the  full  text  is 
read:  It  is  as  follows:  "And  ye  shall 
hallow  the  50th  year  and  proclaim  lib- 
erty throughout  the  land  and  to  all  the 
inhabitants  thereof."  In  selecting  the 
text  the  Quakers  had  in  memory  the  ar- 
rival of  William  Penn  and  their  fore- 
fathers more  than  half  a  century  before. 
In  August,  1752,  the  bell  arrived,  but 
though  in  apparent  good  order,  it  was 
cracked  by  a  stroke  of  the  clapper  while 
being  tested.  But  it  was  also  defective. 
It  was  again  recast  and  a  success,  and 
was  placed  in  position  in  June,  1753.  On 
Monday,  the  8th  of  July  (not  the  4th), 
at  noon,  true  to  its  motto,  it  rang  out 
the  memorable  message  of  "Liberty 
throughout  the  land  and  to  all  the  in- 
habitants thereof."  For  50  years  the 
bell  continued  to  be  rung  on  every  festi- 
val and  anniversary,  until  it  eventually 
cracked.  Subsequently,  it  was  placed  on 
the  original  timbers  in  the  vestibule  of 
the  State  House,  and,  in  1873,  it  was 
suspended  in  a  prominent  position  imme- 
diately beneath  a  larger  bell,  presented 
to  the  city  in  1866.  In  1893  it  was  taken 
to  Chicago  and  placed  on  exhibition  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  and 
in  1915  to  the  Pan-Pacific  Exposition, 
San  Francisco. 

BELLADONNA,  a  European  plant, 
atropa  belladonna,  or  deadly  nightshade, 
natural  order  solanacese.  It  is  native  in 
Great  Britain.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are 
poisonous.  The  inspissated  juice  is  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  extract  of 
belladonna.    It  is  narcotic  and  poisonous, 


but  is  of  great  value  in  medicine,  espe- 
cially in  nervous  ailments.  It  has  the 
property  of  causing  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
to  dilate.  The  fruit  of  the  plant  is  a 
dark,  brownish-black  shining  berry. 

BELLAIBE,  a  city  in  Belmont  cc, 
O.;  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  several  rail- 
roads; 5  miles  S.  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  costly  iron 
railroad  bridge.  Bellaire  is  the  center 
of  a  region  rich  in  coal,  iron,  cement 
brick,  clay,  and  limestone,  and  has  manu- 
factories of  stoves,  glass,  carriages,  boil- 
ers, and  foundry  and  machine  shop  prod 
ucts.  The  city  has  a  National  bank, 
high  grade  educational  institutions,  daily 
and  weekly  newspapers,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
12,946;  (1920)  15,061. 

BELLEATJ  WOOD,  a  forest  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chateau-Thierry,  France, 
notable  for  a  victory  won  there  on  July 
6,  1918,  by  American  marines  and  sol- 
diers. The  wood  was  dense  and  heavily 
fortified  and  was  defended  by  strong 
forces  of  Germans,  but  the  Americans 
won  a  signal  victory.    See  World  War. 

BELLEEONTAINE,  a  village  and 
county-seat  of  Logan  co.,  O.;  on  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis,  and  on  the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Cen- 
tral railroads;  57  miles  N.  E.  of  Dayton. 
It  occupies  the  highest  elevation  in  the 
State  and  is  surrounded  by  an  agricul- 
tural region.  There  are  extensive  car 
shops,  round  house,  switch  yard,  etc.,  of 
the  "Big  Four"  railroad  and  numerous 
manufacturing  plants.  The  village  has 
two  National  banks;  several  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1910)  8,238; 
(1920)    9,336. 

BELLE-ISLE  (bel-el),  or  BELLE- 
ISLE-EN-MEB,  a  French  island  in  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  department  of  Morbihan, 
8  miles  S.  of  Quiberon  Point;  length,  11 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  6  miles.  Pop. 
about  10,000,  engaged  in  the  pilchard 
fishing.  The  capital  is  Le  Palais,  on  the 
N.  E.  coast. 

BELLE-ISLE,  a  rocky  island  9  miles 
long,  at  the  E.  entrance  to  the  Strait 
of  Belle-Isle,  the  channel,  17  miles  wide, 
between  Newfoundland  and  the  coast  of 
Labrador.  Steamers  from  Glasgow  and 
Liverpool  to  Quebec  around  the  N.  of 
Ireland  commonly  go  by  this  channel  in 
summer  as  being  the  shortest  route. 
There  are  two  lighthouses. 

BELLES-LETTRES  (bel-let'r),  polite, 
or  elegant  literature:  a  word  of  some- 
what vague  signification.  Rhetoric, 
poetry,  fiction,  history,  and  criticism, 
with  the  languages  in  which  the  standard 
works  in  these  departments  are  written. 


BELLEVILLE 


477 


BELLIGERENT 


are  generally  understood  to  come  under 
the  head  of  belles-lettres. 

BELLEVILLE,  city  and  county-seat 
of  St.  Clair  co.,  111.;  on  several  railroads; 
14  miles  E.  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  It  is  in 
the  midst  of  very  productive  coal  mines; 
has  a  large  trade  in  flour,  and  general 
produce;  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  stoves,  flour,  nails, 
and  machinery.  The  city  has  trolley 
lines  to  St.  Louis,  a  public  library,  St. 
Peter's  Cathedral  (Roman  Catholic), 
convent.  National  bank,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
21,122;    (1920)   24,823. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  town  of  New  Jersey 
in  Essex  co.  It  is  on  the  Passaic  river, 
the  Morris  canal,  and  the  Erie  railroad. 
It  is  connected  by  electric  roads  to  New- 
ark, of  which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  has 
manufactures  of  rubber  goods,  dynamos, 
brass,  copper,  chemicals,  etc.  The  town 
has  an  Elks'  Home  and  a  public  library. 
Pop.  (1910)  9,891;  (1920)  15,660. 

BELLEVILLE,  town,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Hastings  co.,  Ont., 
Canada;  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Moira  river;  and  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  and  Midland  railways;  60 
miles  W.  of  Kingston.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  and  abundant  water  power; 
it  is  in  direct  steamboat  communication 
with  many  United  States  and  Canadian 
points;  is  principally  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing and  commerce;  and  is  a  popu- 
lar summer  resort.  Belleville  is  the  seat 
of  Albert  University  (Methodist  Episco- 
pal), which  comprises  Albert  College  for 
men,  and  Alexandra  College  for  women; 
and  in  the  suburbs  is  a  large  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum.  The  city  has  agencies  for 
the  principal  banks  of  Canada;  about  a 
dozen  churches,  convent,  and  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.    Pop.  about  10,000. 

BELLEVUE,  a  city  of  Kentucky  in 
Campbell  co.  It  is  on  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  railroad.  It  has  important  in- 
dustries, the  chief  of  which  are  the 
quarrying  of  sand  and  gravel.  Pop. 
(1910)  6,683;  (1920)  7,379. 

BELLEVUE,  a  city  of  Ohio,  in  Huron 
and  Sandusky  cos.  It  is  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  the  New  York,  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis,  and  the  Wheeling  and  Lake 
Erie  railroads.  It  is  the  center  of  an 
important  agricultural  region.  It  has 
quarries  of  limestone,  lumber  yards, 
manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, stoves,  etc.  There  is  a  library 
and  a  hospital.  Pop.  (1910)  5,209; 
(1920)   5,776. 

BELLEVUE,  a  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania   in   Allegheny   co.     It   is   on   the 


Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne,  and  Chicago 
railroad,  and  on  the  Ohio  river.  It  ad- 
joins Pittsburgh,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb. 
There  is  a  large  hospital  and  a  memo- 
rial   park.     Pop.    (1910)    6,323;     (1920) 

8;198. 

BELLIGERENT.  When  two  sov- 
ereign states  (nations)  are  at  war  with 
each  other,  both  are  "belligerents"  un- 
der international  law  and  are  recognized 
by  neutral  states  as  possessing  certain 
privileges  technically  knovm  as  "bellig- 
erent rights."  Where  one  of  the  parties 
to  the  war  is  not  a  state,  but  a  group  or 
faction  in  revolt  against  the  government 
of  its  parent  state,  the  revolting  faction 
does  not  acquire  the  status  of  belliger- 
ency and  become  entitled  to  belligerent 
rights  merely  through  the  fact  of  being 
engaged  in  war.  Whether  this  status 
is  accorded,  either  by  the  parent  state 
or  by  other  states,  depends  upon  many 
conditions.  The  parent  state  will  in 
most  cases  accord  it  reluctantly,  if  at 
all.  Other  states  will  in  general  be 
guided  by  considerations  of  their  own 
interest  and  convenience  and  will  as  a 
rule  insist  upon  certain  conditions,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  mo.st  im- 
portant: The  revolting  faction  must 
have  established  a  stable  government 
able  to  maintain  order  within  the  terri- 
tory under  its  control;  the  objects 
sought  by  this  government  must  be  po- 
litical, not  personal;  hostilities  must  be 
carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  rules 
of  civilized  warfare;  the  proportions  of 
the  revolt  must  be  such  as  to  justify  be- 
lief in  its  possible  success.  Even  when 
all  of  these  conditions  exist,  a  neutral 
state  friendly  to  the  parent  state  will 
be  slow  to  recognize  the  revolting  fac- 
tion as  a  belligerent  unless  its  own  inter- 
ests are  threatened;  as  for  example,  in 
cases  where  the  field  of  hostilities  is 
near  the  border  of  the  neutral  state, 
or  where  the  war  includes  operations 
at  sea  covering  the  routes  of  neutral 
commerce. 

A  neutral  state,  having  decided  to 
recognize  a  revolting  faction  as  a  bellig- 
erent, usually  gives  formal  notice  of 
such  recognition  by  issuing  a  proclama- 
tion defining  the  new  attitude  which  it 
proposes  to  assume  toward  the  parties 
to  the  war.  This  attitude  having  been 
announced,  the  following  belligerent 
rights  result,  so  far  as  the  recognizing 
state   is  concerned : 

1.  The  right  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  blockade. 

2.  The  right  for  vessels  of  war  of 
the  belligerent  to  visit  merchanti  ves- 
sels of  the  neutral  on  the  high  seas, 
to  examine  their  papers,  and  to  search 
for  contraband  of  war.     This  is  tech- 


BELLIGERENT 


478 


BELLINGHAM 


nically  known   as  the   right   of   "visit 
and  search." 

3.  The  right  for  vessels  of  war  of 
the  belligerent  to  enter  the  harbors  of 
the  neutral  state,  subject  to  certain 
limitations  as  to  length  of  stay  and 
the  kind  and  quantity  of  supplies  that 
may  be  received. 

As  a  general  rule,  not  more  than  three 
vessels  of  war  of  a  belligerent  are  per- 
mitted in  a  neutral  port  at  one  time. 
The  length  of  stay  is  limited  to  twenty- 
four  hours  except  where  the  weather  or 
the  condition  of  the  ships  makes  it  un- 
safe to  put  to  sea.  If  vessels  of  war  of 
both  belligerents  are  in  a  neutral  harbor 
simultaneously,  a  period  of  not  less  than 
twenty-four  hours  must  elapse  after  the 
departure  of  one  of  these  before  the 
other  is  permitted  to  depart.  Only  suf- 
ficient supplies  of  fuel  may  be  taken 
to  enable  the  belligerent  ship  to  reach 
the  nearest  home  port.  Only  such  re- 
pairs may  be  made  as  are  necessary  to 
make  the  vessel   seaworthy. 

A  belligerent  vessel  of  war  which  re- 
mains in  a  neutral  port  beyond  the  pre- 
scribed time  limit  thereby  loses  the  right 
to  leave  the  port  during  the  continuance 
of  the  war  and  must  be  prevented  from 
leaving  by  disabling  the  machinery  or 
by  other  effective  steps  taken  by  the 
neutral  authorities.  Such  a  ship  is  tech- 
nically  "interned." 

Belligerents  are  required  by  interna- 
tional law  to  respect  the  neutrality  of 
other  powers  by  complying  loyally  v/ith 
all  of  the  above  requirements,  and,  in 
general,  by  refraining,  in  neutral  terri- 
tory or  neutral  waters,  from  all  acts 
which  could  subject  the  neutral  govern- 
ment to  the  charge  of  failing  in  its  duty 
toward  the  other  belligerent.  No  act 
of  hostility  can  be  performed  within  the 
waters  of  a  neutral,  which  waters  ex- 
tend to  a  line  three  miles  off  the  coast, 
nor  can  the  right  of  visit  and  search  be 
exercised   in    such   waters. 

The  status  of  a  revolting  faction 
which  has  not  yet  been  recognized  as  a 
belligerent  is  that  of  "insurgency,"  and 
the  recognition  accorded  at  this  stage 
goes  no  farther  than  is  essential  for  the 
ti'ansaction  of  absolutely  necessary  busi- 
ness; such,  for  example,  as  arranging 
for  the  security  of  the  life  and  property 
of  foreign  citizens  resident  within  the 
territory  controlled  by  the  insurgent  au- 
thorities. The  privileges  which  may  be 
accorded  to  insurgents  are  not  clearly 
defined,  nor  is  the  practice  uniform.  It 
is  certain  that  insurgent  ships  have  no 
right  of  "visit  and  search,"  and  no  right 
to  enter  neutral  ports.  Nor  may  they 
blockade  the  ports  of  the  parent  state 
even  when,  as   in  the  case  of  the  Bra- 


zilian insurgents  in  1893,  they  have  con- 
trol of  the  entire  navy  of  the  state.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  parent  state  is  not 
in  a  position  to  blockade  the  insurgent 
ports.  In  the  nature  of  the  case,  a  sov- 
ereign state  cannot  blockade  itself,  and 
so  long  as  the  war  is  held  to  be  merely 
an  insurrection,  the  ports  controlled  by 
the  insurgents  are  theoretically  subject 
to  the  laws  of  the  state  itself,  not  to  in- 
ternational law.  And  blockade  is  a  func- 
tion of  international,  not  of  municipal, 
law.  At  the  beginning  of  the  American 
Civil  War,  in  1861,  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment declared  a  blockade  of  the  Confed- 
erate ports,  thereby  inadvertently  rec- 
ognizing the  Confederacy  as  a  bellig- 
erent power;  and  Great  Britain  and 
other  European  powers  immediately  ac- 
corded the  same  recognition,  in  spite  of 
protests  from  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  parent 
state  recognizes  the  belligerency  of  an 
insurgent  faction  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
lieving itself  of  responsibility  for  the 
actions  of  the  insurgents.  So  long  as 
the  state  maintains  that  the  struggle 
going  on  within  its  borders  is  merely  an 
insurrection,  not  a  war,  just  so  long  the 
state  remains  responsible  to  the  world 
for  damage  done  to  other  powers  by  the 
insurgents.  With  the  recognition  of  bel- 
ligerency by  the  parent  state,  this  re- 
sponsibility ceases.  Similarly,  if  the 
parent  state  refuses  recognition  but 
other  states  grant  it,  the  responsibility 
ceases  for  damage  suffered  by  such 
states  but  not  for  states  which  have  not 
granted  recognition. 

It  is  sometimes  stated,  even  by  au- 
thorities on  international  law,  that  in- 
surgents have  no  standing  in  law  and 
that  they  are  subject  to  treatment  as 
pirates  and  outlaws.  This  view  cannot 
be  maintained.  Their  rights,  although 
limited  and  undefined,  are  real,  and  un- 
questionably include  the  right  to  treat- 
ment in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
war  so  long  as  they  themselves  observe 
these  laws. 

The  recognition  of  belligerency  is  a 
very  different  thing  from  the  recognition 
of  independence.  The  two  may  go  to- 
gether, but  whereas  the  recognition  of 
independence  carries  with  it  that  of  bel- 
ligerency, the  converse  is  far  frcm  being 
the  case.  Belligerency  without  independ- 
ence gives  no  right  to  diplomatic  repre- 
sentation at  a  foreign  capital,  although 
envoys  are  sometimes  informally  re- 
ceived as  a  matter  of  convenience, 

BELLINGHAM,  a  city  of  Washington, 
the  county-seat  of  Whatcom  co.  It  is 
about  100  miles  N.  of  Seattle,  on  the 
Great    Northern,    the    Northern    Pacific, 


BELLINI 


479 


BELL  ROCK 


and  the  Bellingham  and  Northern  rail- 
roads. It  is  the  site  of  an  important 
station  for  the  United  States  Navy. 
There  is  a  State  normal  school,  high 
schools,  libraries,  and  hospitals.  The 
city  has  large  lumber  interests,  and 
salmon  canning  is  also  carried  on  on  a 
large  scale.  It  is  a  port  of  entry  for 
vessels  of  the  Oriental  and  Pacific  coast 
trade.  Pop.  (1910)  24,298:  (1920) 
25,57U. 

BELLINI  (bel-le'ne),  the  name  of  a 
Venetian  family  which  produced  several 
remarkable  painters.  The  earliest  was 
Jacopo  Bellini,  who  died  in  1470.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Gentile 
da  Fabriano,  and  one  of  the  first  who 
painted  in  oil.  His  eldest  son,  Gentile 
Bellini,  born  in  1421,  died  in  1501,  was 
distinguished  as  a  portrait  painter,  and 
also  as  a  medaillenr.  Along  with  his 
brother,  he  was  commissioned  to  deco- 
rate the  council  chamber  of  the  Venetian 
Senate.  Mohammed  II.  invited  Gentile 
to  Constantinople,  employed  him  to  ex- 
ecute various  historical  works,  and  dis- 
missed him  laden  with  presents.  The 
"Preaching  of  St.  Mark"  is  his  most  fa- 
mous piece.  His  more  celebrated  brother, 
Giovanni  Bellini,  born  in  1426,  died  in 
1512,  was  the  founder  of  the  older  Vene- 
tian school  of  painting,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  its  progress.  His  best  works 
are  altar  pieces.  His  picture  of  the  "In- 
fant Jesus"  slumbering  in  the  lap  of  the 
Madonna,  and  attended  by  angels,  is  full 
of  beauty.  His  "Holy  Virgin,"  "Baptism 
of  the  Lord,"  and  "Christ  and  the  Woman 
of  Samaria,"  are  also  much  admired. 

BELLINI,  VINCENZO,  a  musical  com- 
poser, born  in  Catania,  in  Sicily,  in  1802. 
He  was  educated  at  Naples,  under 
Zingarelli,  and,  before  he  had  completed 
his  20th  year,  he  had  produced  "Bianca 
and  Fernando"  at  the  Theater  St.  Carlo. 
This  was  succeeded  by  various  other 
operas,  of  which  "II  Pirata,"  "La  Som- 
nambula,"  "Norma,"  and  "I  Puritani" 
(1827-18J34),  are  the  best,  and  have 
gained  for  him  an  undying  celebrity.  He 
died  near  Paris,  Sept.  23,  1835. 

BELLINZONA,  a  town  of  Switzerland, 
capital  of  the  canton  of  Ticino;  charm- 
ingly situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ticino,  about  5  miles  from  its  em- 
bouchure in  the  N.  end  of  Lago  Maggiore. 
It  occupies  a  position  of  great  military 
importance. 

BELLOC,  HILAIRE,  author  and  pub- 
licist, born  in  La  Celle  St.  Cloud,  France, 
July  27,  1870.  Although  of  French  birth 
and  parentage,  he  was  educated  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  has  spent  most  of 
his  life  in  England.    From  1906  to  1910 


he  was  a  Liberal  member  of  the  British 
Parliament  from  Salford.  His  knowl- 
edge of  books,  places,  and  men  is  almost 
encyclopedic,  and  his  writings  command 
respect  an^d  attention.  He  has  written 
many  books  and  lectured  extensively. 
During  the  World  War  his  work  as  a 
military  critic  and  commentator  placed 
him  in  the  foremost  rank  of  publicists. 

BELLONA,  the  goddess  of  war,  and 
sister  or  wife,  or  sister-wife  and  diar- 
ioteer  of  Mars.  The  Romans  paid  great 
adoration  to  her.  The  Temple  of  Bel- 
lona  in  Rome  stood  in  the  Circus  Flami- 
nius,  near  the  Porta  Carmentalis,  and 
was  the  place  where  foreign  ambassadors 
and  generals  returning  from  their  cam- 
paigns were  received  by  the  Senate.  Be- 
fore its  gates  was  raised  a  column, 
called  Columna  Bellica,  against  which  a 
javelin  was  hurled  as  one  of  the  pre- 
vious forms  in  the  declaration  of  war. 
Her  priests  were  named  after  her,  Bello- 
narii. 

BELLOT  STRAIT,  the  passage  on  the 
N.  coast  of  North  America,  which  sepa- 
rates North  Somerset  from  Boothia 
Felix,  and  connects  Prince  Regent  Inlet 
with  Franklin  Channel,  Its  E.  entrance 
was  discovered  in  1853  by  Lieut.  Joseph 
Rene  Bellot.  After  four  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts, it  was  explored  for  the  first  time 
by  M'Clintock  on  his  crowning  voyage.  It 
is  about  20  miles  long,  and,  at  its  nar- 
rowest part,  about  1  mile  wide,  running 
pretty  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  72°,  be- 
tween granite  shores  which,  everjrwhere 
high,  rise  here  and  there  to  1,500  or  1,600 
feet.  Through  this  funnel  both  the  winds 
and  the  waters  have  full  play;  the  latter, 
permanent  currents  and  flood  tides  alike, 
coming  from  the  W.  A  point  on  the  S. 
shore,  71°  55'  N.,  95°  W.,  is  the  most 
northerly  point  of  the  North  American 
continent. 

BELLOWS,  GEORGE  WESLEY,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Columbus,  O., 
in  1882.  He  graduated  from  the  Ohio 
State  University  in  1905  and  afterward 
studied  art  under  Robert  Henri.  His 
pictures  were  exhibited  at  exhibitions  in 
Venice  and  other  cities.  He  received  the 
second  Hallgarten  prize  in  1908,  and  the 
first  Hallgarten  prize  in  1913.  He  was 
awarded  the  Maynard  prize  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  in  1914.  He 
also  received  other  prizes  from  art  so- 
cieties and  institutions.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy.  His  pic- 
tures are  found  in  many  leading  palleries 
of  the  United  States  and  abroad. 


BELL  ROCK,  or  INCH  CAPE,  a  dan- 
gerous reef  surmounted  by  a  lighthouse, 
situated  in  the  German  Ocean,  about  12 


BELMONT 


480 


BELTJCHISTAW 


miles  from  Arbroath,  nearly  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Tay,  The  lighthouse 
was  erected  in  1808-1811  by  Robert 
Stevenson  from  Rennie's  plan  at  a  cost 
of  upward  of  £60,000.  It  arises  to  a 
height  of  120  feet;  has  a  revolving  light 
showing  alternately  red  and  white  every 
minute,  and  visible  for  upward  of  15 
miles.  It  also  contains  two  bells  which 
are  rung  during  thick  weather. 

BELMONT,  AUGUST,  an  American 
banker,  born  in  Alzey,  Germany;  edu- 
cated at  Frankfort,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  the  Rothschild's  banking  house  there. 
In  1837  he  went  to  Havana  to  take 
charge  of  the  firm's  interests,  and  after- 
ward represented  them  in  New  York, 
where  he  established  a  banking  house. 
He  was  Consul-General  of  Austria  in 
1844-1850;  became  Charge  d'Affaires  at 
The  Hague  in  1853;  and  was  Minister- 
Resident  there  in  1854-1858.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  in  1860,  and  became  Chair- 
man of  the  National  Democratic  Com- 
mittee;, "an  office  he  held  till  1872.  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  Nov.  24,  1890. 

BELMONT,  AUGUST,  an  American 
banker,  born  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  18, 
1853;  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1875;  at  once  entered  his  father's  bank- 
ing house,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father 
became  head  of  the  firm  of  August  Bel- 
mont &  Co.  In  February,  1900,  he  or- 
ganized the  Rapid  Transit  Subway  Con- 
struction Company  to  back  John  B.  Mc- 
Donald, who  had  been  awarded  the  $35,- 
000,000  contract  for  the  construction  of 
a  rapid  transit  system  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  president  of  the  National  Civic 
Federation  (1905-1906)  ;  chairman  Inter- 
borough  Consolidated  Corporation  and 
Interborough  Subway  Construction  Co. 
(1911)  ;  and  a  director  in  numerous 
other  companies.  He  has  taken  an  active 
interest  in  politics  on  the  Democratic 
side,  acting  at  times  as  treasurer  of  the 
National  Committee.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  Jockey  Club  and  one  of  the  most 
active  and  prominent  supporters  of  horse 
racing  and  breeding  in  the  United 
States.  In  1910  he  married  Eleanor 
Robson,  a  well-known  Anglo-American 
actress. 

BELMONT,  PIRRY,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  New  York,  Dee.  28,  1851; 
son  of  August  Belmont;  graduated  at 
Harvard  University  in  1872,  and  at  Co- 
lumbia  College  Law  School  in  1876;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  and  practiced  in 
New  York  till  1881,  when  he  was  elected 
as  a  Democrat  to  Congress,  and  served 
till  1887,  being  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee   on    Foreign    Affairs.      In    1885 


he  was  appointed  Chairman  of  the  Con»- 
mittee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  and  in 
1888  United  States  Minister  to  Spain. 
In  1889  he  was  a  Commissioner  to  the 
Universal  Exposition  in  Paris.  He  was 
one  of  the  principals  in  the  execution  of 
the  great  contract  for  the  construction 
of  a  rapid  transit  system  in  New  York 
City,  February,  1900,  Captain  U.  S.  Re- 
serves 1917,  member  Advisory  Board 
American  Defense  Society,  Commander 
Legion  of  Honor,  France,  etc. 

BELOIT,  city  in  Rock  cc,  Wis.; 
on  the  Rock  river,  and  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul  railroads;  85  miles  S. 
W.  of  Milwaukee.  The  city  derives  fine 
power  for  manufacturing  from  the 
river;  and  has  one  of  the  largest  wood- 
working machinery  plants  in  the  world, 
besides  manufactories  of  gas  engine^, 
windmills,  iron,  paper-mill  machinery, 
ploughs,  paper,  rye  flour,  and  bicycles. 
The  city  is  widely  known  as  the  seat  of 
Beloit  College.  Pop.  (1910)  15,125; 
(1920)    21,284. 

BELOIT  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
(non-sectarian)  institution  in  Beloit, 
Wis.;  organized  in  1847  by  the  Congre- 
gational and  Presbyterian  Churches;  re- 
ported at  the  end  of  1919:  Professors 
and  instructors,  37;  students,  300;  vol- 
umes in  the  library,  50,000;  number  of 
graduates,  1,592;  president,  M.  A.  Bran- 
non,  Ph.  D. 

BELSHAZZAR,  the  last  of  the  Baby- 
lonian kings,  who  reigned  conjointly 
with  his  father,  Nabonadius.  He  per- 
ished 538  B.  c,  during  the  successful 
storming  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus.  This 
event  is  recorded  in  the  book  of  Daniel; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  bring  the  particulars 
there  given  into  harmony  with  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions. 

BELT,  in  astronomy,  a  varjring  number 
of  dusky,  belt-like  bands  or  zones  encirc- 
ling the  planet  Jupiter  parallel  to  his 
equator,  as  if  the  clouds  of  his  atmos- 
phere had  been  forced  into  a  series  of 
parallels  through  the  rapidity  of  his  ro- 
tation, and  the  dark  body  of  the  planet 
was  seen  through  the  comparatively 
clear  spaces  between. 

In  physical  geography,  two  passages 
or  straits  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the 
German  Ocean,  viz.:  (a)  the  Great  Belt, 
between  the  islands  of  Seeland  and 
Laland  on  the  N.  and  Fiihnen  and 
Langeland,  on  the  W.  (b)  The  Little 
Belt,  between  the  mainland  of  Denmark 
on  the  W.,  and  the  island  of  Fiihnen 
on  the  E. 

BELUCHISTAN.    See   BALUCHISTAN. 


BELVIDERE 


481 


BENEDETTI 


BELVIDERE,  a  city  of  Illinois,  the 
county-seat  of  Boone  co.  It  is  on  the 
Kiswaukee  river,  and  on  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  railroad.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  fertile  agricultural  region 
and  has  manufactures  of  sewing  ma- 
chines, safety  razors,  bicycles,  automo- 
biles, boilers,  etc.  There  is  a  public  li- 
brary, a  park,  an  opera  house,  and  other 
public  buildings.  Pop.  (1910)  7,253; 
(1920)   7,804. 

BEMIDJI,  a  city  of  Minnesota,  the 
county-seat  of  Beltrami  co.  It  is  on  the 
Great  Northern,  and  Minneapolis,  Red 
Lake,  and  Manitoba,  and  other  railroads. 
On  account  of  its  beautiful  situation  on 
a  lake,  it  is  a  popular  summer  resort. 
It  has  a  State  normal  school,  Federal 
building,  public  library,  and  other  public 
buildings.  Lumbering  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. Pop.  (1910)  5,099;  (1920) 
7,086. 

BEMIS  HEIGHTS,  a  village  in  Sara- 
toga CO.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson  river, 
famous  as  the  scene  of  the  first  battle  of 
Stillwater,  Sept.  19,  1777. 

BENARES,  a  town  in  Hindustan, 
capital  of  the  Benares  division,  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  British 
India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
from  which  it  rises  like  an  amphitheater, 
presenting  a  splendid  panorama  of  tem- 
ples, mosques,  palaces,  and  other  build- 
ings, with  their  domes,  minarets,  etc. 
Fine  ghauts  lead  down  to  the  river.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  sacred  places  of  pil- 
grimage in  all  India,  being  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Hindu  religion.  The  prin- 
cipal temple  is  dedicated  to  Siva,  whose 
sacred  symbol  it  contains.  It  is  also  the 
seat  of  government  and  other  colleges, 
and  of  the  missions  of  various  societies. 
Benares  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  the 
produce  of  the  district  and  in  English 
goods,  and  manufactures  silks,  shawls, 
embroidered  cloth,  jewelry,  etc.  Pop. 
about  220,000.  The  division  has  an  area 
of  10,385  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  5,500,000. 

BENBOW,  JOHN,  an  English  admiral, 
born  in  1650  at  Shrewsbury.  His  skill 
and  valor,  displayed  during  an  action 
with  a  Barbary  pirate  at  the  head  of  a 
superior  force,  gained  him  a  captaincy 
in  the  Royal  navy.  Rear-Admiral  in 
1700,  he  had  his  leg  carried  away  by  a 
chain-shot  during  an  engagement  with 
the  French  Commodore,  Du  Casse,  in 
1702,  and  he  died  in  Jamaica,  in  1702. 

BENCH,  in  law,  the  seat  which  judges 
or  magistrates  occupy  officially  in  a  court 
of  justice;  also  the  judges  or  magis- 
trates sitting  together  to  try  cases.   The 


Court  of  King's  bench  (named,  when  a 
female  sovereign  is  on  the  throne,  the 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench)  formerly  was 
one  of  the  three  chief  courts  in  Eng- 
land. The  judicial  business  of  the  Great 
Council  of  the  nation  coming  to  be  trans- 
acted in  the  King's  palace,  the  court 
which  attended  to  it  was  called  that  of 
the  Avla  Regis,  viz.,  of  the  King's  pal- 
ace. It  gradually  separated  into  three — 
the  Courts  of  King's  Bench,  of  Common 
Pleas,  and  of  the  Exchequer.  From  its 
very  outset  it  was  a  court  of  record. 
Its  separate  existence  was  abolished  by 
the  judicature  act  of  1873,  and  now  it 
is  the  King's  Bench  Division  of  the  High 
Court  of  Judicature. 

In  engineering,  a  bench  is  a  horizontal 
ledge  on  the  side  of  a  cutting;  an  em- 
bankment or  parapet,  a  berme,  a  ban- 
quette. 

BENCH  WARRANT,  a  warrant  is- 
sued by  the  court  before  which  an  in- 
dictment has  been  found  to  arrest  the 
accused,  that  he  may  appear  and  find  bail 
for  his  appearance  at  the  trial.  It  is 
used  extensively  in  the  United  States  to 
bring  into  court  persons  who  have  neg- 
lected to  obey  an  order  of  court,  such  as 
delinquent  jurymen. 

BENCOOLEN,  or  BENKULEN,  a  sea- 
port on  the  W.  coast  of  Sumatra  Island, 
Dutch  East  Indies;  capital  of  a  resi- 
dency of  the  same  name.  It  was  founded 
in  1685  by  the  English  and  ceded  to  the 
Dutch  in  1824.  Area  of  residency,  9,433 
square  miles;  pop.  of  residency  about 
225,000;  of  town  about  12,000. 

BENDIGO,  a  city  of  Victoria,  -Aus- 
tralia, the  capital  of  Bendigo  co.  It  is 
about  100  miles  N.  W.  of  Melbourne.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  important  gold 
mines.  The  town  is  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile agricultural  region  and  grain  and 
fruit  are  extensively  grown.  There  are 
handsome  public  buildings  including  a 
town  hall,  a  mechanics'  institute,  and 
several  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Pop.  (1918) 
35,590. 

BENEDETTI,  VINCENT,  COUNT  DE, 
a  French  diplomatist  of  Italian  extrac- 
tion, born  in  Bastia,,  Corsica,  April  29, 
1817;  was  educated  for  public  service, 
held  consulates  in  Cairo,  Palermo,  Malta, 
and  Tunis;  and  was  Secretary  of  the 
Congress  of  Paris  in  1856,  and  drew  up 
the  protocols  of  the  treaty  then  agreed 
upon.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  Am- 
bassador to  Italy,  and  in  1864  to  Prussia. 
In  1870  Benedetti  was  under  orders  to 
protest  against  the  candidature  of  Prince 
Leopold  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern  for 
the  crown  of  Spain.     He  became  so  im- 


BENEDICT 


482 


BENEDICT 


portunate  in  trying  to  carry  out  these 
orders  that  he  was  forbidden  to  seek 
further  interviews  with  King  William. 
The  Ambassador  had  reiterated  the  de- 
mands of  his  government  to  the  King 
while  the  latter  was  taking  a  walk  on 
the  promenade  at  Ems,  thus  committing 
a  breach  of  court  etiquette,  and  abusing 
his  privileges  as  an  ambassador.  The 
refusal  of  the  King  to  again  receive  Ben- 
edetti  gave  great  offense  in  France,  and 
was  made  a  pretext  for  declaring  war 
within  a  few  days.  After  the  fall  of 
the  Empire,  Benedetti  withdrew  from 
public  life.  In  1871  he  published  a  pam- 
phlet charging  Bismarck  with  the  whole 
responsibility,  to  which  the  latter  made 
a  vigorous  reply.  Benedetti  was  author 
of  "Studies  in  Diplomacy,"  an  English 
translation  of  which  appeared  in  1895. 
He  died  in  Paris,  March  28,  1900. 

BENEDICT  I.,  POPE,  succeeded  John 
III.,  575;  died  in  578,  and  was  himself 
succeeded  by  Pelagius  II. 

BENEDICT  II.  succeeded  Leo  II., 
684;  died  in  685,  and  was  succeeded  by 
John  V. 

BENEDICT  III.  succeeded  Leo  IV., 
855.  During  his  pontificate,  the  Sar- 
acens were  ravaging  Apulia  and  Cam- 
pania. He  died  in  858,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Nicholas  I. 

BENEDICT  IV.,  succeeded  John  IX., 
about  900.  He  crowned  Louis,  son  of 
Boson,  Emperor  and  King  of  Italy.  He 
died  in  903,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  V. 

BENEDICT  V.  succeeded  Leo  VIII.  in 
964,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Romans 
in  opposition  to  Leo  VIII.  The  Emperor 
Otho,  supporter  of  Leo,  appeared  before 
Rome  with  an  army,  reduced  the  city  to 
famine,  and  a  new  assembly  of  the  clergy 
declared  to  be  null  the  election  of  Ben- 
edict, who  was  exiled.    He  died  in  965. 

BENEDICT  VI.  succeeded  John  XIII. 
in  972.  After  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Otho  I.,  the  Romans  imprisoned  Ben- 
edict, who  was  strangled  in  the  castle 
of  St.  Angelo,  in  974. 

BENEDICT  VII.,  of  the  family  of 
Conti,  elected  in  975.  During  his  pon- 
tificate, the  Emperor  Otho  II.  came  re- 
peatedly to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  984. 
Benedict  died  about  the  same  time,  and 
was  succeeded  by  John  XIV. 

BENEDICT  VIII.,  of  the  same  family, 
succeeded  Sergius  IV.,  in  1012.  In  1016, 
the  Saracens  from  Sardinia  having 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Tuscany,  Ben- 
edict attacked  and  defeated  them.  He 
crowned    the    Emperor    Henry    II.,    and 


his  wife,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter. 
He  died  in  1024,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  John  XIX. 

BENEDICT  IX.,  a  relative  of  the 
two  preceding  Popes,  succeeded  John 
XIX.  in  1034.  He  was  then  very  young, 
some  say  only  10  years  old.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished by  his  licentiousness  and 
profligacy,  and  by  the  state  of  anarchy 
in  which  Rome  was  plunged  during  his 
pontificate.  He  was  deposed  in  1048,  and 
died  in  a  convent  in  1054,  being  suc- 
ceeded by  Leo  IX. 

BENEDICT  X.  was  elected  by  a 
faction  after  the  death  of  Stephen  IX., 
in  1058;  but  the  Council  of  Siena  nom- 
inated Nicholas  II.  Benedict  did  not  sub- 
mit till  the  following  year,  when  Nicholas 
made  his  entrance  into  Rome.  He  died  in 
1059. 

BENEDICT  XI.,  a  Dominican,  suc- 
ceeded Boniface  VIII.,  in  1303.  Con- 
temporary historians  speak  highly  of  his 
character  and  virtues.  He  died  in  1304, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  V. 

BENEDICT  XII.,  JACQUES  FOITE- 
NIEB.,  a  native  of  France,  succeeded 
John  XXII.,  in  1334,  the  Popes  residing 
then  at  Avignon.  His  strictness  in  en- 
forcing discipline  among  the  monastic  or- 
ders excited  many  enemies  against  him, 
who  endeavored  to  cast  aspersions  upon 
his  character.  He  died  in  1342,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Clement  VI. 

BENEDICT  XIII.,  Cardinal  Orsini, 
succeeded  Innocent  XIII.,  in  1724,  but 
it  was  with  difficulty  that  he  could  be 
made  to  accept  the  pontificate.  Benedict 
lived  with  the  greatest  frugality,  and 
has  been  called  more  a  monk  than  a 
Pope.  His  great  fault  was  his  implicit 
confidence  in  Cardinal  Coscia,  to  whom 
he  left  the  entire  management  of  his 
government,  and  who  much  abused  it. 
He  died  in  February,  1731.  His  works 
were  published  in  1728,  in  three  volumes 
folio.  He  was  succeeded  by  Clement 
XII. 

BENEDICT  XIV.  was  born  at  Bologna 
in  1675,  of  the  noble  family  of  Lam- 
bertini.  In  1728  he  received  a  cardinal's 
hat;  and  in  1731  was  nominated  Arch- 
bishop of  Bologna.  On  the  death  of 
Clement  XII.  (1740),  he  succeeded  to  the 
Papal  throne.  He  reformed  abuses,  in- 
troduced good  regulations,  cultivated  let- 
ters, encouraged  men  of  learning,  and 
was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts.  His  toler- 
ance exposed  him  to  the  censure  of  the 
rigorists  among  the  College  of  Cardinals. 
Without  exhibiting  anything  like  indif- 
ference to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
of  which  he   Avas   the   head,   he   showed 


BENEDICT 


483 


BENEDICTINE 


urbanity  and  friendliness  toward  all 
Christians.  The  Protestants  of  Ger- 
many revered  Benedict.  With  regard  to 
France,  he  carefully  avoided  everything 
that  could  in  the  least  encourage  the 
fanatical  party  in  that  country  in  reviv- 
ing the  persecution  against  the  Prot- 
estants of  Languedoc.  Benedict  was 
learned,  not  only  in  theology,  but  in  his- 
tory an,d  literature,  and  had  also  a  taste 
for  the  fine  arts.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Rome,  in  12  volumes  quarto. 
He  died  in  1758,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  XIII. 

BENEDICT  XV.,  Gdacomo  della  Chiesa, 
born  near  Genoa  in  1854.  He  was  con- 
secrated to  the  Church  from  his  youth 
and  educated  for  holy  orders  at  Rome, 
being  ordained  a  priest  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  year.  From  his  first  active  years 
he    seemed    marked    for    an    executive 


POPE   BENEDICT   XV. 

career.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary to  the  Nunciature  at  Madrid  as 
chief  aid  to  Cardinal  Rampolla.  After 
returning  to  Rome  four  years  later  he 
held  various  positions  in  the  Secretariate 
there.  His  advancement  after  he  had 
reached  his  thirty-fifth  year  was  rapid. 
In  1900  he  became  a  prelate  of  the 
Church — the  following  year  Consultor  of 
the  Holy  Office.  In  1907  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  be  Archbishop  of  Bologna.  He 
became  a  Cardinal  in  1914,  shortly  be- 
fore the  election  which  advanced  him  to 
the  Papal  chair  on  Sept.  3,  1914.  During 
the  World  War  he  remained  neutral, 
and,  at  various  times,  sought  to  bring 
about  peace.     See  World  War. 

BENEDICT,  ST.,  the  founder  of  the 
Order  of  the  Benedictine  Monks,  was 
born  at  Nursia,  in  the  Dukedom  of  Spo- 
leto,  in  Italy,  in  480  A.  D.  He  was  sent 
to    Rome   when   very   young,   and   there 

32 — Vol.  I — Cyc 


received  the  first  part  of  his  education; 
when  14  years  of  age,  he  removed  to 
Subiaco,  a  desert  place  about  40  miles 
distant,  where  he  was  concealed  in  a  cav- 
ern. The  monks  of  a  neighboring  mon- 
astery subsequently  chose  him  for  their 
abbot;  their  manners,  however,  not 
agreeing  with  those  of  Benedict,  he  re- 
turned to  his  solitude,  whither  many  per- 
sons followed  him,  and  in  a  short  time 
he  was  enabled  to  build  no  fewer  than 
12  monasteries.  About  528  he  retired 
to  Monte  Cassino,  where  idolatry  was 
still  prevalent.  Having  converted  the 
people  of  the  adjacent  country,  he  broke 
the  statue  of  Apollo,  overthrew  the  altar, 
and  built  two  oratories  on  the  mountain, 
one  dedicated  to  St.  Martin,  the  other  to 
St.  John.  Here  St.  Benedict  also  founded 
a  monastery,  and  instituted  the  Order 
of  his  name,  which  in  time  extended  all 
over  Europe.  It  was  here,  too,  that  he 
composed  his  "Regula  Monachorum." 
Authors  are  not  agreed  upon  the  place 
where  St.  Benedict  died;  some  say  at 
Monte  Cassino;  others  affirm  it  to  have 
been  at  Rome  about  543  or  547.  Gregory 
the  Great,  in  the  second  "Book  of  his 
Dialogues,"  has  written  a  "Life  of  St. 
Benedict." 

BENEDICTINE,  a  liqueur  prepared  by 
the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  abbey  of 
Fecamp,  in  Normandy,  consisting  of 
spirit  (fine  brandy)  containing  an  in- 
fusion of  the  juices  of  plants.  It  has 
been  made  in  the  same  way  since  1510. 

BENEDICTINE,  a  follower  of  ST. 
Benedict  (q.  v.).  In  529  St.  Benedict 
transformed  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Monte  Cassino  into  a  monastery,  and  be- 
came its  first  abbot.  He  composed 
rules  for  its  management,  making  every 
monk  pledge  himself  to  perfect  chastity, 
absolute  poverty,  and  implicit  obedience 
in  all  respects  to  his  superiors.  These 
vows  were  irrevocable,  whereas  up  to 
that  time  the  monks  had  been  allowed 
to  alter  the  regulations  of  their  founder 
at  their  pleasure.  The  rule  here  insti- 
tuted was  adopted  at  an  early  period  by 
various  other  monastic  communities;  it 
was  confirmed,  about  52  years  after  the 
death  of  its  founder,  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  was  ultimately  accepted 
by  nearly  all  the  monkish  communities 
of  the  West. 

As  long  as  the  Benedictines  remained 
poor,  they  were  a  blessing  to  the  coun- 
tries in  which  they  lived,  and  especially 
to  Germany,  spending,  as  they  did,  sev- 
eral hours  a  day  in  gardening,  agricul- 
ture, and  mechanical  labor,  and  another 
portion  of  their  time  in  reading,  besides 
keeping  school  outside  the  walls  of  their 
convents.    Science  and  literature  are  also 


BENEDICTION 


484 


BENGAL 


indebted  to  them  for  having  copied  many 
of  the  classical  authors  and  preserved 
such  knowledge  as  existed  in  their  age. 
When  at  length  their  merits  broueht 
wealth,  luxury  and  indolence  sapped 
their  virtues  and  diminished  their  influ- 
ence for  good.  Afterward  they  became 
reformed,  especially  in  France,  in  the 
17th  century.  The  Benedictine  habit  con- 
sisted of  a  loose  black  coat,  or  a  gown, 
reaching  to  their  feet,  and  having  large, 
wide  sleeves.  Under  it  was  a  flannel 
habit,  white  in  color.  The  head-dress 
was  a  hood,  or  cowl,  pointed  at  the  tip. 
They  were  sometimes  called  Black  Monks. 
The  Benedictines  control  16  colleges  in 
the  United  States.  There  were  Benedic- 
tine nuns  as  well  as  monks.  When  they 
originated  is  uncertain. 

BENEDICTION  (from  the  Latin  bene- 
dicere,  literally,  "to  speak  well  of";  "to 
commend") ,  a  solemn  invocation  of  the 
Divine  blessing  upon  men  or  things. 

BENEDICTUS,  the  name  given  to  the 
hymn  of  Zacharias  (Luke  i:  68),  used 
as  a  canticle  in  the  morning  service  of 
the  Church  of  England  to  follow  the  les- 
sons. This  position  it  has  occupied  from 
very  ancient  times.  It  is  also  used  in  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

BENESH.  EDWARD,  a  Czecho-Slovak 
statesman,  one  of  the  delegates  at  the 
Paris  Peace  Conference.  He  was  a  stu- 
dent of  sociology  and  a  teacher  at  the 
Czech  University  of  Prague.  He  es- 
caped from  Bohemia  early  in  the  war 
and  joined  Thomas  Masaryk,  later  pres- 
ident of  Czecho- Slovakia,  in  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Czecho-Slovakdan  Council. 
He  performed  valuable  services  in  the 
Czecho-Slovakian  army  and  secured  rec- 
ognition of  the  state  by  the  Allies. 

BENEVENTO  (ancient  Beneventum), 
a  city  of  southern  Italy,  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  betv/een  and  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Calore  and  Sabato,  32  miles  N.  E. 
of  Naples.  The  modem  town  is  almost 
entirely  constructed  out  of  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient.  Among  its  most  perfect  re- 
mains of  antiquity  is  the  Arch  of  Tra- 
jan, erected  about  a.  d  114.  Near  Bene- 
vento,  in  1266,  was  fought  the  great 
battle  between  Charles  of  Anjou  and  his 
rival,  Manfred,  in  which  the  latter  was 
killed,  and  his  army  totally  defeated. 
During  the  reign  of  Napoleon  L,  Bene- 
vento  was  formed  into  a  principality  con- 
ferred on  Talleyrand.  In  181.5,  it  again 
reverted  to  the  Pope.  In  1860  it  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italv  Pod 
about  25,000.  ^  ^' 

BENGAL,  a  state  of  Briti?:h  India  re- 
constituted   in    19(^r,   and    1912   from   the 


former  Bengal  presidency  and  provinces. 
Area,  78,699  square  miles;  pop.  about 
50,000,000. 

Topography. — As  a  whole  Bengal  con- 
sists of  plains,  there  being  few  remark- 
able elevations,  though  it  is  surrounded 
with  lofty  mountains.  It  is  intersect?d 
in  all  directions  by  rivers,  mostly  tribu- 
taries of  its  two  great  rivers,  the  Ganges 
and  Brahmaputra,  which  annually,  in 
June  and  July,  inundate  a  large  part  of 
the  region.  The  Sundarbans  or  Sun- 
d^rbunds  (from  being  covered  with  the 
sunder  tree),  that  portion  of  the  coun- 
try through  which  the  numerous 
branches  of  the  Ganges  seek  the  sea, 
about  150  miles  from  E.  to  W.  and  about 
160  from  N.  to  S.,  is  traversed  in  all  di- 
rections by  water  courses,  and  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  sheets  of  stag- 
nant water.  The  country  is  subject  to 
great  extremes  of  heat.  The  most  un- 
healthful  period  is  the  latter  part  of  the 
rainy  season.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  whole  year  varies  between  80"  F.  in 
Orissa,  and  74°  F.  in  Assam,  that  of 
Calcutta  being  79'.  The  heaviest  rain- 
fall occurs  in  eastern  Bengal,  the  an- 
nual average  amounting  to  over  100 
inches. 

Productions. — Besides  rice  and  other 
grains,  which  form,  along  with  fruits, 
the  principal  food  of  the  population,  there 
may  be  noted  among  the  agricultural 
products  indigo,  opium,  cane  sugar,  to- 
bacco, betel,  cotton,  and  the  jute  and  sunn 
plants.  Tea  is  now  extensively  grown  in 
some  places,  notably  in  Darjeeling  dis- 
trict and  Chittagong.  Cinchona  is  cul- 
tivated in  Darjeeling  and  Sikkim.  The 
forests  cover  12,000  square  miles,  the 
principal  forest  trees  being  the  sal  on 
the  Himalaya  slopes,  sal  and  teak  in 
Orissa.  Wild  animals  are  most  numerous 
in  the  Sijndarbans  and  Orissa,  snakes 
being  remarkably  abundant  in  the  latter 
district.  The  principal  minerals  are 
coal,  iron,  and  salt.  Coal  is  worked  at 
Raniganj,  in  Bardwan  district,  where  the 
seams  are  about  8  feet  in  thickness,  and 
iron  in  the  district  of  Birbhum,  in  the 
same  division.  Salt  is  obtained  from 
the  maritime  districts  of  Orissa.  The  im- 
ports in  1919  were  64,04,52,684  rupees, 
and  the  exports  105,71,68,192  rupees. 

Manufactures. — The  principal  manu- 
factures are  cotton  piece  goods  of  various 
descriptions,  jute  fabrics,  blanketing,  and 
silks.  Muslins  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
delicate  texture  were  formerly  made  at 
Dacca,  but  the  manufacture  is  almost  ex- 
tinct. Sericulture  is  carried  on  more 
largely  in  Bengal  than  in  any  other  part 
of  India,  and  silk  wearing  is  a  lea  Hn-^ 
industry  in  many  of  the  districts.  The 
commerce,  both  internal  and  external,  is 


BENGAL.  BAY  OF 


485 


BENIN 


very  large.  The  chief  exports  are  opium, 
jute,  indigo,  oil  seeds,  tea.  hides  and 
skins,  and  rice.  The  foreign  trade  is 
chiefly  with  Great  Britain.  China,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  Ceylon. 

Language. — The  Bengali  language  is 
spoken  by  a  majority  of  the  population. 
It  is  like  the  numerous  vernacular  dia- 
lects spoken  in  northern  India,  appar- 
ently descended  from  the  ancient  classical 
language  of  the  country,  the  Sanskrit. 
Its  alphabet  comprises  14  vowels  and 
diphthongs,  and  33  consonants.  The 
ground  work  of  the  Bengali  language 
is  altogether  Sanskrit. 

^Education,  etc. — The  first  rudiments 
of  education  are  usually  given  in  the 
primary*  schools  that  have  been  developed 
out  of  the  native  schools,  and  are  now 
connected  with  government.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  secondary  and  superior 
schools  established  by  government,  in- 
cluding eight  government  colleges.  The 
highest  educational  institution  is  the 
Calcutta  University,  the  chief  fun:tion 
of  which  is  to  examine  and  confer  de- 
grees. There  were  in  1918  48,303  edu- 
cational institutions,  with  1,892,951 
scholars.  The  total  expenditure  for  edu- 
cation in  that  year  was  £1,699,.569.  The 
population  of  Bengal  beyond  the  capital, 
Calcutta,  and  its  suburbs,  is  largely 
rural. 

Hi-sto7'y. — The  first  of  the  East  India 
Company's  settlements  in  Bengal  were 
made  early  in  the  17th  century.  The 
rise  of  Calcutta  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  same  century.  The  greater  part 
of  Bengal  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
East  India  Company  in  consequence  of 
CIi%'e's  %ictory  at  Plassy  in  1757.  and 
was  formally  ceded  to  the  company  by 
the  Nabob  of  Bengal  in  1765.  Chittagong 
had  previously  been  ceded  by  the  same 
prince,  but  its  government  under  British 
administration  was  not  organized  till 
1824.  Orissa  came  into  British  hands 
in  1803.  In  1858  the  country  passed 
to  the  crown,  and  since  then  the  history 
of  Bengal  has  been,  on  the  whole,  one 
of  steady  and  peaceful  progress. 

BENGAL.  BAY  OF.  that  portion  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  which  lies  between 
Hindustan  and  Farther  India,  or  Burma, 
Siam,  and  Malacca,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  extending  S.  to  Ceylon  and  Sumatra. 
It  receives  the  Ganges,  Brahmaputra, 
and  Irrawadi.  Calcutta.  Rangoon,  and 
Madras  are  the  most  important  towns 
on  or  near  its  coasts. 

BENGTJELA  (ben-ga'la).  a  district  of 
the  Portuguese  colony  of  Angola  on  the 
W.  coast  of  South  Africa;  The  country 


is  mountainous  in  the  interior,  and 
thickly  intersected  by  rivers  and  streams. 
Its  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  including 
every  description  of  tropical  produce,  and 
animal  life  is  equally  abundant.  Copper, 
silver,  iron,  salt,  sulphur,  petroleum,  and 
other  minerals  are  found.  The  natives 
are  mostly  rude  and  barbarous.  Pop. 
over  2.000,000.  The  capital,  also  caller 
Benguela,  or  San  Felipe  de  Benguela,  i: 
situated  on  the  coast,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Atlantic,  in  a  charming,  but  very  un- 
healthful,  valley.  It  was  founded  bv  the 
Portuguese  in  1617,  and  was  formerly 
an  important  center  of  the  slave  trade, 
but  has  now  only  a  spasmodic  trade  in 
ivory,  wax,  gum,  copal,  etc.  Pop.  about 
3,600. 

BENHATVT,  ANDREW  ELLICOTT 
KENTfEDY.  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York,  April  10,  1832; 
entered  the  navy  in  1847;  served  in  the 
East  India  and  the  Home  Squadrons  in 
1847-1852;  attended  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1852-1853;  was  com- 
missioned Lieutenant  in  1855;  Lieuten- 
ant-Commander in  1862;  Commander, 
1866;  Captain,  1875;  Commodore.  1885; 
and  Rear-Admiral  in  1890,  and  was  re- 
tired in  1894.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  West 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadrons.  In  April, 
1893,  he  commanded  one  of  the  divisions 
in  the  great  naval  display  at  New  York; 
in  1894,  as  commander  of  a  squadron  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  Brazil,  he  forced  the 
commander  of  the  insurgents'  squadron 
to  raise  the  blockade  of  the  city  and  to 
discontinue  firing  on  American  merchant 
vessels;  and  in  1898  was  naval  prize 
commissioner  in  Savannah,  Ga.  He  died 
Aug.  11,  1905. 

BENI.  a  river  of  Bolivia,  South  Amer- 
ica; formed  by  the  union  of  all  the 
streams  flowing  down  the  eastern  Cor- 
dillera. It  unites  with  the  Mamore  on 
the  Brazilian  frontier  to  form  the  Ma- 
deira. Its  course  is  N.  to  N.  E.;  length, 
about  850  miles. 

BENT,  one  of  the  departments  of 
Boli^^a,  South  America.  It  is  in  the 
N.  E.  part;  area,  about  40.000  square 
miles;  pop.  107,744;  chief  town.  Trini- 
dad. 

BENIN,  a  former  negrro  kingdom  of 
west  Africa,  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  ex- 
tending along  the  coast  on  both  sides  of 
the  Benin  river,  W.  of  the  lower  Niger, 
and  to  some  distance  inland.  The  chief 
town  is  Benin  (pop.  about  10,000).  sit- 
uated on  the  river  Benin,  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Niger.  Cotton  is  indige- 
nous, and  woven  into  cloth  by  the  women. 


BEHIV,  BIGHT  OF  4*6  BE^TNTITT 

and    siigar-ca2»,    xke,    yams,    e:c  .    s.e         BEX  LEDI.   a  r.    (2,875  feet) 

^Town.     Tfe  raigioa  is  fctkhisPi,  ai^i  of  p  ------      c  .^  rniles  W.  by 

huBma  sacxifices  'wore  fonueily  mnne^  X.  .:;:!r~    cairn  was 

oos.     Tliere  is  a  eonsidci^bte  trade  in  ene.:._   .  .       .  .  l::r' 

^fa  FdHtBTT,  1897,  the  Benin  coantry        BE2n:OM0XD  a  ir  dand. 

was   indnded   wiUiin   the   Niger    C  ;  vL^S 

Protectonte,  and  a  British  Sesidert  >  1^2  r^ 

installed  in  tte  chief  town.     It  e 

indnded  in  tte  Coloiiy  and  Pro:' 
of  Nigeria. 

BSHnr,  BIGHT  or.  part  rf  -.z:  :  -    _  3z:  ::zrr        z;rocH^     abxold. 
of  Guinea,  w^est  Africa,  whid 
into  the  land  betweoi  the  moatr 
rirer  Ydta  and  tiiat  of  tiie  Nun. 

BEHI  SITEF,  a  town  of  ^7P^ :  ^ 

kft  bank  <^  the  Nile,  aboot  65  : 
of  Caink  It  has  tiiie  readoice 
gmeinor,   and  manofactares   of.  st-r 

lin^  and  carpels.     Pvp^  about   *2?  -^ 

The  profTince  cf  Bern  Saef,  of  ^^ 
is  the  c^Htal,  has  a  populatifm  : 
400^000. 

SSH7AMIJI,    the    youngest     £:r. 
Jacob  and  Badiel   (Gen.  xrxr:    Id-iS).    _; 
Sadid  died  inmediateh-   sfrpr   he   — ?    '^ 
bom,  and  with  her  Is  5' 
him  BcsB-oBi,  the  ""soc 
but  Jacob  called  him  £ 
■qrn^hand."    The  tT 
aanaH  at  first,  was 

in  the  days  cf  the -~  "  -     ." 

it  greatiy  merease^  ^      ^    _ 

tiie  ten  tribes.  Bc£. 
txmp  of  Jndah;  ar 
aft^ward  dosdy  i: 
Saul  of  TarsiE  wcr  r 

BZZTJAJCEF.     JTTDAIEi     ?! 

AnjcrLcan  lawy?  -    -  —    -   ;  - 

Ircies,  Aiig^.   11 

p&r«iua^  ar-c  .__.;. 

educated   at   Y  .  iioi- 

ibe  "rax  iz.   Xf-  :r''en 

el€sr^cd  to  the   Um  r 


1,  1795u 


t^M** 


BENNETT 


487 


BENSON 


the  first  number  of  the  New  York  "Her- 
ald," May  6,  1835,  price  one  cent.  He 
spared  no  effort  and  expense  in  securing 
news,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  its  after 
success.  It  was  the  first  newspaper  to 
publish  the  stock  lists  and  a  daily  money 
article.  He  died  in  New  York,  June  1, 
1872. 

BENNETT,  JAMES  GORDON,  an 
American  journalist,  born  in  New  York 
City,  May  10,  1841;  son  of  James  Gordon 
Bennett,  founder  of  the  New  York  "Her- 
ald," of  which  he  became  managing  edi- 
tor in  1866,  and  from  that  time  largely 
controlling,  and  becoming  proprietor  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1872.  In  1870 
he  sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  on  the  explor- 
ing expedition  which  resulted  in  the  find- 
ing of  Dr.  Livingstone,  and,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  London  "Daily  Telegraph," 
supplied  the  means  for  his  journey  across 
Africa  by  way  of  the  Kongo  in  1874- 
1878.  He  organized  a  system  of  storm 
prognostications  of  value  to  shipping 
masters;  fitted  out  the  "Jeannette"  Polar 
expedition;  and,  in  1883,  was  associated 
with  John  W.  Mackay  in  organizing  the 
new  Commercial  Cable  Company.  He 
founded  the  "Evening  Telegram"  in  New 
York,  and  established  daily  editions  of 
the  "Herald"  in  Paris  and  London.  He 
early  gave  much  attention  to  yachting. 
He  resided  mainly  in  Paris  until  his 
death,  May  14,  1918.  By  the  terms  of  his 
will  Mr.  Bennett  left  the  bulk  of  his  for- 
tune to  found  and  endow  a  home  for 
journalists. 

BENNETT,  RICHARD,  an  American 
actor  and  manager,  born  in  Bennett's 
Mill,  Ind.,  in  1872.  He  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  and  at  the  Logansport 
Normal  School.  After  several  years 
spent  on  the  stage  as  an  actor,  he  pro- 
duced and  appeared  in  Brieux's  play, 
"Damaged  Goods."  He  also  produced 
several  other  plays  of  Brieux  and  other 
French  playwrights  in  the  United  States. 
He  was  from  1896  to  1908  associated  with 
Charles  Prohman  in  the  production  of 
plays.  He  was  chairman  of  the  executive 
board  of  the  National  Society  of  Sociol- 
ogy. 

BEN  NEVIS,  the  most  lofty  mountain 
in  Great  Britain,  in  Invernessshire,  im- 
mediately E.  of  Fort  William  and  the 
opening  of  the  Caledonian  canal,  at  the 
S.  W.  extermity  of  Glenmore.  It  rises 
to  the  height  of  4,406  feet,  and  in  clear 
weather  yields  a  most  extensive  prospect. 
An  observatory  was  established  on  its 
summit  in  May,  1881,  by  the  Scottish 
Meteorological  Society. 

BENNINGTON,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Bennington  co.^  Vt.;  on  the  New 


York  Central  railroad;  36  miles  E.  of 
Troy,  N.  Y.  It  contains  the  villages  of 
Bennington,  North  Bennington  and  Ben- 
nington Center;  and  has  large  woolen 
and  knit  goods  factories;  a  Soldiers' 
Home,  a  Memorial  Battle  monument,  ded- 
icated on  the  centennial  of  the  admission 
of  the  State  into  the  Union,  March  4, 
1891,  two  National  banks,  and  graded 
public  schools.  There  are  valuable  de- 
posits of  brown  hematite  ore  in  the 
town.  Bennington  is  historically  famous 
on  account  of  the  battle  fought  Aug.  16, 
1777,  when  General  Stark  with  his 
"Green  Mountain  Boys"  defeated  a  large 
British  detachment  sent  from  General 
Burgoyne's  army  to  capture  the  public 
stores  near  North  Bennington.  Pop. 
(1910)    6,211;    (1920)    9,982. 

BEN  NUT,  the  seed  of  moringa  ptery- 
gosperma,  the  ben  tree  of  India,  yielding 
the  valuable  oil  of  ben. 

BENSON,  ARTHUR  CHRISTOPHER, 

an  English  essayist  and  educator,  born 
in  1862,  the  brother  of  E.  F.  and  R.  H. 
Benson,  and  the  son  of  Edward  White 
Benson^  former  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. He  was  educated  at  King's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  from  1885  to  1903 
was  a  master  at  Eton  College  and  became 
well  known  as  a  writer  of  essays.  The 
best  known  of  these  are  "The  Upton  Let- 
ters" (1905)  ;  "From  a  College  Window" 
(1906);  and  "The  Silent  Isle"  (1919). 
He  also  wrote  poetry  of  considerable 
merit  and  several  novels.  In  addition 
to  these  he  prepared  a  biography  of  his 
father.  Archbishop  Benson,  in  1889,  and 
a  biography  of  Ruskin  in  1911. 

BENSON.  EDWARD  FREDERIC,  an 

English  author,  born  in  Wellington  Col- 
lege, July  24,  1867;  educated  at  King's 
College,  Cambridge;  worked  at  Athens 
for  the  British  Archaeological  School  in 
1892-1895,  and  in  Egypt,  for  the  Hellenic 
Society,  in  1895;  traveled  in  Algiers, 
Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  writings 
include  "Dodo"'  (1893);  "Rubicon" 
(1894);  "Judgment  Books"  (1895); 
"Limitations"  (1896);  "The  Babe" 
(1897);  "Vintage"  (1898);  "The  Cap- 
sina"  (1899) ;  "Angel  of  Pain"  (1906) ; 
"Dodo  the  Second"  (1914);  "The 
Tortoise"   (1917);  etc. 

BENSON.  EDWARD  WHITE,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  born  near  Birming- 
ham in  1829;  graduated  at  Cambridge 
in  1852,  and  was  for  some  time  a  master 
at  Rugby.  He  held  the  headmastership 
of  Wellington  College  from  its  opening 
in  1858  to  1872,  when  he  was  made  a 
Canon  and  Chancellor  of  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral.    In  1875  he  was  appointed  Chap- 


BENSON 


488 


BENTLEY 


lain  in  Ordinary  to  the  Queen,  and,  in 
December,  1876,  was  nominated  to  the 
neW'ly  erected  Bishopric  of  Truro.  Here 
he  began  the  building  of  a  cathedral 
(1880-1887),  most  of  the  first  cost,  £110,- 
000,  having  been  gathered  by  his  own 
energy.  In  1882  he  was  ti'anslated  to 
Canterbury  to  succeed  Dr.  Tait  as  Pri- 
mate of  all  England.  He  published  sev- 
eral volumes  of  sermons,  a  small  work 
on  "Cathedrals,"  and  a  valuable  article 
on  "St.  Cyprian."  He  died  at  Hawarden, 
Oct.  11,  1896. 

BENSON,  FRANK  WESTON,  an 
American  painter,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
March  24,  1862;  was  educated  at  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  and  in 
Paris;  became  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  American  Artists  in  1888,  and  of  the 
National  Acedemy.  He  won  the  Hall- 
garten  and  the  Clarke  prizes  at  the 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  1889 
and  1891,  and  is  best  knoAvn  for  his 
portraits. 

BENSON,  ROBERT  HUGH,  an  Eng- 
lish prelate  and  writer,  born  in  1871, 
brother  of  A.  C.  and  E.  F.  Benson.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College.  He  be- 
came associated  with  Dean  Vaughan  and 
other  Roman  Catholic  clerics,  and  in 
1903  was  received  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  the 
following  year.  In  1911  he  was  appointed 
private  chamberlain  to  Pope  Pius  X.  He 
wrote  much  on  religious  subjects  and 
published  several  novels.  The  best  known 
of  the  latter  are  "The  Coward";  "Come 
Rack!  Come  Rope!";  "An  Average  Man" 
(1913).     He  died  in  1914. 

BENSON,  WILLIAM  SHEPHERD, 
an  American  naval  officer,  born  in  Macon, 
Ga.,  Sent.  25,  1855.  He  graduated  at  the 
Annapolis  Naval  Academy  in  1877.  He 
rose  through  various  grades  of  the  serv- 
ice until  he  became  captain  in  1909.  He 
was  made  rear-admiral.  May  11,  1915. 
In  1916  he  became  admiral  and  in  1917 
was  made  President  of  the  Navy  General 
Board.  In  this  capacity  he  co-operated 
closely  with  Secretary  Daniels  before  and 
during  the  World  War.  In  1920  he  be- 
came prominent  as  one  of  the  principals 
in  a  sensational  episode.  Vice-Admiral 
Sims,  who  had  been  in  command  of  the 
American  fleet  in  Atlantic  waters  abroad 
during  the  war,  testified  before  a  naval 
inquiry  committee  in  Washington  that 
prior  to  his  departure  to  take  command 
he  had  been  warned  by  a  high  navy  offi- 
cial :  "Don't  let  the  British  pull  the  wool 
over  your  eyes.  We  would  as  leave  fight 
them  as  the  Germans."  The  disclosure 
made  a  painful  impression,  both  in 
America  and  abroad.    It  was  felt  certain 


that  the  high  official  mentioned  must  be 
either  Secretary  Daniels  or  Admiral  Ben- 
son, the  only  two  who  were  qualified  by 
rank  to  give  orders  to  Sims.  Secretary 
Daniels  came  out  promptly  in  a  sweeping 
denial  that  he  had  ever  used  such  lan- 
guage or  given  such  instructions.  Sims 
later  stated  that  Benson  was  the  official 
that  he  referred  to,  and  the  latter  him- 
self, although  denying  all  recollection  of 
having  used  such  words,  admitted  that 
he  had  cautioned  Sims  against  letting 
himself  be  too  much  swayed  by  British 
influences. 

BENTHAM,  JEREMY,  an  English 
jurist,  born  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1748; 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford; 
entered  Lincoln's  Inn,  in  1763.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not  practice, 
and,  having  private  means,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  reform  of  civil  and  criminal 
legislation.  A  criticism  on  a  passage  in 
Blackstone's  "Commentaries,"  published 
under  the  title,  "A  Fragment  on  Govern- 
ment" (1776),  brought  him  into  notice. 
His  most  important  works  are:  "The 
Hard  Labor  Bill"  (1778)  ;  "Principles  of 
Morals  and  Legislation"  (1780)  ;  "A  De- 
fense of  Usury"  (1787)  ;  "Introduction  to 
the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation" 
(1789);  "Discourses  on  Civil  and  Penal 
Legislation"  (1802)  ;  "Treatise  on  Judi- 
cial Evidence"  (1813)  ;  "Paper  Relative 
to  Codification  and  Public  Instruction" 
(1817);  and  the  "Book  of  Fallacies" 
(1824).  His  mind,  though  at  once  subtle 
and  comprehensive,  was  characterized  by 
something  lacking  in  method  and  sense 
of  proportion;  and  he  is  therefore  seen 
at  his  best  in  works  revised  by  his  dis- 
ciples. In  England,  James  Mill,  Romilly, 
John  Stuart  Mill,  Burton,  and  others  of 
independent  genius,  have  been  among  his 
exponents.  In  ethics  he  must  be  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  modern  utilitarianism; 
in  polity  and  criminal  law  he  anticipated 
or  suggested  many  practical  reforms; 
and  his  whole  influence  was  stimulating 
and  humanizing.  He  died  in  London, 
June  6,  1832,  leaving  his  body  for  dissec- 
tion. 

BENTLEY,  RICHARD,  an  English 
critic,  born  in  Oulton,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  27, 
1662.  He  is  pronounced  by  some  authori- 
ties the  best  classical  scholar  England 
has  produced.  His  writings  are  "Latin 
Epistle  to  John  Mill,  Containing  Critical 
Observations  on  the  Chronicle  of  Joannes 
Malala"  (1691) ;  the  very  celebrated 
"Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Pha- 
laris"  (1697);  and  editions  of  Horace 
and  Terence,  besides  commentaries  on 
the  classics,  all  of  great  value.  He  died 
in  July,  1742. 


BENTON 


489 


BENZOIN 


BENTON,  a  city  of  Illinois,  the  county- 
seat  of  Franklin  co.  It  is  on  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain 
and  Southern,  and  the  Chicago  and  East- 
ern Illinois  railroads.  There  are  impor- 
tant industries,  including  the  manufac- 
ture of  stoves.  There  are  also  extensive 
coal  mines  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop. 
(1910)   2,675;    (1920)    7,201. 

BENTON,  GUY  POTTER,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Kenton,  0.,  in 
1865.  He  graduated  from  Baker  Uni- 
versity and  took  post-graduate  courses 
at  the  University  of  Wooster  and  in  Ber- 
lin. From  1890  to  1895  he  viras  super- 
intendent of  schools  at  Fort  Scott,  Kan., 
and  in  1895-1896  he  was  assistant  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
Kansas.  He  served  as  professor  of  his- 
tory and  sociology  at  Baker  University 
from  1896  to  1899.  From  the  latter  year 
to  1902  he  was  president  of  the  Upper 
Iowa  University.  In  1902  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  Miami  University, 
serving  until  1911,  when  he  became  pres- 
ident of  the  University  of  Vermont.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Kansas  State  Board 
of  Education,  president  of  the  South- 
eastern Kansas  Teachers'  Association, 
and  a  member  and  officer  of  several  other 
educational  societies.  From  1910  he  was 
secretary  of  the  National  Association  of 
State  Universities.  During  the  World 
War  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  in  the  city  of  Paris.  He  wrote 
"The  Real  College"  (1909). 

BENTON,  THOMAS  HART,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  near  Hillsboro, 
N.  C,  March  14,  1782;  settled  in  Ten- 
nessee, where  he  studied  law,  and  was 
elected  to  the  L#egislature.  In  1812  he 
raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers,  and 
also  served  on  General  Jackson's  staff. 
On  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  State, 
he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator  in 
1820,  and  served  30  years.  A  determined 
opponent  of  Calhoun's  nullification 
scheme,  he  afterward  supported  Jackson 
in  his  war  on  the  United  States  bank, 
and  earned  the  sobriquet  of  "Old  Bullion" 
by  his  opposition  to  the  paper  currency. 
He  published  "A  Thirty  Years'  View,  or 
a  History  of  the  Working  of  the  Ameri- 
can Government  from  1820  to  1850"  (2 
vols.,  1854-1856)  and  "An  Abridgment 
of  the  Debates  of  Congress  from  1789  to 
1856"  (15  vols.,  1857).  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, April  10,  1858. 

BENTON  HARBOR,  a  city  of  Michi- 
gan, in  Berrien  co.  It  is  on  the  St.  Joseph 
river,  and  on  the  Pere  Marquette,  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St. 
Louis,  and  the  Michigan  Central  rail- 
roads.    It  is  connected  with  Lake  Michi- 


gan by  a  ship  canal,  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  is  connected  by  steamboat  lines 
with  Chicago  and  Milwaukee.  There  are 
important  manufactures  of  furniture, 
flour,,  lumber,  etc.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  medicinal  springs  which  have  made 
the  city  an  important  summer  resort. 
Pop.  (1910)  9,185;  (1920)  12,233. 

BENZENE,  an  aromatic  hydrocarbon, 
also  called  benzol,  or  phenyl  hydride,  dis- 
covered in  1825  by  Faraday  in  the  liquid 
condensed  during  the  compression  of  oil 
gas.  In  1849,,  it  was  found  in  coal  tar 
by  C.  B.  Mansfield,  who  lost  his  life  while 
experimenting  with  it  on  Feb.  25,  1855. 
Aniline  is  produced  from  it,  which  again 
is  the  source  of  the  celebrated  modern 
dyes.  It  is  obtained  from  the  more  vol- 
atile portion  of  coal  tar  oil.  It  is  also 
formed  by  distilling  benzoic  acid  with 
lime.  Benzene  is  a  thin,  colorless,  strong- 
ly refracting  liquid;  it  boils  at  82°.  It 
dissolves  fats,  resins,  iodine,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus;  sp.  gr.,  0.885. 

BENZOATE  OF  SODA,  a  preserva- 
tive used  in  the  manufacture  of  food 
products.  The  use  of  it  in  a  quantity 
not  greater  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent, 
is  permitted  by  the  Federal  Government, 
but  its  use  among  packers  of  food  has 
gradually  been  abolished. 

BENZOIC  ACID,  a  vegetable  acid  ob- 
tained from  benzoin  and  other  resins  and 
balsams,  as  those  of  Peru  and  Tolu.  It 
forms  light  feathery  needles;  taste  pun- 
gent and  bitterish;  odor,  slightly  aro' 
matic.  The  salts  of  benzoic  acid  are 
known  as  benzoates. 

BENZOIC  ETHER,  a  colorless,  oily 
liquid,  with  a  feeble  aromatic  smell  and 
a  pungent  aromatic  taste,  obtained  by 
distilling  together  four  parts  alcohol, 
two  of  crystallized  benzoic  acid,  and  one 
of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid. 

BENZOIN,  BENZOINE,  BELZOIN, 
BENZOIL,  or  BENJAMIN,  in  botany 
and  commerce,  as  benjamin,  a  kind  of 
resin,  obtained  from  a  tree,  the  styrax 
benzoin,  which  belongs  to  the  order 
ebenacese  (ebenads).  It  grows  in  Su- 
matra, Borneo,  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
It  is  used  as  a  medicine  in  chronic  dis- 
eases of  the  lungs,  as  an  ingredient  in 
perfumery,  and  in  the  incense  of  Roman 
Catholic  and   Ritualist  churches. 

In  botany,  as  benzoin,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  order  lauracese  (lau- 
rels). The  species  are  found  in  North 
America  and  in  Nepaul.  The  berries  of 
benzoin  odoriferum  yield  an  aromatic 
stimulant  oil. 

In  chemistry  (CmH.^Oj)  a  polymeric 
modification  of  benzoic  aldehyde,  which 


BEOWULF 


490 


SEKBEBS 


remains  in  the  retort  when  the  crude  oil 
is  distilled  with  lime  or  iron  oxide  to 
free  it  from  hydrocyanic  acid. 

BEOWXJXF  (ba'o-wolf),  an  Anglo 
Saxon  epic,  the  only  manuscript  of  which 
belongs  to  the  8th  or  9th  century,  and  is 
in  the  Cottonian  Library  (British  Mu- 
seum). From  internal  evidence  it  is 
concluded  that  the  poem  in  its  essentials 
existed  prior  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  coloni- 
zation of  Britain.  It  recounts  the  ad- 
ventures of  the  hero  Beowulf,  especially 
his  delivery  of  the  Danish  kingdom  from 
the  monster  Grendel  and  his  equally  for- 
midable mother,  and,  lastly,  the  slaugh- 
ter by  Beowulf  of  a  fiery  dragon,  and  his 
death  from  wounds  received  in  the  con- 
flict. 

BERANGEB,  PIERRE  JEAN  DE 
(ba-ron-zha'),  a  French  poet,  born  in 
Paris,  Aug.  19,  1780.  His  father  took 
him  to  Paris  in  1802;  but  they  soon  quar- 
relled and  he  began  life  in  that  garret 
which  became  famous.  In  1804  Lucien 
Bonaparte  helped  him  out  with  a  clerk- 
ship in  the  University.  Meanwhile  he 
had  composed  many  convivial  and  polit- 
ical songs,  but  never  wrote  them  down 
until  1812.  When  his  poems  were  pub- 
lished, in  1815,  he  was  recognized  as  the 
champion  of  the  faction  opposed  to  the 
Bourbons.  His  popularity  with  the  work- 
ing classes  was  immense,  and  he  made 
the  song  a  powerful  political  weapon. 
His  republicanism  and  enthusiasm  for 
Napoleon  suited  the  multitude.  Two 
volumes  published  in  1821  led  to  his  im- 
prisonment; and  another  in  1825  caused 
a  second  incarceration.  "New  Songs," 
appeared  in  1830,  and  his  "Autobiog- 
raphy" in  1840.  In  1848  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament,  but  begged  to  be  released. 
His  songs  are  full  of  wit,  light-hearted- 
ness,  and  musical  grace.  Among  the  best 
are  the  "King  of  Yvetot,"  "The  Old 
Flag,"  "The  Old  Corporal,"  "Roger  Bon- 
temps,"  "My  Grandmother,"  "Little  Red 
Man,"  "Little  Gray  Man,"  and  "The  Mar- 
quis of  Carabas."  He  died  in  Paris,  July 
16,  1857. 

BERAR,  otherwise  known  as  the 
Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts,  a  prov- 
ince of  India,  in  the  Deccan,  under  the 
British  Resident  at  Hyderabad;  area, 
17,718  square  miles,  consisting  chiefly  of 
an  elevated  valley  at  the  head  of  a  chain 
of  ghauts.  It  is  watered  by  several 
affluents  of  the  Godavari,  and  by  the 
Tapti,  and  has  a  fertile  soil,  producing 
some  of  the  best  cotton,  millet,  and  wheat 
crops  in  India.  The  two  principal  towns 
of  Berar  are  Amraoti  and  Khamgaon. 
Pop.  about  3,250,.000.  Coal  and  iron  ore 
are  both  found  in  the  province.     Berar 


was  assigned  by  the  Nizam  to  the  Brit- 
ish Government  in  1853,  as  security  for 
arrears  due.  In  1902  the  province  was 
leased  to  Great  Britain  in  perpetuity  and 
attached  to  the  Central  Provinces  admin- 
istration. 

BERAT,  a  town  of  Albania;  on  the 
Ergent  river,  here  bridged;  30  miles  N. 
E.  of  Valona.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop,  and  has  a  cathedral  and  a 
number  of  mosques,  and  several  Greek 
churches.     Pop.  15,000. 

BERBER,  a  town  of  Nubia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  below  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Atbara.  It  is  a  station 
on  the  route  from  Khartum  to  Cairo. 
Since  the  railway  was  opened  in  1906, 
taking  the  place  of  the  caravan  route, 
the  traffic  to  the  Red  Sea  has  been  di- 
verted.     Pop.    about    10,000. 

BERBERA,  a  seaport  of  British 
Somaliland,  eastern  Africa,  with  a  good 
harbor,  on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 
It  was  conquered  by  Egypt  in  1875,  but 
in  July,  1884,  the  British  Government 
took  possession  of  it,  and  a  small  Indian 
force  is  now  stationed  here.  It  is  the 
scene  of  a  large  annual  fair,  which 
brings  over  30,000  people  together  from 
all  quarters  in  the  East.  Coffee,  grains, 
ghee,  gold  dust,  ivory,  gums,  cattle, 
ostrich  feathers,  etc.,  are  brought  hither 
from  the  interior,  and  exchanged  for 
cotton,  rice,  iron,  Indian  piece  goods,  etc. 

BERBERS,  a  people  spread  over  nearly 
the  whole  of  northern  Africa  west  of 
Egypt,  from  whom  the  name  Barbary  is 
derived.  The  chief  branches  into  which 
the  Berbers  are  divided  are,  first,  the 
Amazirgh,  or  Amazigh,  ol  northern  Mo- 
rocco, numbering  from  2,000,000  to  2,- 
500,000.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
quite  independent  of  the  Sultan  of  Mo- 
rocco, and  live  partly  under  chieftains 
and  hereditary  princes  and  partly  in 
small  republican  communities.  Second, 
the  Shulluh,  Shillooh,  or  Shellakah,  v/ho 
number  about  1,450,000,  and  inhabit 
southern  Morocco.  They  are  more  highly 
civilized  than  the  Amazirgh.  Third,  the 
Kabyles  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  who  are 
said  to  number  1,000,000;  and  fourth, 
the  Berbers  of  the  Sahara,  who  inhabit 
the  oases.  Among  the  Sahara  Berbers 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  Beni-Mzab 
and  the  Tuaregs.  To  these  might  be  added 
the  Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands,  now 
extinct,  but  undoubtedly  of  the  same  race. 
The  Berbers  generally  are  about  the  mid- 
dle height;  their  complexion  is  brown, 
and  sometimes  almost  black,  with  brown 
and  glossy  hair.  They  are  sparely  built- 
but  robust  and  graceful;  the  features  ap- 
proach the  European  type.     Their  Ian- 


BEBBICE 


491 


BEBENGABIUS 


gxiage  has  affinities  to  the  Semitic  group, 
but  Arabic  is  spoken  along  the  coast. 
They  are  believed  to  represent  the  an- 
cient Mauritanians,  Numidians,  Gaetu- 
lians,  etc.  The  Berbers  live  in  huts  or 
houses,  and  practice  various  industries. 
Thus  they  smelt  iron,  copper,  and  lead; 
manufacture  gun  barrels,  implements  of 
husbandry,  etc.,  knives,  swords,  gun- 
powder, and  a  species  of  black  soap.  Some 
of  the  tribes  breed  mules,  asses,  and 
stock  in  considerable  numbers,  others 
practice  agriculture. 

BERBICE,  a  river  of  British  Guiana; 
flows  generally  N.  E.  into  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  165 
miles  from  its  mouth,  but  beyond  that 
the  rapids  are  numerous  and  dangerous. 

BERCHTOLD,  LEOPOLD  ANTHONY 
JOHANN  SIGMUND,  COUNT  VON, 
Austro-Hungarian  statesman  upon  whose 


COUNT   LEOPOLD   VON   BERCHTOLD 

shoulders  lies  the  responsibility  of  hav- 
ing signed  the  note  that  brought  on 
the  World  War.  He  was  born  April  18, 
1863.  At  the  outset  of  his  public  careeer 
he  was  secretary  in  the  Foreign  Office  at 
Vienna,  and  rose  by  gradual  stages  in 
the  diplomatic  service  until  he  was  ap- 
pointed Ambassador  to  Russia  in  1906. 
Feb.  19,  1912,  he  became  Foreign  Min- 
ister of  Austria-Hungary,  succeeding 
Count  Aehrenthal.  Count  Berchtold  was 
a  man  of  personal  probity  and  agreeable 
personality.  He  lacked  stamina  to  carry 
out  his  intended  policies,  and   soon  be- 


came the  plastic  agent  of  stronger  men 
in  one  of  the  most  intriguing  courts  of 
Europe.  It  is  alleged  that  he  instigated 
Bulgaria  to  attack  Serbia  after  the  first 
Balkan  War  had  come  to  a  close,  the  dual 
monarchy  having  viewed  with  intense 
disfavor  the  growth  of  Serbia's  strength. 
This  plan  having  failed  of  its  desired  re- 
sult, Berchtold  made  overtures  to  Italy 
for  an  attack  on  Serbia,  but  these  were 
declined.  This  check  deferred  the  war 
against  Serbia,  which,  however,  was  kept 
always  in  mind  v/hile  awaiting  a  favor- 
able pretext  for  its  declaration.  The  op- 
portunity came  in  June,  1914,  when  the 
assassination  of  Archduke  Franz  Ferdi- 
nand, the  heir  to  the  Austrian  throne, 
and  his  wife  at  Sarajevo  furnished  a 
colorable  reason  for  holding  Serbia  re- 
sponsible. A  note  was  promptly  de- 
spatched to  Serbia,  signed  if  not  drafted 
by  Berchtold,  couched  in  the  most  offen- 
sive language  and  making  demands  that 
were  incompatible  with  the  sovereignty 
of  any  self-respecting  state.  Serbia  made 
a  conciliatory  reply,  offering  to  accept  all 
the  terms  except  those  that  were  mani- 
festly impossible  without  abdication  of 
her  sovereign  power.  No  answer,  how- 
ever, would  have  been  acceptable,  for 
war  had  already  been  decided  upon  and 
was  declared  almost  immediately  after 
the  receipt  of  Serbia's  answer.  In 
the  early  months  of  the  war,  Berchtold 
remained  at  the  head  of  the  Foreign  Of- 
fice, but  resigned  January,  1915,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Baron  Burian.  He  became 
Chamberlain  of  the  Imperial  Court  in 
February,  1917.     See  World  War. 

BERDITCHEF,  a  town  of  Ukrainia, 
108  miles  W.  S.  W  of  Kiev  by  rail,  fa- 
mous for  its  five  annual  fairs.  At  these, 
cattle,  corn,  wine,  honey,  leather,  etc.,  are 
disposed  of.     Pop.  about  100,000. 

BEREA  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
(non-sectarian)  institution,  in  Berea, 
Ky.;  organized  in  1858;  reported  at  the 
end  of  1919:  Professors  and  instructors, 
81;  students,  1,794;  volumes  in  library, 
35,000;  productive  funds,  $1,345,588;  in- 
come, $58,492;  graduates,  1.479;  presi- 
dent, William  G.  Frost,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

BERENGARIUS.  OF  TOURS,  a  theo- 
logian of  the  11th  century.  He  was  born 
at  Tours  in  998,  and  was  afterward  arch- 
deacon of  Angers.  He  was  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  philosophy  of  his  age,  and 
did  not  hesitate  to  apply  reason  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Bible.  He  denied 
the  dogma  of  transubstantiation,  and 
no  less  than  seven  councils  were  held 
respecting  him,  at  three  of  which 
he  was  fondemned,  and  at  four  he  was 
prevailed  on  to  make  retractions.  He 
died  in  1088. 


BERETTSOTT 


492 


BEBGEB 


BERENSON,  BERNHARD,  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Wilna,  Russia,  in 
1865.  He  graduated  from  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1887,  and  has  since  then  lived 
near  Florence,  Italy.  He  was  one  of  the 
best  known  authorities  in  art  criticism. 
Among  his  writings  are:  "Venetian 
Painters  of  the  Renaissance"  (1894)  ; 
"The  Study  and  Criticism  of  Italian  Art" 
(1902,  1915)  ;  "The  Drawings  of  the 
Florentine  Painters"  (1903)  ;  "The  Fif- 
teenth Century"  (1916) ;  "Essays  on 
Sienese  Paintings"  (1918).  He  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  art  magazines  in 
the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 

BERESFORD,  LORD  CHARLES  DE 
LA  POER,  an  English  naval  officer,  born 
in  Ireland,  Feb.  10,  1846;  became  a  Cadet 
in  1857;  Lieutenant,  1868;  Captain, 
1882;  and  Rear- Admiral,  1897.  In  1882 
he  commanded  the  "Condor"  in  the  bom- 
bardment of  Alexandria,  and  was  espe- 
cially mentioned  and  honored  for  his  gal- 
lantry. In  1884-1885  he  served  on  Lord 
Wolseley's  staff  in  the  Nile  Expedition; 
and  subsequently  commanded  the  naval 
brigade  in  the  battles  of  Abu  Klea,  Abu 
Kru,  and  Metemmeh.  He  commanded  the 
expedition  which  rescued  Sir  Charles 
Wilson's  party  and  was  commended  for 
his  gallantry  in  both  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment. In  1893-1896,  he  was  in  command 
of  the  naval  reserve  at  Chatham,  and  in 
December,  1899,  was  appointed  the  sec- 
ond in  command  of  the  British  squadron 
mobilized  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Lord 
Beresford  accompanied  the  Prince  of 
Wales  on  his  visit  to  India  in  1875-1876, 
as  naval  aide-de-camp,  and  held  the  same 
relation  to  the  Queen  in  1896-1897.  He 
served  several  terms  in  Parliament, 
where  he  acquired  a  reputation  as  an 
outspoken  critic,  especially  of  naval  af- 
fairs. Besides  the  numerous  honors  for 
gallantry  as  an  officer  he  received  three 
medals  for  saving  life  at  sea  under  try- 
ing circumstances.  In  1898  he  visited 
China  at  the  request  of  the  Associated 
Chambers  of  Commerce  of  Great  Britain; 
and  on  his  return,  in  1899,  he  passed 
through  the  United  States,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  distinguished  honors.  He 
was  commander  Mediterranean  squadron 
(1905-1907),  and  of  the  Channel  Fleet 
(1907-1909).  His  publications  include 
"Life  of  Nelson  and  His  Times";  "The 
Break  Up  of  China"  (1899)  ;  "Memoirs" 
(1914).  He  also  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  magazines.  He  died  in  1920. 

BERESINA,  or  BEREZINA,  a  river 
of  European  Russia;  rises  in  the  district 
of  Dissna,  government  of  Minsk,  which 
it  traverses  from  N.  to  S.;  after  receiv- 
ing various  affluents,  and  being  joined  by 
a  canal  with  the  Don,  it  falls  into  the 


Dnieper,  near  Ritchitza,  after  a  course 
of  200  miles.  This  river  has  been  ren- 
dered famous  on  account  of  its  disastrous 
passage  by  the  French  army  during  the  re- 
treat of  Napoleon  I.  from  Russia  in  1812. 

BERGAMO,  a  town  of  north  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bergamo 
(1,076  square  miles,  about  550,000  in- 
habitants), consists  of  two  parts,  the  old 
town,  situated  on  hills,  and  the  new  town, 
almost  detached  and  on  the  plain.  It  has 
a  cathedral,  an  interesting  church  of  the 
12th  century,  a  school  of  art,  picture  gal- 
lery, etc.  It  trades  largely  in  silk,  silk 
goods,  corn,  etc.,  has  the  largest  annual 
fair  in  north  Italy,  and  extensive  manu- 
factures.   Pop.  about  60,000. 

BERGAMOT,  a  fruit  tree,  a  variety 
of  species  of  the  genus  cit7-us. 

BERGEN,  a  seaport  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Norway,  the  second  town  of  the  king- 
dom, about  25  miles  from  the  open  sea, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Byfiord,  which  forms  a 
safe  harbor.  The  town  is  well  built, 
with  cathedral,  museum,  etc.  The  trade 
is  large,  timber,  tar,  train  oil,  cod  liver 
oil,  hides,  and  particularly  dried  fish 
(stock  fish)  being  exported  in  return 
for  corn,  wine,  brandy,  coffee,  cotton, 
woolens  and  sugar.  It  is  the  second 
largest  port  of  Norway,  its  imports  and 
exports  in  1917  totalling  almost  400,- 
000,000  kroner.  In  1445  a  factory  was 
established  here  by  the  Hanseatic  cities 
of  Germany.    Pop.  about  90,000. 

BERGER,  VICTOR  L.,  an  American 
socialist  and  editor,  born  at  Nieder-Reb- 
buch,  Austria,  in  1860.  He  was  educated 
in  the  schools  and  universities  of  Aus- 
tria, but  early  in  life  removed  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  was  employed 
at  various  trades.  He  later  became  a 
teacher  in  public  schools,  at  the  same 
time  studying  and  lecturing  on  socialism. 
In  1892  to  1902  he  was  the  editor  of  the 
Milwaukee  "Daily  Vorwarts,"  a  Socialist 
newspaper.  After  acting  as  editor  on 
several  other  Socialist  papers,  he  became 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Milwaukee  "Lead- 
er," a  Socialist  daily.  In  1896  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  People's  Party  Con- 
vention at  St.  Louis  and  endeavored 
to  organize  the  support  of  Eugene  V. 
Debs  at  that  convention.  He  was  a 
leader  in  the  organization  of  the  Social 
Democrat  and  the  Socialist  Democrat 
party  of  America  and  was  a  member 
of  the  executive  board  from  its  be- 
ginning. In  1904  he  was  Socialist 
Democratic  candidate  for  mayor  of  Mil- 
waukee and  was  also  candidate  for  Con- 
gress in  the  same  year.  He  was  elected 
alderman  of  Milwaukee  in  1910.  In  1911 
he  was  elected  to  the  62d  Congress,  the 


BEBGERAC 


493 


BERIBEBI 


first  Socialist  to  be  elected  a  represent- 
ative. He  was  re-elected  to  successive 
Congresses,  including  the  66th.  He  had 
in  the  meantime,  however,  been  indicted, 
tried,  and  found  guilty  of  sedition  and 
disloyalty  under  the  Espionage  Act,  in 
January,  1919.  In  February  of  the 
same  year  he  was  sentenced  to  twenty 
years   in   the    Federal    Prison.      He   ap- 

gealed,  however,  and  was  released  on 
ail.  By  a  vote  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives he  was  denied  his  seat.  In 
spite  of  attempts  to  defeat  him  by  a  co- 
alition of  Democrats  and  Republicans,  he 
was  again  elected  representative  in  the 
special  election,  and  was  again  denied  a 
seat.   Conviction  reversed,  January,  1921. 

BERGERAC  (berzh-rac') ,  a  town  in 
the  French  department  of  Dordogne,  on 
the  Dordogne,  60  miles  E.  of  Bordeaux 
by  rail.  Most  of  its  inhabitants  are  em- 
ployed in  the  surrounding  iron  works 
and  paper  mills.  The  wines  of  the  dis- 
trict, both  white  and  red,  are  esteemed. 
During  the  wars  with  the  English,  Ber- 
gerac  was  a  fortress  and  an  entrepot  of 
trade;  but  after  siding  with  the  Calvin- 
ists,  and,  consequently,  suffering  greatly 
in  the  religious  wars,  the  place  was  dis- 
mantled by  Louis  XIII.  in  1621,  while 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
drove  many  of  its  citizens  into  exile. 
Pop.  about  17,000. 

BERGERAC,  SAVINIEN  CYRANO 
DE,  a  French  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1619,  distinguished  for  his  courage,  and 
for  the  number  of  his  duels,  more  than 
a  thousand,  most  of  them  fought  on  ac- 
count of  his  monstrously  lai'ge  nose.  He 
died  in  1655.  His  writings,  which  are 
often  crude,  but  full  of  invention,  vigor, 
and  wit,  include  a  tragedy,  "Agrippina," 
and  a  comedy,  "The  Pedant  Tricked," 
from  which  Corneille  and  Moliere  have 
freely  borrowed  ideas;  and  his  "Comical 
History  of  the  States  and  Empires  of 
the  Sun  and  the  Moon."  He  was  made 
the  hero  of  a  drama  bearing  his  name, 
written  by  Edmond  Rostand. 

BERGH,  HENRY,  an  American  hu- 
manitarian, born  in  1820,  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity and  for  a  time  served  in  the  dip- 
lomatic service  as  Secretary  of  Legation 
at  St.  Petersburg.  He  resigned  from 
the  service  on  account  of  ill  health.  He 
became  interested  in  the  treatment  of 
domestic  animals  and  succeeded  in  1866, 
in  the  face  of  great  opposition,  in  in- 
corporating the  American  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 
jpc  continued  to  agitate  for  the  passage 
of  laws  to  protect  animals  and  by  1886 
such  laws  had  been  adopted  in  39  States 
of  the  Union  and  in  other  countries.    He 


also  founded  the  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Children.  He  wrote 
many  plays  and  a  volume  of  tales  and 
sketches.     He  died  in  1888. 

BERGSON,  HENRI  LOUIS,  a  French 
philosopher,  bom  in  Paris  in  1859.  He 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
that  city,  graduating  in  1881  from  the 
Ecole  Normal.  Following  some  years  of 
teaching  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  philosophy  in  the  College  de  France. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  elected  to 
the  Institute  and  was  elected  a  member 


HENRI   LOUIS  BERGSON 

of  the  Academy  of  1914.  He  delivered 
in  1913  a  series  of  lectures  in  Columbia 
University  and  at  the  same  time  received 
the  degree  of  Litt.  D.  from  that  institu- 
tion. His  writings  became  widely  popu- 
lar and  many  of  them  wei'e  translated 
into  English.  Among  these  were  "Time 
and  Free  Will,"  "Matter  and  Memory," 
"Laughter,"  "Creative  Evolution,"  "An 
Introduction    to    Metaphysics." 

BERHAMPUR,  the  name  of  two  In- 
dian towns:  (1)  A  town  and  military 
station  in  the  N.  E.  portion  of  Madras 
presidency,  the  headquarters  of  Gan- 
jam  district,  with  a  trade  in  sugar 
and  manufactures  of  silks.  Pop.  about 
30,000.  (2)  A  municipal  town  and  the 
administrative  headquai-ters  of  Mur- 
Shidabad  district,  Bengal.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  first  overt  act  of  mutiny  in 
1857.      Pop.    about    25,000. 

BERIBERI,  BERIBERIA,  BERRI- 
BERRI,  or  BARBIERS,  an  acute  dis- 
ease    characterized     by     oppression     oi 


BEBINO 


494 


BERKELEY 


breathing,  by  general  cedema,  by  par- 
alytic weakness,  and  by  numbness  of  the 
lower  extremities.  The  percentage  of 
mortality,  which  used  to  be  very  high, 
has  been  greatly  reduced  in  recent 
years.  Although  the  exact  cause  of  the 
malady  has  not  yet  been  discovered — in 
spite  of  exhaustive  research — it  is  now 
generally  agreed  that  its  origin  is 
dietetic.  It  is  believed  that  fish  and  rice 
are  primarily  responsible  for  the  dis- 
ease. It  occurs  frequently  in  Ceylon 
among  the  colored  troops,  and  on  some 
portions  of  the  Indian  coast,  but  spas- 
modically in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

BERING,    or    BEHRING,    VITUS,    a 

Danish  explorer,  born  in  Jutland,  in 
1680.  After  making  several  voyages  to 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  he  entered  the 
service  of  Russia ;  became  a  captain-com- 
mander in  1722 ;  and  was  sent  by  the  Eni- 
press  Catharine  in  charge  of  an  expedi- 
tion, whose  object  was  to  determine 
whether  Asia  and  America  were  united. 
Crossing  Siberia  he  sailed  from  the 
river  of  Kamchatka  in  July,  1728;  and 
reached  lat.  67°  18'  N.,  having  passed 
through  the  strait  since  called  after  him, 
without  knowing  it.  Discovering  that 
land  trended  greatly  to  the  W.  he 
concluded  that  the  continents  were  not 
united,  and  returned;  without,  however, 
seeing  America.  In  another  voyage,  in 
1741,  he  touched  upon  the  American 
coast,  in  lat.  58°  21'  N.;  and  gave  name 
to  Mount  St.  Elias.  In  returning,  his 
ship  was  cast  upon  an  island,  since 
named  after  him,  an  outlier  of  the  Aleu- 
tian group,  and  here  himself  and  many 
of  his  crew  perished,  in  December,  1741. 

BERING  ISLAND,  the  larger  of  the 
two  Kommander  Islands;  115  miles  from 
the  E.  coast  of  Kamchatka,  crossed  by 
55°  10'  N. ;  contains  the  tomb  of  Bering, 
who  died  here  after  being  shipwrecked  in 
December,  1741.  It  is  an  important  re- 
sort of  seal  hunters. 

BERING  SEA,  that  part  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  between  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  in  55°,  and  Bering  Strait,  in 
66°  N.,  by  which  latter  it  communicates 
with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  has  on  its  W. 
side  Kamchatka  and  the  Chukchi  coun- 
try, with  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr,  and  on  its 
E.  the  territory  of  Alaska,  with  Norton 
Sound  and  Bristol  Bay;  contains  several 
islands  and  receives  the  Yukon  river 
from  North  America  and  the  Anadyr 
river  from  Asia.  Fogs  are  almost  per- 
petual in  this  sea.  Ice  is  formed  and 
melted  in  the  sea  every  year,  the  north- 
ern part  becoming  closed  to  navigation 
about  the  beginning  of  November.  The 
United  States  having  claimed  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  seal  fishing  in  the  Bering 


Sea  in  virtue  of  the  purchase  of  Alaska 
from  Russia,  and  this  right  having  been 
disputed  by  the  British,  it  was  decided  in 
August,  1893,  by  an  arbitration  tribunal, 
to  which  the  question  was  referred,  that 
no  such  right  existed,  but  at  the  same 
time  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the 
fur  seal  were  drawn  up  and  agreed  to 
between  the  two  powers,  the  chief  being 
the  prohibition  of  seal  fishery  within 
the  zone  of  60  miles  round  the  Pribilof 
Islands,  inclusive  of  the  territorial 
waters,  and  the  establishment  of  a  close 
season  for  the  fur  seal  from  May  1  to 
July  31  inclusive,  applying  to  the  part 
of  the  Pacific  and  Bering  Sea  N.  of  55° 
N.  and  E.  of  the  180th  meridian  from 
Greenwich. 

In  1894  laws  were  enacted  by  both  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  to  carry 
into  effect  the  award  of  the  Bering  Sea 
arbitration  of  1893,  fixing  penalties  for 
illegal  sealing,  and  authorizing,  with  cer- 
tain limitations,  the  search  and  seizure 
of  sealers  of  one  of  the  nations  by  the 
naval  and  revenue  forces  of  the  other 
nation. 

On  Jan.  14,  1898,  President  McKinley 
submitted  to  Congress  the  awards  and 
report  of  the  commission  appointed 
under  the  terms  of  a  treaty  to  adjust  the 
claims  for  compensation  due  sealers 
whose  vessels  had  been  seized  by  U.  S. 
cutters  prior  to  the  establishment  of  a 
closed  season  in  1890.  The  bill  for  the 
payment  was  introduced  in  Congress  on 
April  19,  and  was  passed  by  the  House 
on  June  13,  and  by  the  Senate  on  June 
14.  It  was  promptly  approved  by  the 
President,  and  the  money  was  paid  to 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  British  Ambas- 
sador to  the  United  States,  on  June  16. 

BERING  STRAIT,  the  channel  which 
separates  Asia  and  America  at  their 
nearest  approach  to  each  other,  and 
connects  the  Arctic  with  the  Pacific 
Ocean  (Bering  Sea).  Between  East 
Cape  (Asia),  and  Cape  Prince  of  Wales 
(America),  it  is  36  miles  wide,  and  gen- 
erally of  slight  depth.  The  shores  rocky, 
bare,  and  greatly  indented.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Bering  in  1728,  and  first  ex- 
plored by  Cook  in  1788. 

BERKELEY,  a  town  in  Alameda  co., 
Cal.;  on  the  Southern  Pacific,  and  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  rail- 
roads; 8  miles  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  University  of 
California;  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege; the  State  Institution  for  the  Deaf, 
Dumb,  and  Blind;  and  several  college 
preparatory  schools.  The  town  is  well 
equipped  with  electric  light  and  street 
railroads;  and  has  soap  works,  iron 
frmndries  and  machine  shops,  and  other 


BERKELEY  SOUND 


495 


BERLIN 


industries.     Pop.    (1910)    40,434;    (1920) 
56,036. 

BERKELEY  SOUND,  next  to  Stanley 
Sound  the  most  frequented  inlet  of  the 
East  Falkland  Island,  near  its  N.  E.  ex- 
tremity. Though  it  is  difficult  to  enter, 
it  contains  several  excellent  harbors. 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE,  Bishop  of 
Cloyne,  Ireland,  born  in  Ireland  in  1685; 
became  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, in  1707;  went  to  England  in  1713; 
traveled  on  the  Continent  in  1714,  and 
again  in  1716-1720.  In  1721  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chaplain  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  the  Duke  of  Grafton.  In  1724 
he  became  Dean  of  Derry.  He  now  pub- 
lished his  "Proposals  for  the  Conver- 
sion of  the  American  Savages  to  Chris- 
tianity by  the  Establishment  of  a  College 
in  the  Bermuda  Islands";  and  subscrip- 
tions having  been  raised  he  set  sail  for 
Rhode  Island  in  1728.  The  scheme  never 
got  a  start,  however,  and  he  returned, 
receiving  the  bishopric  of  Cloyne.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Ojcford  in  1753.  Berke- 
ley holds  an  important  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  philosophy.  His  most  celebrated 
philosophical  works  are  "Essay  Toward 
a  New  Theory  of  Vision"  (1709)  ;  "A 
Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge"  (1710),  in  which  his  philo- 
sophical theory  is  fully  set  forth ;  "Three 
Dialogues  Between  Hylas  and  Philonous" 
(1713)  ;  "Alciphron,  or  the  Minute 
Philosopher"  (1732);  and  "Siris,  Philo- 
sophical Reflections  and  Inquiries  Con- 
cerning the  Virtues  of  Tar-Water" 
(1744). 

BERKSHIRE,  county  in  England  in 
the  midland  group.  It  has  an  area  of 
722  square  miles,  of  which  about  three- 
fourths  is  under  cultivation.  The  chief 
occupation  of  the  people  is  stock  raising 
and  agriculture.  The  chief  towns  are 
Windsor,  Reading,  Maidenhead,  and 
Newbury.      Pop.   about   180,000. 

BERKSHIRES,  THE,  or  BERKSHIRE 
HILLS,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  N. 
W.  of  Massachusetts;  in  Berkshire 
county;  stretching  16  miles  N.  and  S., 
on  the  E.  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Hoosic  river.  They  are  a  favorite  sum- 
mer and   autumn   resort. 

BERLICHINGEN,  GCETZ  VON,  sur- 
named  the  "Iron  Hand,"  a  brave  and 
turbulent  German  noble,  born  at  Jaxt- 
hausen,  Wiirttemberg,  in  1480.  He  was 
almost  constantly  at  war,  was  put  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire  by  Maximilian, 
and  was  killed  during  the  siege  of  a 
fortress  in  which  he  had  taken  refuge, 
in  1562.  His  story  was  dramatized  by 
Gothe. 


BERLIN,  the  third  largest  city  of 
Europe:  capital  of  the  former  King- 
dom of  Prussia,  and  of  the  former 
Empire  of  Germany,  now  capital  of  the 
German  republic,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Spree  river;  156  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Ham- 
burg. Pop.  about  2,000,000.  It  is  built 
on  a  flat,  sandy  plain.  Berlin  occupies  an 
area  of  over  25,000  acres,  and  now  in- 
cludes a  number  of  former  suburban 
towns  and  villages.  The  houses  in  th^ 
main  are  built  of  brick  and  plastered  or 
stuccoed  on  the  outside.  The  center  of 
the  city  is  now  almost  exclusively  de- 
voted to  commerce,  and  the  remarkable 
advance  in  the  trade  and  political  inter- 
ests of  the  city  since  1871  have  attracted 
to  it  an  enormous  population.  The  prin- 
cipal streets  are  the  famous  Unter  den 
Linden,  with  its  four  rows  of  lime  trees 
and  the  stately  Brandenburg  Gate,  the 
Wilhelmstrasse,  the  Konigsstrasse,  and 
the  Leipzigerstrasse.  Scattered  about 
the  city  are  a  number  of  notable  statues, 
including  the  remarkably  imposing  one 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  at  the  head  of 
the  Unter  den  Linden,  and  those  of 
Schwerin,  Winterfeld,  Seidlitz,  Keith, 
Zieten,  Von  Billow,  Leopold  of  Dessau, 
and  the  Great  Elector.  The  Branden- 
burg Gate,  which  was  begun  in  1789, 
presents  on  each  face  six  lofty  Doric 
columns,  and  a  Roman  entablature,  sur- 
mounted by  an  attic  upon  which  is  a 
bronze  quadriga  of  "Victory."  In  the 
Belle  Alliance  Platz  is  a  "Column  of 
Peace,"  erected  in  1840,  to  commemorate 
the  peace  of  1815.  The  triumphs  of 
the  German  arms  are  further  typified  in 
the  great  "Monument  of  Victory,"  dedi- 
cated in  1875. 

Notable  Buildings. — In  the  center  of 
the  city  is  the  old  Royal  Palace,  contain- 
ing nearly  700  apartments,  including 
the  richly  adorned  state  rooms,  the  finest 
of  which  are  the  Weisser  Saal,  and  the 
palace  chapel.  Near  by  are  the  palaces 
of  the  former  Emperor  and  Crown 
Prince,  the  Royal  Library,  the  old  and 
new  museums,  the  National  Art  Gallery, 
the  arsenal,  the  Royal  Theater,  the  opera 
house,  the  guard  house,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin.  These  are  all  situated 
between  the  Spree  and  the  E.  end  of 
Unter  den  Linden.  Near  the  Konitrsplatz 
in  the  Thiergarten  is  the  Reichstag, 
opened  during  the  reign  of  Wilholm  II. 
On  the  Wilhelmstrasse  is  the  former  pal- 
ace of  the  Imperial  Chancellor,  where 
the  Congress  of  Berlin  sat  in  1878.  The 
Old  Museum  contains  antiquarian  speci- 
mens, a  remarkable  collection  of  coins, 
a  gallery  of  ancient  sculpture,  and  a 
celebrated  picture  gall-ry;  and  the  new 
museum  has  an  invaluable  collection  ot 
Egyptian    antiquities    brought    together 


BERLIN 


496 


BERLINER 


by  Lepsius;  six  magnificent  mural  paint- 
ings by  Kaulbach  on  the  grand  stair- 
case; a  collection  of  over  500,000  engrav- 
ings; and  twelve  rooms  filled  with  valu- 
able casts.  The  Brandenburg  Gate  is  a 
copy  of  the  Prophylaea  at  Athens,  is  65 
feet  high  and  205  feet  wide,  and  marks 
the  line  of  the  old  wall  of  the  city. 

Prior  to  the  World  War  the  city  had 
a  large  traffic  by  the  Spree,  the  canals, 
and  the  railways,  the  traffic  by  water 
being  50  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  city  or  town  in  Germany.  The 
Reichsbank  is  the  chief  bank  in  Ger- 
many for  the  issue  of  notes.  The  prin- 
cipal branches  of  industry  were  wool 
weaving,  calico  printing,  the  manufac- 
ture of  engines  and  other  machinery, 
iron,  steel,  and  bronze  ware,  drapery 
goods,  clothing,  scientific  instruments, 
chronometers,  pianos,  German  silver 
ware,  toys,  chemicals,  furniture,  car- 
pets, porcelain,  linen  goods,  artificial 
flowers,  and  beer. 

History. — As  far  back  as  the  13th  cen- 
tury, the  central  part  of  the  present  city 
was  inhabited.  Kolln,  on  the  island 
formed  by  the  Spree  on  its  left  bank, 
was  united  to  Old  Berlin  on  the  right 
bank  in  1307.  These  names  are  still 
retained  by  the  corresponding  quarters 
of  the  modern  city.  Berlin  was  long 
little  more  than  a  fishing  village;  but 
when  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  Wil- 
liam (1640-1688),  had  united  the  sepa- 
rate duchies  of  which  Prussia  is  now 
formed,  it  became  the  capital.  In  the 
next  century  it  received  accessions  of 
French  and  Bohemian  colonists,  driven 
into  exile  by  religious  persecution.  Every 
inducement  was  then  held  out  to  bring 
foreigners  to  settle  in  the  rising  city. 
Under  Frederick  the  Great  it  continued 
to  prosper,  and  at  his  death  had  145,000 
inhabitants.  The  city  was  taken  by  the 
allies  in  1760,  and  by  Napoleon  in  1806. 
After  the  peace  of  1815  it  became  a 
focus  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  a 
great  center  of  commercial  enterprise. 
The  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century  was 
a  period  of  tremendous  growth  in  wealth 
and  population.  The  city  suffered  se- 
verely during  the  disturbances  which 
followed  the  ending  of  the  World  War 
and  the  establishment  of  the  German  re- 
public.   See  Germany. 

BERLIN,  a  city  of  New  Hampshire  in 
Coos  CO.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and 
the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads.  The 
city  has  excellent  water  power  which  is 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper, 
pulp,  and  lumber.  There  is  a  public  li- 
brary, theaters,  hospital,  excellent  schools 
and  a  fine  municipal  building.  Pop. 
(1910)    11,780;    (1920)    16,104. 


BERLIN,  TREATY  OF,  a  treaty 
signed  July  13,  1878,  at  the  close  of  the 
Berlin  Congress,  which  was  constituted 
by  the  representatives  of  the  six  Great 
Powers  and  Turkey.  The  treaty  of  San 
Stefano,  previously  concluded  between 
Turkey  and  Russia,  was  modified  by  the 
Berlin  Treaty,  which  resulted  in  the  di- 
vision of  Bulgaria  into  two  parts,  Bul- 
garia proper  and  Eastern  Rumelia,  the 
cession  of  parts  of  Armenia  to  Russia 
and  Persia,  the  independence  of  Ru- 
mania, Serbia,  and  Montenegro,  the 
transference  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
to  Austrian  administration,  and  the  re- 
trocession of  Bessarabia  to  Russia. 
Greece  was  also  to  have  an  accession  of 
territory.  The  British  representatives 
were  Lords  Beaconsfield,  Salisbury,  and 
Odo  Russell.  By  a  separate  arrange- 
ment previously  made  between  Great 
Britain  and  Turkey,  the  former  got  Cy- 
prus to  administer. 

BERLIN,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a  cele- 
brated institution  of  learning  in  Berlin, 
Germany.  It  is,  with  the  exception  of 
Bonn,  the  youngest  of  the  German  uni- 
versities. It  was  founded  in  1810,  when 
the  Napoleonic  victories  had  left  Prussia 
apparently  crushed  and  had  even  trans- 
ferred her  great  University  of  Halle  to 
the  newly  formed  kingdom  of  Westpha- 
lia. The  first  rector  of  the  university  was 
Schmalz;  the  first  deans  of  its  faculties 
were  Schleiermacher,  Biener,  Hufeland, 
and  Fichte;  and  before  it  was  10  years 
old  it  had  for  professors  such  men  as 
Niebuhr,  Wolff,  and  Hegel.  In  more  recent 
years,  Ranke,  Mommsen,  Helmholtz, 
Virchow,  and  other  famous  scholars  have 
added  fame  to  the  University.  There  are 
four  faculties,  theology,  medicine,  juris- 
prudence, and  philosophy,  with  a  total  of 
502  professors  and  teachers  in  1914-1915. 
At  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the 
course,  the  doctor's  degree  is  conferred. 
The  number  of  students  in  1914-1915  was 
8,035,  besides  a  large  number  of  non- 
matriculated  ones. 

BERLINER,  EMILE,  an  American  in- 
ventor and  telephone  expert;  born  in 
Hanover,  Germany,  May  20,  1851.  He 
studied  at  Wolfenbiittel  and  came  tc 
America  in  1870.  In  1878  he  was  made 
chief  inspector  of  instruments  for  the 
Bell  Telephone  Co.  He  showed  remark- 
able ingenuity  and  invented  the  micro- 
phone and  the  gramophone,  and  secured 
many  patents  on  improvements  to  the 
telephone.  In  1908  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  aeroplanes  and  invented  the  light- 
weight revolving  cylinder  internal  com- 
bustion motor  which  was  extensively 
used.  He  wrote  a  number  of  articles  on 
religious  and  philosophical  questions. 


BERLIOZ 


497 


BERN 


BERLIOZ,  HECTOR  (ber-le-6s'),  a 
French  composer,  born  in  La  Cote-Saint- 
Andre,  Dec.  11,  1803.  He  forsook  medi- 
cine to  study  music  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire, where  he  gained  the  first 
prize  in  1830  with  his  cantata,  "Sar- 
danapale."  After  studying  in  Italy,  he 
began  to  produce  his  larger  works,  and 
was  forced  to  defend  his  principles  in 
the  press.  His  chief  literary  works 
are:  "Traite  d'Instrumentation"  (1844); 
"Voyage  Musical"  (1845)  ;  "A  Travers 
Chant"  (1862).  The  more  important  of 
his  musical  works  are  "Harold  en 
Italic,"  "Episode  de  la  Vie  d'un  Artiste," 
and  "Le  Retour  a  la  Vie;''  "Romeo  and 
Juliette"  (1834)  ;  "Damnation  de  Faust" 
(1846)  ;  the  operas  "Benvenuto  Cellini," 
"Beatrice  and  Benedict."  and  "Les  Troy- 
ens,"  "L'Enfance  du  Christ,"  and  the 
"Requiem."  He  died  in  Paris,  March  9, 
1869.  After  his  death  his  "Memoirs" 
appeared. 

BERMUDA  CEDAR,  a  species  of  cedar 
which  covers  the  Bermuda  Islands.  The 
timber  is  made  into  ships,  boats  and  pen- 
cils. The  wood  of  junipetiis  harbadensis, 
the  Barbadoes  cedar,  is  sometimes  im- 
ported with  it  under  the  same  name. 

BERMUDA  GRASS,  a  species  of  grass, 
called  in  Bermuda,  devil  grass.  It  grows 
in  the  American  Southern  States  and  in 
southern  Europe.  It  is  much  esteemed 
for  pasture. 

BERMUDA  HUNDRED,  a  locality  in 
Chesterfield  co.,  Va.;  the  scene  of  a  bat- 
tle in  the  Civil  War  between  the  Federal 
troops  under  General  Butler,  and  the 
Confederates  under  General  Beauregard. 
The  battle  was  fought  May  16,  1864,  and 
resulted  in  a  defeat  for  Butler. 

BERMUDAS,  THE,  or  SOMERS'  IS- 
LANDS, a  group  of  small  islands,  about 
300  in  number,  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  belonging  to  Great  Britain, 
580  miles  from  Cape  Hatteras;  area, 
about  30  square  miles.  The  principal 
islands  are  Bermuda,  St.  George,  Ireland, 
and  Somerset.  The  protection  afforded  to 
shipping  by  their  numerous  bays,  and 
their  position  in  the  track  of  the  home- 
ward bound  West  India  vessels  have  led 
to  the  conversion  of  the  Bermudas  into 
a  maritime  rendezvous,  and  likewise,  into 
a  British  naval  station  for  West  Indian 
fleets.  The  harbor  of  St.  George's  Island 
has  been  greatly  improved,  is  fortified, 
protected  by  a  breakwater,  and  has  water 
and  space  enough  to  float  the  largest 
fleet.  The  principal  productions  are 
fruits,  vegetables,  maize,  and  tobacco. 
Pineapples  are  very  abundant  and  largely 
exported.  The  climate  is  mild  and  salu- 
brious;  almost  realizing  the   idea   of   a 


perpetual  spring.  Fish  abound,  and  form 
a  profitable  source  of  industry  to  the  in- 
habitants. Breadstuff s,  etc.,  are  im- 
ported from  the  United  States,  and 
manufactured  goods  from  England.  The 
imports  in  1918  amounted  to  £692,742, 
and  the  exports  to  £119,977.  The  ton- 
nage entering  and  clearing  the  ports  in 
1918  amounted  to  732,613.  During  the 
World  War  Bermuda  was  an  important 
station  for  the  British  Navy.  Hamil- 
ton, on  Bermuda  Island,  is  the  seat  of 
the  colonial  government.  Pop.  of  cap- 
ital (1918)  2,700;  of  the  islands  21,629. 
These  islands  were  discovered  by  Ber- 
mudez,  a  Spaniard,  in  1522,  and  settled 
by  the  English  in  16C7. 

BERMUDEZ  (ber-mu'dath),  a  state 
in  the  N.  E.  of  Venezuela,  between  the 
Orinoco  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  formed 
in  1881  from  the  former  states  and  pres- 
ent sections  of  Barcelona,  Cumana,  and 
Maturin.  Area,  32,243  square  miles; 
pop.  about  360,000. 

BERN,  or  BERNE,  a  Swiss  canton, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  France.  It  is 
the  most  populous,  and  next  to  the 
Grisons,  the  most  extensive  canton  of 
Switzerland;  its  area  being  nearly  2,657 
square  miles,  and  its  pop.  about  683,000, 
The  fertile  valleys  of  the  Aar  and  the 
Emmen  divide  the  mountainous  Alpine 
region  in  the  S.  from  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains in  the  N.  The  Bernese  Oberland, 
or  Highlands,  comprises  the  peaks  of  the 
Jungfrau,  Monch,  Eiger,  Schreckhorn, 
Finsteraarhorn,  etc.,  and  the  valleys  of 
Hasli,  Lauterbrunnen,  etc.  The  Lakes  of 
Thun,  Brienz,  Neuchatel,  and  Bienne  are 
in  the  canton,  which  is  watered  by  the 
Aar  and  its  several  tributaries.  The 
climate  is  generally  healthful.  The  plains 
of  the  Aar  and  the  Emmen  are  the  most 
fruitful,  producing  corn  and  fruits  of 
various  kinds,  and  affording  excellent 
pasturage  for  cattle,  which,  with  dairy 
produce,  form  the  chief  agricultural 
wealth  of  Bern.  The  vine  grows  in  some 
districts.  The  horses  of  the  Emmenthal 
are  much  prized.  The  lakes  abound  with 
salmon  and  trout.  Iron  mines  are 
worked,  and  a  little  gold  is  found,  and 
quarries  of  sandstone,  granite,  and  mar- 
ble are  abundant.  Its  manufactures, 
which  are  not  extensive,  consist  chiefly 
of  linen,  coarse  woolens,  leather,  iron, 
and  copper  wares,  articles  of  wood,  and 
watches.  Bern  entered  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, in  which  it  now  holds  the  sec- 
ond rank,  in  1352.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century  it  received  additions  to 
its  territory.  The  present  constitution 
of  the  canton,  proclaimed  in  1874,  but 
based  on  the  laws  of  1848,  is  one  of  rep- 
resentative democracy. 


BERN 


498 


BERNARD,    ST. 


BERN,  the  chief  city  of  the  above 
canton,  was  by  the  decision  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  Confederation,  in  1848,  de- 
clared to  be  the  political  capital  of  the 
Commonwealth.  It  is  a  fine,  clean,  well 
built  town,  on  the  Aar,  23  miles  S.  of 
Basel,  and  possesses  many  fine  public 
edifices,  more  notably,  the  Cathedral, 
erected  1421-1502.  The  most  remarkable 
feature  in  the  town  are  the  arcades,  run- 
ning in  front  of  the  houses  down  both 
sides  of  the  two  chief  streets.  The  town 
has  bears  for  its  arms;  and  some  of 
these  animals  are  maintained  in  a  large 
paved  pit.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  watches,  wooden  clocks,  and  toys, 
linen,  woolen,  and  silk  fabrics.  Pop. 
about  105,000.  Bern  was  founded  by 
Duke  Berthold  V.  of  Zahringen,  in  1191, 
and  was  made  a  free  and  imperial  city 
by  a  charter  from  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II.,  dated  May,  1218. 

BERNADOTTE,  JEAN  BAPTISTE 
JULES  (ber-na-dof),  a  French  general, 
afterward  raised  to  the  Swedish  throne, 


BERNADOTTE 

was  the  son  of  an  advocate  of  Pau,  born 
Jan.  26,  1764.  He  enlisted  at  17,  became 
sergeant-major  in  1789,  and  subaltern 
in  1790.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  a 
General  of  Division,  and  distinguished 
himself  greatly  in  the  campaign  in  Ger- 
many, and  on  the  Rhine.  In  1798  he 
married  Mademoiselle  Clary,  sister-in- 
law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.    The  following 


year  he  became  for  a  short  time  Min- 
ister of  War,  and  on  the  establishment 
of  the  Empire  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  Marshal  of  France,  and  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Ponte-Corvo.  On  the  death  of 
the  Prince  of  Holstein-Augustenburg, 
the  heir  apparency  to  the  Swedish  crown 
was  oflFered  to  the  Prince  of  Ponte-Corvo, 
who  accepted  with  the  consent  of  the 
Emperor,  went  to  Sweden,  abjured  Ca- 
tholicism, and  took  the  title  of  Prince 
Charles  John.  In  the  maintenance  of  the 
interests  of  Sweden,  a  serious  rupture 
occurred  between  him  and  Bonaparte, 
followed  by  his  accession,  in  1812,  to  the 
coalition  of  sovereigns  against  Napoleon. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  other  sovereigns  tried  to 
restore  the  family  of  Gustavus  IV.  to 
the  crown;  but  Bemadotte,  retaining  his 
position  as  Crown  Prince,  became  King 
of  Sweden  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII., 
in  1818,  under  the  title  of  Charles  XIV. 
He  died  March  8,  1844,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Oscar. 

BERNARD,     SAINT     (GREAT     and 
LITTLE).      See   St.   BERNARD. 

BERNARD,  ST.,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux, 
was  born  of  a  noble  family  in  Burgundy, 
in  1091.  At  the  age  of  23  he  entered  the 
recently  founded  monastery  of  Citeaux, 
accompanied  by  his  brothers  and  20  of 
his  companions.  His  ability  and  piety 
led  to  his  being  chosen  Abbot,  an  office 
he  filled  till  his  death.  In  1128  he  pre- 
pared the  statutes  for  the  Order  of 
Knights  Templar.  Popes  and  princes  de- 
sired his  support,  and  submitted  their 
differences  to  his  arbitration.  By  his 
influence  Innocent  II.  was  recognized  as 
lawful  Pope;  he  had  a  public  debate 
with  Abelard  on  some  doctrines  of  his 
philosophy,  and  procured  his  condemna- 
tion; courageously  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Virgin;  was  founder  of  160  monasteries; 
and  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  sec- 
ond crusade.  He  preached  the  crusade 
in  Germany,  persuaded  the  Emperor 
Conrad  to  join  it,  and  refused  the  com- 
mand which  was  offered  him.  His  pre- 
diction of  success  was  falsified.  St. 
Bernard  was  the  vehement  adversary  of 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  procured  his  ban- 
ishment from  Rome  and  from  Zurich. 
He  steadily  refused  the  offers  of  several 
archbishoprics  and  other  dignities,  pre- 
ferring to  remain  abbot  only.  His  char- 
acter and  his  writings  have  earned  him 
the  title  of  "Last  of  the  Fathers."  The 
power,  tenderness,  and  simplicity  of  his 
sermons  and  other  works  have  secured 
the  admiration  of  Protestants  and  Cath- 
olics alike.  St.  Bernard  died  at  Clair- 
vaux in  1153,  and  was  canonized  in  1174. 


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